01 Title Merged

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GENDER INEQUALITY
AND ECONOMIC GROWTH IN SOUTH ASIAN

COUNTRIES : AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS
A Thesis
submitted for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
in
ECONOMICS
Submitted by
Abida khatoon
Under the Joint Supervision of
Prof. Siddharth Shastri Dr. Swati Shastri

Department of Economics Associate Professor & Head
Banasthali Vidyapith Department of Economics
Banasthali Vidyapith
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

BANASTHALI VIDYAPITH
Rajasthan, India
2023
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the thesis entitled “Relationship between Gender Inequality and
Economic Growth in South Asian Countries: An Empirical Analysis” which is being
submitted by Ms. Abida Khatoon for the award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the
Faculty of Social Sciences (Department of Economics), Banasthali Vidyapith Rajasthan, is a
piece of her original research work carried out under my supervision and guidance. To the
best of my knowledge, no part of this work has been so far published for any degree in any
institution in India or abroad.
I recommend the thesis submission of the Ph.D thesis to the Banasthali Vidyapith.
Date: Prof. Siddharth Shastri

Department of Economics
Dr. Swati Shastri

Associate Professor & Head
Department of Economics
ii
DECLARATION BY THE CANDIDATE
I declare that the thesis entitled “Relationship between Gender Inequality and Economic
Growth in South Asian Countries : An Empirical Analysis” is my own original work
conducted under the joint supervision of Prof. Siddharth Shastri, Department of
Economics, Banasthali Vidyapith and Dr. Swati Shastri, Associate Professor & Head,
Department of Economics, Banasthali Vidyapith, Rajasthan. I further declare that the thesis
does not contain any part of the work which has been submitted for the award of any degree
in this university or any other university without proper citation.
Date: Ms. Abida Khatoon
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The present work is the result of the support, blessings, guidance and help given to me by
many people. They explicitly and implicitly helped to carry out this research work. First of
all, I want to thank Almighty, my father Mr. Azizullah Khan and my mother Mrs. Shah
Jahan Begum for their faith in me and contribution which is indescribable.
I express my heartfelt thanks to my supervisors Prof. Siddharth Shastri, Department

of Economics, Banasthali Vidyapith and Dr. Swati Shastri, Associate Professor & Head,
Department of Economics, Banasthali Vidyapith under whose supervision I had been able to
complete my work. They have been great mentors. Their intellectual guidance, concern and
encouragement enlightened me throughout.
I am thankful to the faculty members of Department of Economics, Banasthali Vidyapith. I

also owe my gratitude to my institution Banasthali Vidyapith to provide me all the facilities
and atmosphere required to complete my work.
At last, I want to thank my family members and friends Mamta Yadav, J.E. Mohit Yadav,
Gunjan Yadav, Madhvi SinghDr. Niharika and Dr. Vandana for their motivation, constant
support and love.
Ms. Abida Khatoon
iv
LIST OF CONTENT Page No.
Certificate ii
Declaration by the candidate iii
Acknowledgment iv
Preface v
List of Contents vi
Chapter Content vii-viii
List of Abbreviation ix-x
List of Table xi-xii
List of Figure xiii-xv
CHAPTER SCHEME
1. Introduction 1
2. Review of Empirical Literature 18
3. Trends in Gender Inequality Indicators and Economic Growth in 39
South Asian Countries
4. Relationship Between Gender Inequality and Economic Growth: 108
Empirical Findings
5. Conclusion 150
References 159-171
vi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ADF Augmented Dickey–Fuller

AH Alternative Hypothesis
ARDL Panel Autoregressive Distributed Lag
ARDL-PMG Panel Autoregressive Distributed Lag Based on Pooled Mean Group
ASEAN-7 Association of Southeast Asian Nations
CHIP China Household Income Project
D-H Dumitrescu-Hurlin
ECM Error Correction Model
ECT Error Correction Term
EI Educational Inequality
GDI Gender Development Index
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GDPG Growth Rate of GDP
GFCG Gross Fixed Capital Formation
GI Gender Inequality
GII Gender Inequality Index
GMM Generalized Method of Moments
GNI Gross National Income
HI Health Inequality
HRD HRD courses
ILO International Labour Organization
IMF International Monetary Fund
IPS Im, Pesaran and Shin

LLC Levin, Lin, and Chu
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
NARDL Nonlinear Autoregressive Distributed Lag
NFHS National Family Health Survey
NH Null Hypothesis
OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
OLS Ordinary Least Squares
ix
PCI Per Capita Income
PG Population Growth
PP Phillips and Perron
RIM Ratio of Infant Mortality
RLE Ratio of Life expectancy
RLFP Ratio of Labour Force Participation
RPE Ratio of Primary Education
RSE Ratio of Secondary Education
RTE Ratio of Tertiary Education
SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
SDGs Sustainable Development Goals
SNA Students Nurses Association
SSA Sub Sahara Africa
UN United Nations
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund
VECM Vector Error Correction Model
WDI World Development Index
x
LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Table Name Page No.

1.1 Data Description 8
2.1 Summary of Empirical Literature on Relationship between 36
Gender Inequality and Economic Growth
3.1 Details of Variables 86
4.2 Correlation Between Gender Inequality in health and GDPG 109
4.3 Correlation Between Gender Inequality in education and GDPG 109
4.4 Correlation Between Gender Inequality in labour force 110
Participation and GDPG
4.5 Descriptive statistics of the variables 111
4.6 The Result of LM Test for Cross Sectional Dependence 110
4.7 The Result of Unit Root Tests: Series in Level 114
4.8 Panel Unit Root Tests Results: Series in First Difference 115
4.9 PMG Long Run and ECM Estimates Results (GDPG is 117
Dependent Variable)
4.10 PMG Long Run and ECM Estimates Results (RLE is Dependent 118
Variable)
4.11 PMG Long Run and ECM Estimates Results (RIM is Dependent 119
Variable)
4.12 ARDL-PMG Short Run Estimates Results Country Wise (GDP 120
is Dependent Variable)
4.13 ARDL-PMG Short Run Estimates Results Country Wise (RLE 121
4.14 ARDL-PMG Short Run Estimates Results Country Wise (RIM 122
Dependent Variable)
4.16 PMG Long Run and ECM Estimates Results (RPE is Dependent 125
Variable)
4.17 PMG Long Run and ECM Estimates Results (RSE is Dependent 126
xi
Variable)
4.18 PMG Long Run and ECM Estimates Results (RTE is Dependent 127
Variable)
4.19 ARDL-PMG Short Run Estimates Results Country Wise (GDPG 128
4.20 ARDL-PMG Short Run Estimates Results Country Wise (RPE is 129
Dependent Variable)
4.21 ARDL-PMG Short Run Estimates Results Country Wise (RSE is 130
Dependent Variable)
4.22 ARDL-PMG Short Run Estimates Results Country Wise (RTE 132
4.23 PMG Long Run and ECM Estimates Results (GDPG Dependent 134
Variable)
4.24 PMG Long Run and ECM Estimates Results (RLFP is 145
Dependent Variable
4.25 ARDL-PMG Short Run Estimates Results Country Wise (GDP 136
4.26 ARDL-PMG Short Run Estimates Results Country Wise (RLFP 137
Dependent Variable)
4.28 PMG Long Run and ECM Estimates Results (GII is Dependent 140
Variable)
4.29 ARDL-PMG Short Run Estimates Results Country Wise (GDPG 141
is Dependent Variables)
4.30 ARDL-PMG Short Run Estimates Results Country Wise (GII is 142
Dependent Variables)
4.31 Pairwise Dumitrescu-Hurlin Panel Causality Test Result 145
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No. Figure Name Page No.

3.1 Male and Female Life Expectancy at Birth (in Years) in 41
Bangladesh
3.2 Male and Female Life Expectancy at Birth (in Years) in India 42
3.3 Male and Female Life Expectancy at Birth (in Years) in Nepal 43
3.4 Male and Female Life Expectancy at Birth (in Years) in 44
Pakistan
3.5 Male and Female Life Expectancy at Birth (in Years) in Sri 45
Lanka
3.6 Life Expectancy at Birth (in Years) as Ratio of Female to Male 46
in South Asia
3.7 Male and Female Infant Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births) 48
in Bangladesh
in India
in Nepal
in Pakistan
in Sri Lanka
3.12 Infant Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births) as Ratio of Female 53
to Male in South Asia
3.13 Male and Female School Enrollment, Primary (% gross) in 55
Bangladesh
India
Nepal
xiii
Pakistan
3.17 Male and Female School Enrollment, Primary (% gross) in Sri 59
Lanka
3.18 Male and Female School Enrollment, Secondary (% gross) in 61
Bangladesh
India
Nepal
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
3.23 Male and Female School Enrollment, Tertiary (% gross) in 67
Bangladesh
India
Nepal
Pakistan
3.27 Male and Female School Enrollment, Tertiary (% gross) in Sri 71
Lanka
3.28 Male and Female Labour Force Participation Rate (% of 73
population ages 15+) in Bangladesh
population ages 15+) in India
population ages 15+) in Nepal
xiv
population ages 15+) in Pakistan
population ages 15+) in Sri Lanka
3.33 Labour Force Participation Rate (% of population ages 15+) as 78
Ratio of Female to Male in South Asia
3.34 Gender Inequality Index in Bangladesh 80
3.35 Gender Inequality Index in India 81
3.36 Gender Inequality Index in Nepal 82
3.37 Gender Inequality Index in Pakistan 83
3.38 Gender Inequality Index in Sri Lanka 84
3.39 Gender Inequality Index in South Asia 85
3.40 GDP Growth (annual %) in Bangladesh 87
3.41 GDP Growth (annual %) in India 88
3.42 GDP Growth (annual %) in Nepal 89
3.43 GDP Growth (annual %) in Pakistan 90
3.44 GDP Growth (annual %) in Sri Lanka 91
3.45 GDP Growth (Annual %) in South Asia 92
3.46 Gross Fixed Capital Formation (% of GDP) in Bangladesh 94
3.47 Gross Fixed Capital Formation (% of GDP) in India 95
3.48 Gross Fixed Capital Formation (% of GDP) in Nepal 96
3.49 Gross Fixed Capital Formation (% of GDP) in Pakistan 97
3.50 Gross Fixed Capital Formation (% of GDP) in Sri Lanka 98
3.51 Gross Fixed Capital Formation (% of GDP) in South Asia 99
3.52 Population Growth (Annual %) in Bangladesh 101
3.53 Population Growth (Annual %) in India 102
3.54 Population Growth (Annual %) in Nepal 103
3.55 Population Growth (Annual %) in Pakistan 104
3.56 Population Growth (Annual %) in Sri Lanka 105
3.57 Population Growth (Annual %) in South Asia 106
xv
PREFACE
The study is divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 is introductory that includes background of
study, theoretical perspective on the relationship between gender inequality and economic
growth, objectives and the hypothesis of the study. The chapter also includes description of
the selected variables, data sources and methodology used in the study. Significance and
major limitations of the present study have also been discussed in this chapter.
Chapter 2 aims to review the empirical literature on the relationship between gender
inequality and economic growth. This chapter is divides into two sections. First section
reviews the empirical literature on the relationship between gender inequality in three
dimensions viz, health, education, and labour force participation and economic growth.
Second section explains the research gaps.
Chapter 3 analyses the trends of gender inequality indicators and other selected variables in
South Asian economies for the period 1980-2020. The chapter is divided into four sections,
first section, analyses the trend of gender inequality in health. Second section, presents the
trend analyses of gender inequality in education. Third section, presents the trend analyses of
gender inequality in labour force participation. Last section, analyses the trend of gender
inequality index for South Asian countries. Last section gives an account of trends in
economic growth, capital formation and population growth rate.
Chapter 4 empirically examines the relationship between gender inequality and economic
growth in South Asian economies during 1980-2020. This chapter in divided into six
sections. First, briefly presents the description of the selected variables for the study and
model specified to examine the relationship between gender inequality and economic growth.
Second section presents the descriptive statistics of the selected variables and correlation
matrix. Third section, presents the stationarity status of the variables. Fourth section, presents
the empirical short run and long run findings on the relationship between gender inequality
and economic growth using panel ARDL-PMG approach. Fifth section, presents the direction
of the causality among selected variables. Lastly, conclusion summarizes the findings of this
chapter.
Chapter 5 concludes the study. Firstly, it summarises the empirical findings on the
relationship between gender inequality and economic growth in South Asian countries and
also discusses the policy implications based on the empirical findings and tries to advise the
path of the future research.
v
CHAPTER - 1
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER - 1
INTRODUCTION
This chapter is divided into three sections. Section 1.1 is introductory which includes
background of study. Section 1.2 discusses the theoretical viewpoint on the connection between
gender inequality and economic growth. Section 1.3 states the objectives and the hypothesis of
the study. Description of the selected variables, data sources and methodology has been
explained in section 1.4. Significance of the present study has been discussed in section 1.5 and
lastly, section 1.6 includes major limitations of the study.
1.1 Introduction
―Gender equality is more than a moral issue; it is a vital economic issue. For the global economy
to reach its potential, we need to create conditions in which all women can reach their potential.‖
— IMF Economic Counsellor Maurice Obstfeld, March 23, 2017 (IMF, 2017)
Empowerment of women and gender equality is one of the important Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs) established by the United Nations (UN) and is included in the development
program of almost every county in the world, despite the fact gender inequality prevails
worldwide, the difference between male and female outcomes and opportunities are there in
several aspects like education, health, access to income, employment, managerial positions,
political representation, access to productive inputs in market and bargaining power within the
household. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) established in 2016, also focused on gender
equality.
According to Klasen (2002) the role of gender equality in encouraging economic growth can be
classified as intrinsic and instrumental. ―The intrinsic value revolves around the fact that every
human being should have access to equal opportunities, it is considered immoral and unethical
not to treat persons equally in access to opportunities‖. Gender equality must be considered most
vital developmental target in its own way, as suggested by convention on the eradication of all
forms of Discrimination against female and by the existence of the Third Millennium
Development Goal (MDG3) on gender equality and empowerment of women. The instrumental
value comes from the detection of the fact that inequality in the way to access the opportunities
1
decreases the growth potential. Other developmental goals like access to health and educational
opportunities, equal employment opportunities at work place for individual and social peace
among people, can also be undermined by gender inequality.
Association between economic growth and gender inequality is one of the most debated topics in
the area of research in the past three decades. The best way in which gender equality can
promote and improve the economic growth is by raising the level of human capital in the nation.
1.2 Theoretical Linkages between Gender Inequality and Economic Growth

1.2.1 Does Gender Inequality affect Economic Growth?
There are many substantial points of view which prove that gap in gender outcomes reduce
economic growth of any country. The theoretical literature on gender inequality suggests, as a
first argument ―that economic growth is decreased by gender discrimination in society and
therefore, harms economic performance globally, in that manner due to artificial restrictions,
highly talented girls have been excluded from education and less talented boys are taken instead‖
(Dollar and Gatti 1999).
Second argument is related to the female education‘s externalities. ―By providing education to
female individuals, fertility levels and child mortality are known to be reduced and in turn may
have a positive impact on economic growth. Thus, gender gaps in education decreases the
benefits of higher female education to the society‖ (Lagerlöf 2003, Klasen and Porter 2008 and
World Bank 2000). Girls and women having a Better-education can undertake higher-value
economic activity in the society. Escalating educational opportunities for women and girls allows
for a superior gathering of skills and expertise in the labour force and as a result it raises the
growth potential of the economy. Countries with high gender inequality in education tend to be
poor while higher-income countries tend to have greater gender equality. Numerous studies have
assessed the causal association; the best examples are Dollar and Gatti (1999), Klasen (2002),
Klasen and Lamanna (2009) and Seguino (2000), which bring to a conclusion that increased
educational opportunities for females, can lead to advanced growth of the economy. Gender
equality in opportunities related to education will not lead to economic growth unless there is a
social and cultural atmosphere that permits women and female to contribute in the labour force.
2
Another argument is related with global competition. ―There are number of countries in East
Asia which are in the competition with women intensive manufacturing industries in world
market such as handicrafts and cloths industries which are export oriented. This strategic
framework now can be seen a finding follower in South Asian countries (Seguino, 2000). To
work in such type of competitive export industries, women need to be educated and their
employment in these sectors should be barrier free. ―Gender inequality in employment and
education would reduce the potential to capitalize on these opportunities‖ (Busse and Spielmann
2006). Inequality in wages and employment affects growth through various channels. For
example, because of inequality in work force keeps talented employees away from the work
force. This result in lower average capability of work force and can affect growth negatively. In
the same way, the gender bias and unfair wage-gap can affect growth and level of expansion of a
nation in long run. There is ample evidence which suggest, women‘s consumption pattern and
their expenditures differ from male. Female used to spend more amounts of her earnings for
child‘s health and education services which can also have an effect on growth in long term. Their
investment for child‘s education and health would be helpful in providing productive and
efficient labour force in future. Therefore, by reducing differentials one can expect for more
spending in more productive channels which will expand the growth in long run.
―The connection between gender inequality in health and economic growth is through its effect
on child well-being‖ (Morrison et al. 2007). ―Mother‘s health is a vital factor which affects
pregnancy as well as ability to nurse her infant child‖ (Thomas and Strauss, 1992). For example,
to have a healthy child a mother must be healthy and aware of the use of available and provided
health services and various government health related programs. Women with control over their
fertility tend to choose for smaller families. A fall in fertility leads to a lower dependency ratio,
which increases per capita output. A fall in fertility will naturally appear only where lesser
fertility is wanted and where cultural and informational barriers to family planning are not
considerable.
Women can contribute comparably more than men to the accretion of human capital in the
upcoming generation owing to their role as the primary carers of children. Nearly in every
society of the economy women straight contributes more to the rearing of children irrespective of
gender than men and they have the primary responsibility in the home for children‘s health,
education, nourishment and well-being. The question here is how this contribution to human
3
capital formation would be transformed in the light of better gender equality. Gender equality
can be effectively achieved by providing more bargaining power to women in the household
sector that could be an advancement for health and educational opportunities of child that
bringing clear and direct benefits for the future stock of human capital in an economy.
1.2.2 Does Economic Growth Affect Gender Inequality?

The impact of inequalities in gender on growth has been explored extensively through various
studies but in context of reverse relationship fewer studies have been observed. It is observed
that gender discrimination is related with lack of resources in which women are always placed
behind the male whenever there is a shortage for having food, getting education and health care
services or jobs. ―The growth of economy will decrease the boundaries of household sector and
in result it will reduce the grip of poverty which makes it less essential to discriminate against
the females‖ (Dollar and Gatti, 1999). By investing more resources in female members,
productivity level of women will increase and it will raise the living standard of household
sector. ―Economic development will extend women opportunity in broader economy whereas
labour saving technologies will enable them to reduce their time from unpaid domestic and
agricultural activities to expanded market opportunities‖ (Duflo, 2012). ―Women in job will
contribute in domestic household and overall economy and it will lead to decrease gender
inequality in various fronts‖ (Blumberg 2005).
1.3 Status of Gender Inequality in South Asian Countries

South Asian region comprises of eight countries, namely; Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan,
India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sir Lanka. For the study we have selected five major South
Asian economies; Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. Gender inequality in South
Asian region persists from a long time (Global Gender Gap Report 2022).
United Nations splits the countries into a total of eight regions. According to World Gender Gap
Report 2022, South Asia ranks the lowest in the regions. South Asia ranks second lowest on the
educational attainment and have one of the lowest scores for health and survival, additionally
region also has the widest gender gap on economic participation and opportunity (World Gender
Gap Report 2022). Across all South Asian countries, patriarchal values and social norms tend to
privilege men and boy‘s access to opportunities and control over recourses. Women are placed
4
behind from the access of education and healthcare services which result into low participation in
the labour force (Global Gender Gap Report 2022).
1.4 Objectives and Hypothesis of the Study

1.4.1 Objectives of the Study
The study aims to empirically examine the relationship between gender inequality and economic
growth in five major South Asian countries namely; Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri
Lanka during 1980 to 2020.
There will be following objectives for the study as given below:
I. To investigate the trends of various indicators related to gender inequality and economic
growth.
II. To investigate the causal relationship between gender inequality in health and economic
growth in South Asian countries for 1980 to 2020.
III. To investigate the causal relationship between gender inequality in education and
economic growth in South Asian countries for 1980 to 2020.
IV. To investigate the causal relationship between gender inequality in labour force and
economic growth in South Asian countries for 1990 to 2020.
V. To investigate the causal relationship between gender inequality index and economic
growth in South Asian countries for 1990 to 2020.
1.4.2 Hypothesis of the Study

There will be following hypotheses for the study as given below:
 H0: Higher gender equality in health does not lead to higher economic growth in South
Asian countries and vice versa.
 H1: Higher gender equality in health leads to higher economic growth in South Asian
countries and vice versa.
 H0: Higher gender equality in education does not lead to higher economic growth in South
 H1: Higher gender equality in education leads to higher economic growth in South Asian
5
 H0: Higher gender equality in labour force does not lead to higher economic growth in
South Asian countries and vice versa.
 H1: Higher gender equality in labour force leads to higher economic growth in South
 H0: Lower gender inequality index does not lead to higher economic growth in South
 H1: Lower gender inequality index leads to higher economic growth in South Asian
1.5 Indicators of Gender Inequality

Gender inequality can be measured by many ways. ―Morrisson et.al (2008) differentiates
among two extensive approaches: (a) composite or aggregate indices, (b) discrete or individual
indicators. UNDP introduces ―Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) and Gender Related
Development Index (GDI)‖; these indicators are the most famous composite indices of
inequalities in gender. ―GEM‖ measures female empowerment which shows dimensions in
three directions: political participation, power above economic resources and participation.
―GDI explain gaps in gender inequality in three dimensions: knowledge, long and healthy life
and decent standard of living‖ (UNDP 2005). Interpretation of index is not clearly defined and
may not be providing sufficient information to policy developer to make resources allocation
and programs.
―Gender inequality can be defined more efficiently through individual indicators and it is
defined under Millennium announcement to monitor MDG3 on promoting gender equality and
empowering women‖ (UN Millennium Project, 2005; World Bank, 2006). Given indicators
cover up ―capabilities‖ and ―access to resources and opportunities‖ domain, at various level of
aggregation like household, economy and market and society.
Capabilities domain includes ―education‖ and ―health‖. Education domain is described through
three indicators which are;
 Ratio of girl‘s to boy‘s enrollment in education.
 Ratio of female-male literacy in age 15–24.
 Girls and boy‘s Primary education rate.
6
Whereas ―health‖ domain is explained through;
 Mortality rate for girls and boys under age five.
 Percentage of reproductive female and their partners using modern contraception.
 Percentage of girls between 15–19 years of age who are mothers/pregnant with their
first child.
Above mentioned domains come under the aggregation level of ‗household‘
Access to recourse and opportunities domain includes ‗employment‘ and ‗political participation‘.
Employment domain is described through three indicators which are;
 Women‘s share in employment under non-agricultural wage.
 Labor force participation rate among women.
 Remale to male ratio of earnings.
Whereas political participation domain is explained through;

 Percentage of women‘s seat held in national society parliaments.
In above mentioned domain employment domain comes under the aggregation level of
―Economy and market‖ whereas political participation domain comes under in ―society‖.
1.6 Data Description and Methodology

1.6.1 Data Description
This study is utilises secondary data set. The study is using panel data and the major data sources
are World Development Indicators (WDI) - ‗World Bank‘ and United Nations Development
Programme Database. Study uses panel data for the reason that it reduces co-linearity among all
the explanatory variables, controls the problem of heterogeneity and provides more efficient
results.
Study have used female to male ratio for health, education and labour force participation
indicators to measure the extent of gender inequality. The variables included in the model are
extensively used in the past literature of economic growth and gender inequality. Along with the
indicators of gender inequality, GII has been used. gender inequality index is a composite
measure which is developed by UNDP showing inequality between female and male in three
7
dimensions such as; empowerment, health and labour market. Gender inequality index is
designed to reveal the extent to which national achievements in the aspect of human
development are eroded by gender inequality (Technical Notes, UNDP, 2016). Composite
indicators are easy to interpret and recognize mutual transversely many diverse indicators trends,
and also become a controlling and valuable instrument in the performance of countries (Saltelli,
2007). Composite indicators can be poorly used which may leads to misinterpret the results
(Schuler 2006). To avoid this problem a composite index based on theoretical background will
be best fit, which allows comparing the inequalities between countries. Gender inequality in
South Asia includes a complex and multidimensional issue which justifies the use of this
composite index called gender inequality index (GII). Table No.1.1 provides the information of
variables used in this study.
8
1.6.2 Methodology
i. In order to analyse the trend of the selected variables Line Graphs have been used.
ii. Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Matrix have been used to describe the basic
characteristics of the variables and to explore the degree of association between variables.
iii. Cross Sectional Dependence Test, Lagrange Multiplier (LM) proposed by Breusch-Pegan
(1980) has been applied.
iv. To test the stationary of the variables, Unit-Root tests suggested by Levin et al., [LLC
test], Im et al., [IPS test], Augmented Dickey Fuller Test [ADF Test], Phillips and Perron
Test (1988) [PP Test], and CIPS Test by Pesaran (2007) have been employed.
v. To test the long-run relationship among variables Panel Autoregressive Distributed Lag
(Based on Pooled Mean Group (ARDL-PMG)) approach has been employed.
vi. To assess the causal relationship among variables Pairwise Dumitrescu-Hurlin panel
causality test based on Granger Causality test has been used.
1.6.2.1 Trend Analysis, Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Matrix

To analyse the trend of gender inequality indicators and other selected variables Line graph have
been used in the study. Also, Descriptive statistics explores the nature of variables and normality
properties. It includes various measures such as measures of central tendency, skewness, kurtosis
and Jarque-Bera test statistics to exhibit the normality properties of the variables. Correlation
Matrix presents the degree of association between variables.
1.6.2.2 Cross Sectional Dependence Test

Usually, it has been observed that panel data are more expected to show a cross sectional
dependence in the error. This is usually attributed to the effect of some unobserved common
factors like general residual interdependence, political and economic similarity. To check if the
data are cross sectional dependent or not, cross section dependence test by Breusch-Pagan (1980)
has been employed. This test is best fit and valid in case of, when cross-country (N) is relatively
small than time (T) as of the present analysis. The test considers following model equation as:
𝑦𝑖𝑡 = 𝛼𝑖 + 𝛽′𝑥𝑖𝑡 + 𝑢𝑖𝑡
9
10
Here; yi,t are stands for each variable. NH and AH are defined as; H0: pi=0 for all I and H1:
pi<0 for at least one i as an alternative of pooling and supposing that Pi will be similar for all N,
the IPS method will use separate unit root tests for the N. NH will be test through t-bar test
which can be estimated as the average of individual ADF statistics;
𝑁
1
𝑡= 𝑡𝑝 −𝑖
𝑁
𝑖=1
In the existence of cross section dependence, only first-generation panel unit root test will not do
the job as it tends to reject the null hypothesis of unit root and hereafter, we will employ second
generation panel unit root test. The cross-section dependence might be caused by similar
economic, political inducement, and geographical area, therefore it is very important to test the
presence of cross section dependence. The test by Pesaran (2007) Cross Sectionally Augmented
IPS (CIPS henceforth) unit root test provides a good quality option (Sarafidis et al., 2009). The
CIPS test is based on a cross-sectionally augmented ADF (CADF) regression which filters out
the cross-sectional dependence by augmenting the ADF (p) regressions with the lagged cross-
sectional mean and the lagged first differences of the cross-sectional mean. Following equation
has been estimated:
𝑝 𝑝
∆𝑦𝑖𝑡 = 𝛼𝑖0 + 𝛼𝑖1 𝑡 + 𝛼𝑖2 𝑦𝑖,𝑡−1 + 𝛼𝑖3 𝑦𝑡−1 + 𝑑𝑖𝑗 ∆𝑦𝑡−𝑗 + 𝛿𝑖𝑗 ∆𝑦𝑖,𝑡−𝑗 + 𝜀𝑖𝑡
𝑗 =1 𝑗 =1
CIPS statistic may be defined as:
1 𝑁
𝐶𝐼𝑃𝑆 = ∑ 𝑡 (𝑁, 𝑇)
𝑁 𝑖=1 𝑖
11
12
In accordance with Pesaran et al. (1999) the ARDL model including the long run relationship
between variables is as follows:
Equation 1: Dependent variable is growth rate of GDP

Equation 1 aims to examine the long run relationship between indicators of gender inequality in
health and economic growth.
n n n n
∆GDPGit = α0 + α1 ∆GDPGi,t−j + α2 ∆HIi,t−j + α3 ∆GFCFi,t−j + α4 ∆PGi,t−j

i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
+ εi,t

Equation 2 aims to examine the long run relationship between indicators of gender inequality in
education and economic growth.
n n n n
∆GDPGit = α0 + α1 ∆GDPGi,t−j + α2 ∆EIi,t−j + α3 ∆GFCFi,t−j + α4 ∆PGi,t−j

i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
+ εi,t

Equation 3 aims to examine the long run relationship between gender inequality in labour force
participation rate and economic growth.
n n n n
∆GDPGit = α0 + α1 ∆GDPGi,t−j + α2 ∆RLFPi,t−j + α3 ∆GFCFi,t−j + α4 ∆PGi,t−j

i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
+ εi,t
13
14
n n n n
∆GDPGit = β0 + β1 ∆GDPGi,t−j + β2 ∆EIi,t−j + β3 ∆GFCFi,t−j + β4 ∆PGi,t−j

i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
+ β5 ECTi,t−1 + μi,t
n n n n
∆GDPGit = β0 + β1 ∆GDPGi,t−j + β2 ∆RLFPi,t−j + β3 ∆GFCFi,t−j + β4 ∆PGi,t−j

i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
n n n n
∆GDPGit = β0 + β1 ∆GDPGi,t−j + β2 ∆GIIi,t−j + β3 ∆GFCFi,t−j + β4 ∆PGi,t−j

i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
Here, ECT is the error correction term coming from the long-run equilibrium association and
residuals (μt ) are independently normally distributed with zero mean and constant variance. β0,
β1, β2, β3, β4, β5 are the parameters to be estimated. Coefficient of ECTt−1 indicates speed of
adjustment i.e., how quickly a shock caused will return to equilibrium. Any short-term
disequilibrium between the dependent and explanatory variables will converge back to the long-
run equilibrium relationship if ECTt−1 is negative and significant.
15
1.6.2.4 Test for Causality
Dumitrescu-Hurlin Panel Causality Test Based on Granger Causality Test
The study employs panel causality test developed by Dumitrescu-Hurlin (2012). Dumitrescu-
Hurlin test is a simple version of Granger Causality test for heterogeneous panel data models and
based on individual Wald statistics.
H0 : X does not homogenously cause Y and H1 : that X does homogenously cause Y. We will
reject the null hypothesis if the p-value is < 0.05. The following Dumitrescu-Hurlin model was
used to investigate the causal relationships between the variables:
𝐾 𝐾
𝑦𝑖,𝑡 = 𝛼𝑖 + 𝛾𝑖𝑘 𝑦𝑖,𝑡−𝑘 + 𝛽𝑖𝑘 𝑥𝑖,𝑡−𝑘 + 𝜀𝑖,𝑡

𝑘=1 𝑘=1
Here, 𝑥𝑖,𝑡 and 𝑦𝑖,𝑡 ae the observation of two stationary variables for individual ⅈ in period t.
Coefficients are allowed to differ across individuals (note that ⅈ subscripts attached to
coefficients) but are supposed to be time invariant. The lag order K is assumed to be identical for
all individuals.
1.7 Significance of the Study

Most of the empirical research conducted to examine the relationship between gender inequality
and economic growth are based on cross sectional data from developed countries and suffers
from the drawback of considering limited indicators of gender inequality. It is worth noting that
even in country specific studies for developing economies the analysis remained limited to few
proxies of gender inequality. One possible reason behind this is unavailability of data on many
genders related indicators especially in case of developing countries. Present study contributes to
the literature for the following reasons: Firstly, it examines gender inequality and growth
relationship in a developing economy of South Asian region including India where there is
tremendous scope for growth. Secondly, present study uses larger number of indicators of gender
inequality than previously conducted studies and examines their linkages with growth. These
indicators consist of gender inequality in aspect of health, education, labour force participation
16
and composite index of gender inequality. Hence, the present study attempts to incorporate the
multidimensional aspect of gender inequality. Inclusion of multiple indicators helped to find out
whether growth in South Asian countries is sensitive to inequality in a particular dimension.
1.8 Limitations of the Study

Study is restricted to only three dimensions of gender-based inequality; health, education and
labour force participation. Gender inequality in wage rate and political participation are also
crucial dimensions of gender inequality that may also be considered to assess their impact on
economic growth. Due to paucity of data indicators to represent these dimensions have not been
incorporated in the empirical analysis.
Present study assumes a linear relationship between gender inequality and economic growth;
whereas substantial empirical confirmation indicates that there is a possibility of existence of
non-linear relationship in gender inequality and economic growth nexus. Further this study did
not control for the social, cultural and religious differences across region which can spuriously
affect the results.
17
CHAPTER - 2
REVIEW OF EMPIRICAL
LITERATURE
CHAPTER - 2
REVIEW OF EMPIRICAL LITERATURE
Association among gender inequality and economic growth has been an important focus area of
the research. There are many studies which have examined the association among gender
inequality and economic growth. The association among gender inequality and economic
growth has been a subject of a long academic debate. The previous literature has used different
methodologies and different measures of gender inequality. These studies have investigated
direct and indirect association between gender inequality and economic growth. Various
empirical researches have indicated the negative impact of gender inequality on economic
growth and decline in gender inequality is advantageous for economic growth and development.
This chapter aims to explore the literature available on the connection between gender
inequality in health, education, and labour force participation with economic growth. This
chapter has been organized into two sections. Section 2.1 reviews the empirical literature on the
relationship between gender inequality in health, education and labour force and economic
growth and in section 2.2 research gaps has been explained.
2.1 Gender Inequality and Economic Growth: Review of Empirical

Literature
Numerous studies have tried to investigate the association among gender inequality in
education, labour force participation and economic growth, and there is extensive convergence
in findings, but there are not sufficient studies on the association among gender inequality in
health and economic growth. In addition, results of such studies are less compatible. There is
not adequate internationally comparable data on relevant measures of gender inequality. The
existing literature related to this field finds evidence that gender inequality has important and
significant linkages with economic growth. Some studies explored are presented below:
1. Hill and King (1993) empirically examined the linkages between gender inequality in
education and economic growth during the time period 1975-1985. Study applied
correlation using variables related to gender gap in primary and secondary enrollment ratio
18
and GDPG per capita, and discovered that correlation is statistically and economically
significant. Findings suggest that increased gender gap in education and labour force
participation will reduce the GDP in country.
2. Barro and Lee (1994) examined the effect of female and male education on economic
growth in cross sectional of 138 countries for the time period from 1965-1975 and 1975-
1985. Result of the study revealed that female education has the negative impact on
economic growth but male education has a positive impact on economic growth.
3. Hill and King (1995) examined the impact of female education on social wellbeing for 152
developing countries from 1960 to 1968. Study finds a positive and significant impact of
female education on economic growth and additionally, Gender inequality in education has
a negative impact on life expectancy and economic growth.
4. Galor and Weil (1996) aimed to examine that how growth is affecting household decisions
about the fertility via change in women‘s relative wages from 1890-1988. Study examines
linkages among fertility rate and economic growth. According to results, increasing
women‘s wages reduces fertility by raising the cost of children relatively more than
household income. Lower fertility raises the level of capital per worker which in turn, since
capital is more complementary to women‘s labour input than men‘s, raises women‘s
relative wages.
5. Dollar and Gatti (1999) examined the association between gender gap and economic
growth for hundred nations from 1975-1990. They considered gender gap in education,
health and the degree of women empowerment using panel regression and OLS. Study finds
that secondary education of female is positively connected with economic growth, whereas
male education is insignificantly connected to economic growth.
6. Tzannatos (1999) used 11 Latin America and Caribbean countries to examine the effect of
gender inequality in labour force on economic growth in. Study explored that female wages
can increase by 50 percent if gender inequality in labor force eliminated from the economy
and also nation output can be increased by 3 to 9 percent.
7. Esteve–Volart (2000) empirically examined the impact of gender inequality in primary
19
education on GPD per capita growth for 87 countries during time period from 1965-1989.
Findings of the study suggested that an increase in education will increase the GDPG
growth but female education found less progressive. Regional differences play an important
role in gender inequality.
8. Forbes (2000) empirically examined the impact of male and female education on economic
growth for the time period of 1965- 1995 for 45 countries. Study concluded that female
education has positive and significant impact on economic growth but male education is
showing negative and significant impact on economic growth.
9. Forsythe et al. (2000) analyzed up to 129 cross countries data using GDPG per capital, life
expectancy and literacy rate and discovered that economic growth has a significant and
positive relationship with the status of women, and increased gender inequality promotes
less development of the economy.
10. Klasen (2000) examined to what intensity inequality (in education and employment) may
reduce development and growth by using cross country data and panel regression form
1960-1992. By employing female-male ratio of total years of schooling and the annual
growth in total years of schooling as a variable for 109 countries and study finds that gender
inequality in education has a significant and negative impact on economic growth. Analysis
suggests that gender inequality is a hurdle in progress of reducing fertility and child
mortality rate.
11. Klasen (2002) empirically examined impact of gender inequality in education on economic
growth in long-term for 109 countries from 1960-1992. Study explored that gender inequality
in education have a significant and negative impact on economic growth. Moreover, negative
impact of gender inequality in education on investment and population growth has been
found.
12. Knowles et al. (2002) empirically examined the impact of gender inequality in education on
economic growth for 72 developed and developing countries. Study examined male and
female education using 5-year average during 1960-1990. Study explored that there is a
positive and significant impact of female education on economic growth but male education
20
has a negative and insignificant impact on growth.
13. Esteve-Volart (2004) analyzed the impact of female to male ratio of labour force
participation on Indian state‘s growth for the time period 1961-1991. Result of the study
shows that state level growth has been negatively affected by gender inequality in
managerial position.
14. Vaid (2004) studied about gender inequality in educational transition to know how
inequality is faced by girls at every stage of transition and highlighted the factors
responsible for the inequality. Data examined for 9614 respondents using ordinary least
square regression method using literacy rate ratio and number of schooling years and found
that class have a greater impact on education and religion, region and paternal education
plays an important and significance role in children‘s education transition.
15. Busse and Spielman (2006) investigated the connection between gender inequality and
economic growth in 92 developed and developing countries of SSA and Asia Pacific. Study
finds that gender gap in wages is positively related with comparative advantage in the
export of labour-intensive goods and gender inequality in labour force and education
negatively related with comparative advantage in labour intensive goods.
16. Baliamoune- Lutz and Mcgillivray (2007) empirically examined the impact of gender
inequality in education on economic growth for 42 countries of Sub-Sahara Africa and the
Arab region during 1974-2001. By using female to male ratio of primary and secondary
education and literacy rate Study found that gender inequality in literacy rate has a negative
effect but female education has a positive effect on economic growth in Arab countries.
17. Brummet (2008) analyzed the effect of gender inequality on economic growth for 1965-
1984. Result explored negative effect of gender inequality in primary education on long
term economic growth and inequality in primary education is found more significant
compare to secondary education in lower income countries.
18. Bussmann (2009) investigated for 134 OECD and non-OECD countries from 1970-2000
by using variables like per capita GDPG, female labour force participation rate, female
secondary schooling. Study revealed that trade openness increases labour force participation
21
rate in developing countries but it reduces the participation share of women workers in
industry states.
19. Klasen and Lamanna (2009) empirically explored the impact of gender inequality (in
education and unemployment) on economic growth in developing countries during 1960-
2000 in the Middle East, North Africa and South Asian region. Using cross country data
and panel regression with variables like female and male school enrollment ratio, female
and male share in total labour force, level of fertility, economic growth. Study finds that
gender inequality in education reduces economic growth.
20. Lutz and Mcgillivray (2009) examined the impact of gender inequality (in education) on
economic growth for 31 Sub-Saharan Africa and Arab countries from 1974-2004. By using
panel data and generalized method of moments (GMM) the study concluded that the
negative impact of gender inequality on economic growth exists more in Arab countries
than Sub-Saharan countries. The result also finds that interaction between gender inequality
in education and trade openness has stronger impact on economic growth.
21. Niimi (2009) examined progress in gender equality by using many of indicators which are
proposed under Millennium Development Goals 3 plus approach, focusing on gender
inequality in education, health, labour market and political participation during the time
period of 2000-2006. Study finds that women improved capabilities do not contribute in an
equal participation, gender gaps are remained significant particularly in South Asia.
22. Andersson (2010) examined whether an increase in human capital reduces gender
inequality for 74 developing countries or not from 2001-2007 by using OLS. Variables like
GDPG, female completion rate (primary), male completion rate (primary), and female and
male labour force participation rate are used for the study. Positive relationship between
primary school education and growth has been found.
23. Akram et al. (2011) empirically investigated the impact of gender equality on economic
growth for Pakistan. The study covers the time period of 1970-2010 by using Cointegration
method and results finds that gender equality has a positive impact on growth; Genuine
Progress Indicators (GPI) has a positive relationship with GDPG suggesting that as GPI
22
increases economic growth also increases.
24. Mackenbach et al. (2011) stated that gender inequality in health is a huge weight on
European Union countries, not only to economy even this kind of burden can demolish the
prosperity of the country, health care benefits as well as it destroyed the social security of
the nation. This reflects in the loss of GDPG in European Union countries.
25. Pervaiz et al. (2011) study attempts to examine the impact of gender inequality on
economic growth in Pakistan for the time period of 1972-2009 by using Unit root and
Cointegration method. Results of the study found that labour force participation, investment
and trade openness have a significant and positive impact on economic growth, while
gender inequality has a significant and negative effect on economic growth.
26. Suri et al. (2011) empirically examined the linkages between health and economic growth
by using panel data analysis and findings of the study stat that health promotes the
economic growth.
27. Erdogan et al. (2012) study examined the linkages between gender inequality in education
and health indicators during the time period from 1968 to 2006 in turkey. The study used
Johansen‘s Cointegration method and result concluded in long run, there is a positive effect
of gender inequality in education on health.
28. Mujahid and Zafar (2012) aimed to investigate the relationship between female labour
force participation and the level of economic development of Pakistan for the time period
from 1980-2010. Study used ARDL approach and VECM Granger Causality method and
confirms that there is short run and long run U-shaped connection between female labour
force and economic development.
29. Ashraf et al. (2013) empirically examined the effect of fertility reduction on economic
growth and they assessed the effect of exogenous reduction in fertility on output per capita
in Nigeria. They also found that such a change would raise output per capita.
30. Ghani et al. (2013) analyzed determinants of female participation on entrepreneurship in

23
manufacturing and service sector in India. Results found that quality education,
infrastructure, gender-based networks and female share of local entrepreneurship affects
female to male entrepreneurship ratio.
31. Kim (2013) conducted a study to examine the gender differences in employment in China
using data from the China household income project (CHIP) for year 2002. Study used
regression and explored that level of human capital is much lower in women than man and
women are lacking in getting political capital. Study suggested that women should be
provided training program and more social services because domestic chores have a
negative impact on female labour force participation outcome.
32. Mukharjee & Mukhopadhyay (2013) investigated that how gender inequality in education
and labour force participation affects economic growth for 6 developing countries of Africa,
Asia and Latin America over the year 2010. Study found that gender inequality in education
and labour force negatively affects economic growth.
33. Yumusak et al. (2013) examined the impact of gender inequality in education on economic
growth in Turkey. The study aims to examine the impact of women education on economic
growth by using Cointegration approach for the time period from 1968-2005. Rresult finds
that women‘s education has a negative effect on economic growth and has a positive long
run relationship between closing gender gap in education and economic growth.
34. Ahang (2014) study explored the impact of gender inequality on economic growth for
developed countries by using pooled method. Study covers the time period from 2006-2012
and finds that gender inequality in political empowerment and economic participation has a
negative effect on economic growth in short run because the stock of social capital among
females is not sufficient but in long run it has a positive effect.
35. Jayachandran (2014) examined that whether the reason of gender inequality in developing
country is lack of development and stringent societies sticking to their age-old beliefs. She
discussed different mechanisms which lead to economic growth and reduction in gender
inequality. She believed that gender inequality‘s association with GDP is based on the
growth process, but social culture and norms are also an important part of it. Many poor
24
countries are patriarchal, and norms like patrilocality are major reason for the issue of sex
ratio in India. She analyzed the causes for the decline in sex ratio even when the country is
developing and advised some policies which can help in reduction of gender inequality.
36. Elveren (2014) study examined the association between women‘s labour force participation
and pay inequalities for 58 countries from the time period from 1990 to 2005. The study
used panel Cointegration and found that women‘s labour force participation causes higher
pay inequality in developing countries.
37. Ali (2015) aimed to discover the linkages between economic growth and gender inequality
in Pakistan from 1980 to 2009. Study have used multiple linear Regressions and found that
there is a positive relationship between economic growth and gender equality in education
and employment. All independent variables have a positive impact on GDPG growth which
means that if the gender inequality is reduced than, there will be increase in GDPG growth
of Pakistan in long run.
38. Baliamoune and Macgillivrary (2015) explored the impact of gender inequality in
education on per capita income for 41 sub-Saharan African, North African and Middle
Eastern countries for the time period of 1989-1992 to 2010- 2012. Study used fixed effect
model and generalized method of moments (GMM) and discovered that gender inequality in
education (at primary and secondary level) affects per capita income negatively.
39. Brinda et al. (2015) investigated the role of child mortality rates in gender inequality
indices of 138 countries covered by UNDP in GII. They used multivariate non-parametric
robust regression models. They found that gender inequality was higher in low- and middle-
income countries (LMICs). They were able to find a positive relationship between gender
inequality and neonatal, infant and under-five mortality rates when Gender Inequality Index
(GII) was positively associated with neonatal, infant and under-five mortality rates when
potential reasons were considered. The study concluded that to reduce child mortality, along
with controlling medical procedures like sex determination before birth emphasis should be
given to women‘s decision-making rights and empowerment. Reduction in gender
inequality will result in the reduction in child mortality for both genders.
25
40. Jha and Nagar (2015) studied various dimensions of gender inequality and its effects in
Indian perspective. The study suggested that gender inequality in society; economic sphere
and legislation have to be deal with comprehensive policies. The study also suggested
policies for the improvement of gender equality in India.
41. Kanwal and Munir (2015) studied the effect of gender inequality in education on income
inequality in South Asia. By using fixed effects and random effects methodology for the
time period 1980-2010, study finds that gender inequality (in education) has a positive and
significant impact on income inequality while negative on education. An inequality in
education has a negative impact on per capita income (PCI) but positive with education.
42. Karoui and Feki (2015) investigated the effect of gender inequality on economic growth
using panel for the time period from 1985 to 2011. The GMM dynamic panel method was
used for empirical examination. Results indicated that there is a positive and significant
impact of population on economic growth; gender inequality index (GII) has a significant
and negative effect on economic growth.
43. Khera (2015) explored the linkages between women centered policies for labour force
participation, formal employment, gender wage gap and economic growth. Study have used
Indian data and found that policies are having a positive effect but not some elements are
still not in favor such as formal jobs not available, rigid mindset towords female worker,
gender-based wage gap. More jobs need to be created in formal sector which will result in
enhancement in female labour force participation and economic growth.
44. Oztunc et al. (2015) empirically examined the level to which women‘s education affects
long run economic growth in Asia pacific region for the time period from 1990 to 2010 by
employing panel regression analysis. Study found that fertility rate, female labour force and
female primary school enrollment are significant factors for annual per capita income
growth.
45. Rakhis (2015) aimed to discover the impact of gender inequality (in education and labour
force participation) on the economic growth in nineteen Arab countries for the time period
of 1990-2014. OLS and fixed effect regression are used in the study and result revealed that
26
there is found no significant connection between gender inequality and economic growth in
nineteen Arab countries.
46. Siah and Lee (2015) empirically examined the short run and long run relationship and
causality between female labour force participation rate, infant mortality rate and fertility in
Malaysia for the time period from 1970 to 2010 by employing ARDL and Granger
Causality tests. Results of the study indicated that changes in mortality have a significant
and positive long run impact on fertility rate and women‘s child bearing decisions are
unchanged by their employment condition.
47. Alaoui (2016) empirically examined that women‘s education affects the economic growth
in MATE countries for the time period from 1960 to 2012 using panel model estimation.
They deal with the variables like fertility rate, literacy rate, women‘s labour force
participation and economic growth and found that there exists a negative relationship
between fertility rate and the level of female‘s literacy rate and labour force participation
rate is much lower than man. Study suggested that women should get tertiary education in
the region which will lead to higher economic growth by eradicating all types of gender
inequality.
48. Baloch et al. (2016) empirically examined the impact of gender equality on economic
growth in a panel of 110 developed and developing contraries for the time period from 2006
to 2012. Study have used fixed effect robust, fixed effect PCSE and Driscoll and Kraay‘s
standard error method and result concluded that gender equality positively and significantly
impacts economic growth, which means that countries that improved their gender gap over
the time experienced relative boost in the economic growth. Gender equality, human capital
and investment positively affect economic growth and there is a positive link between
gender equality and growth. All methods determined that gender equality index is positively
affecting economic growth.
49. Batra et al. (2016) analyzed gender inequality in the social sphere. The study suggested
that gender roles based on social norms are part of Indian culture. These social and cultural
effects and influence other dimensions also an important reason of gender inequality. The
study recommended some policies to fight gender inequality and even sought to help
27
develop HRD courses which could be used in workplaces as well as academics.
50. Kim et al. (2016) showed the determination and time allotment of women among home
production, child nurture and market production. Micro level data of Asian economies is
used by the study and investigated that how different aspects of gender inequality is related
to the growth performance. The result showed that by promoting female education and
changing female time allocation, gender equality can significantly contribute to economic
performance of Asian economies.
51. Kennedy et al. (2017) investigated the relationship between labour productivity and wage
gap in all states and territories of Australia during the time period of 1986 to 2013. Study
used co-integration and fixed effect version of GMM method. The finding of the study
showed that gender inequality adversely affects per capita GDPG in the long run and gender
wage gap found highly significant negative. Study found that reduction in wage gap by 10
percent can boost the labour force productivity by up to 3 percent in the long run.
52. Shammari et al. (2017) investigated the impact of gender inequality on growth across Arab
region for the time period from 1990 to 2014 by employing panel regression method.
Results of study found no evidence of gender inequality in education and labour force that
hinder economic growth.
53. Appiah (2018) aimed to check the association among female labour force participation and
economic growth in developing courtiers of Sub Sahara Africa (SSA) for the time period
from 1975 to 2015 using GMM estimation. The result shows that female labour force
participation has a positive impact on economic growth.
54. Garcia et al. (2018) study investigated the relationship between gender factors and
economic growth for 127 countries, about four attribute dimension of gender inclusion was
considered such as school education, labor market, fertility, and democracy. Study used
GMM method for the time period from 2000 to 2014 and result found that high fertility has
a negative effect on economic growth, when women have greater access to secondary
education and to lalour market so it will affect economic growth positively. Also, there is a
positive effect of political participation on growth when women have access to it.
28
55. Ghosh (2018) empirically examined the impact of gender inequality in education and
employment on economic growth and human development in 15 major states of India
during time periods from 1982 to 1990, 1992 to 2000, 2002 to 2010 and 2011 to 2015 using
regression method. Results showed a statistically significant and positive relationship
between that female and male literacy rate and labour force participation rate. Gender
equality in education and employment has a significant and positive impact on the level and
growth rate of per capita income.
56. Karoui and Feki (2018) attempted to discover the impact of gender inequality on economic
growth in African countries by using panel data from 1995 to 2012. OLS regression method
has been used to analyze the data and empirical result indicated that there is a negative
impact of inequality between man and woman on economic growth. Study suggested that
increase in enrollment rate of girls would increase the standard of living and increase in rate
of female labour force participation relative to man would result in a reduction in the level
of economic development.
57. Kesti (2018) tried to find the impact of gender inequality in education on economic growth
for 18 developing Asian countries from 1970 to 2018 by using variables like GDPG growth,
gross enrollment ratio in secondary education and average years of schooling complete for
people ages 15 and above. Result confirmed that gender inequality in education have a
positive effect on GDPG.
58. Minasyan et al. (2019) aimed to examine the empirical and theoretical literature analysis
on the impact of gender inequality in education on economic growth by using fixed effect
regression. Study finds evidence of a positive and statistically significant connection
between gender equality in education and economic growth. Study also found that the
average partial correlation coefficient among economic growth and the ratio of female over
male education is moderate.
59. Hong et al. (2019) investigated the impact of educational inequality on economic growth
for the time period from 1950 to 2010 at five years intervals using regression method. Study
found that gender inequality in education to be linked with lower infant mortality and
poverty rates. Results stats that a one standard deviation increase in the female to male ratio
29
of average years of schooling is associated with a lower poverty rate by 0.98 percent and
signify that increasing education opportunities for women can be an effectual mode to
support comprehensive growth.
60. Kabir and Hussain (2019) aimed to examine the effect of gender inequality on economic
growth for three South Asian countries such as Pakistan, India and Bangladesh for the time
period of 1990 to 2018 employing panel regression. Study found that gross fixed capital
formation has significant and positive on GDP but labour force participation of female,
labour force participation of male, gender parity index and population have statistically
insignificant and negative effect in GDP in Pakistan, India and Bangladesh.
61. Kazandjian et al. (2019) analyses the impact of gender inequality on diversification in
education and labour force participation in low income and developing countries from the
time period from 1990 to 2010. Study used Generalized Method of Moments (GMM)
technique and found that gender inequality in opportunities such as education and lower
female labour force participation are negatively associated with diversifications.
62. Barin et al. (2020) a panel data method fixed and random effect model employed to
examine the impact of female labour force participation on economic growth in countries of
Organization of Islamic Corporation for the time period between 2004 and 2016. From the
result if the study it has found that female labour force participation rate has a positive and
significant impact on economic growth for the countries of Organization of Islamic
Corporation.
63. Baqai and Mehreen (2020) establish the current mindset and status of women in workforce
and their contribution to economic growth and sustainability using sample of more than 100
female respondents having complete higher education degree in last ten years. Qualitative
analyses have been done and data was collected from online survey with close ended
questions and results found that post marriage and children, perusing career becomes more
difficult that is due to lack of support from family members. The main issue is of mobility
and societal norms and values. Most women are allowed to do pursue education and work
but they are restricted to independently go out.
30
64. Gupta et al. (2020) study analyzed gender inequality and its economic implications in
India. Aim of the paper is to provide information on three objectives global scenario of
gender inequality, Indian scenario of gender inequality and the government policies
undertaken by the central government of India with respect to gender inequalities. Study
used regression on GDPG for 40 countries for global scenario. Study found that gender
inequality has improved since 2011.
65. Matthew et al. (2020) investigates the long run impact of gender inequality on economic
growth in Nigeria from 1985 to 2017. Study has employed ARDL econometrics technique
and the result of the study showed that gender inequality and maternal mortality have a
negative impact on inclusive growth on economy.
66. Stefko et al. (2020) examined the relationship among gender inequality in health and
economic prosperities in the organization for economic cooperation and development
(OCED) countries. Study used regression analysis to present the results of the research and
found that gender differenced in health showed more positive outcomes for women.
67. Altuzarra et al. (2021) study empirically examined the effect of a range of dimensions of
gender inequality especially in education, labour market and institutional demonstration on
economic growth for 105 developing countries for the time period from 1990 to 2017.
Study used cross country panel regression and results concluded that gender equality
contribution in growth observed greater in SSA but female to male ratio of labour market
participation is not statistically significant in the region.
68. Atiq and Qadri (2021) examined the impact of gender inequality in education on economic
growth in 48 Asian countries by using fixed and random effect model during 2003–2018.
Result of the study revealed that gender inequality in tertiary education is directly related
with quality of gender in labour market. Though, gender inequality in primary education is
not found statistically significant.
69. Esen and Seren (2021) empirically investigated the impact of gender inequality (education
and employment) on economic GDP per capita in Turkey. Study has used Johansen
cointegration method to estimate the long run association and FMOLS method to examine
31
the long run coefficients between variables for the time period 1975-2018. The empirical
results of the study confirm a long run cointegration relationship. Furthermore, DOLS and
FMOLS discovered that improvement in gender equality has a positive and significant
impact on GDP in long run.
70. Stepanenko et al. (2021) examines the trends and dynamics of gender inequality in
education, level of gender inequality in some European countries such as Germany, France,
Poland, and Ukraine. Study uses correlation analysis for 1991-2018 and found that there
exists a direct connection between the level of fertility and gender parity index in primary
and higher education, results are opposite in secondary education.
71. Tisdell (2021) investigated that how India‘s economic development has affects its gender
inequality. Study have used gender inequality index and gender development index during
2005–2018 and result of the study found that female education is not associated with
reduced wage gap between females and males and female access to labour market can
increase the gender inequality.
72. Aduku et al. (2022) study examined the relationship between gender gap in labour force
participation and economic growth in Sub Sahara Africa for the time period from 1981 to
2020. By employing generalized method of moment (GMM) technique has been used and
found that gender gap in labour force participation rate has a significantly negative effect on
growth on Sub Sahara African countries.
73. Elveen et al. (2022) this study examined the association between labour force participation
of female and gender inequality and employed panel cointegration technique to find the
association between series. Study has covered 74 countries in the analysis for the time
period from 1990 to 2017. Findings of the study show the positive link between labour force
participation of female and gender equality in 74 countries.
74. Girón and Kazomikhasragh (2022) finds significant and negative linkages between
gender inequality index (GII) and economic growth in developing and least developing
countries in Asia and Africa for time period from 2010–2018. Study uses panel vector auto
regression analysis (VECM) and Arellano-Bond model. Results of the study show a
32
significant and negative association among economic growth and gender inequality index.
75. Koengkan et al. (2022) empirically investigated the impact of gender inequality on
economic growth of 17 economies of Latin America and Caribbean region for the time
period from 1990 to 2016. Study have employed OLS regression model and findings of the
study explored that gender inequality is having a negative impact on economic growth.
76. Ram et al. (2022) evaluated the connection between gender inequality and economic
growth for 158 countries for time period 2000-2015. By employing fixed effect panel
regression model study suggested that gender inequality index (GII) is negatively correlated
with GDPG per capita, while gender development index (GDI) is positively correlated with
GDPG per capita.
77. Ridhwan et al. (2022) aim of this research is to explore the impact of health on economic
growth by using literature analysis from 64 research studies world widely. Study found that
health has a positive effect on growth of the economies. Due to demographic transition, it is
observed that developed countries have faced higher and positive effect of health.
78. Wu et al. (2022) objective of this study is to investigate to assess the asymmetric
association between gender inequality and growth in China during 1980-2020. Study has
employed NARDL technique and findings of the study have concluded that increases an
increase in gender inequality reduces economic growth in China in both long and short run.
Additionally, finding reveals that female labour, and female education contributing in the
economic growth significantly.
79. Akhtar et al. (2023) study empirically investigated the connection between gender
inequality and economic growth in Malaysia during 1980–2019. Study employed
autoregressive distributed lag approach (ARDL) and result revealed that female labour force
and trade openness have positive and significant effects on economic growth. Results of
nonlinear autoregressive distributed lag bound test (NARDL) also reveal that there is long
run relationship between labour force participation and economic growth. Causality results
revealed a bidirectional causal association between male and female labour force
participation a unidirectional causality is found between male labour force participation and
33
economic growth. Findings suggest that more female labour, a better gender parity index
will be.
80. Bayramov et al. (2023) using 11 countries from post-soviet neighborhood, study
investigated the aspects of women‘s participation in the labour force, economic
empowerment, entrepreneurial activities, distribution in economic fields, and role in society.
The results conclude positive and significant linkages between economic growth and female
labour force which means that more the economic growth means more female labour force
in the economy.
81. Chatterjee and Banerjee (2023) investigated the gender inequality in employment and
education in India and findings of the study found that female enrollment reduces from
upper primary level of school education. Also state that higher level of education of female
does not lead to higher employment post liberalization in India. Study also suggested that to
reduce the gender inequality it is essential to link the female education to the employment.
82. Hazarika et al. (2023) empirically examined the connection between gender equity in
labour force and efficiency in the production of GDP in a panel data of 116 countries for the
time period for 1996, 1998, 2000 and 200-2015. Study used panel data stochastic Fortier
analysis and state that widening opportunity for female labour market has improved the
aggregate technical efficiency. Therefore, a positive connection found among gender
equality and in labour market opportunity and GDP.
83. Mata (2023) study examined global gender gap for Spain and Portugal during 2006-2022
by using correlation analyses. Study found that women ministers or in parliament do not
correlate with economic equality and women participation in work force. Results did not
find any correlation of economic equality with countries economic growth.
84. Nimri et al. (2023) study empirically examined the impact of economic growth on gender
inequality via using panel data of 21 economies over the period of time 1990-2020. GMM,
FMOLS and EGLS employed in the study to examine the connection between series. A
finding of the GMM method confirms that there exists a negative impact of economic
growth on gender inequality in the 21 countries and FMOLS findings also found the
34
negative impact of economic growth on gender inequality but the findings of the EGLS
model found that economic growth has a positive effect on gender inequality.
85. Rai (2023) empirically examined the link between gender inequality in health and education
and economic development in north Bengal region. Inequality in gender adversely effecting
to economic development in the Bengal region that is why it is suggested that more
inclusive investment on women‘s education can contribute to the economic growth.
Summary of Empirical Literature is presented in Table No. 2.1.
35
Table No.2.1: Summary of Empirical Literature on Relationship between Gender Inequality and Economic Growth
Author Country & Gender Inequality Indicator Methodology Results

Data Span
Bayramov et al. 11 countries Labour force participation of women, economic Analysis of Female labour force
(2023) (1998-2020) empowerment, entrepreneurial activities Empirical participation promotes
Literature economic growth.
Akhtar et al. Malaysia Male labour force participation, female labour ARDL, NARDL Female labour force
(2023) (1980–2019) force participation, trade openness, and economic and causality participation and trade
growth openness promotes economic
growth and long run
relationship between labour
force participation and
economic growth is found.
Ram et al. 158 countries Gender inequality index, gender development Fixed effect GII is negatively correlated,
(2022) (2000-2015) index, and GDPG per capita. panel regression while GDI is positively
model correlated with GDPG per
capita.
Girón and developing and Gender inequality index, economic growth VECM Finds significant and negative
Kazomikhasrag least linkages between gender
h (2022) developing inequality index and
countries in economic growth.
Asia and Africa
(2010–2018)
Tisdell (2021) India (2005– Gender inequality index, gender development Trend analysis Female education is not
2018) index, female education, male education, wage associated with reduced wage
gap, and economic growth gap between females and
males. And female access to
labour market can increase
the gender inequality.
36
Atiq and Qadri 48 Asian Gender inequality in primary education, gender Fixed and Gender inequality in tertiary
(2021) countries inequality in tertiary education, gender inequality random effect education is directly related
(2003–2018) in labour market, economic growth with quality of gender in
labour market. Though,
gender inequality in primary
education is not found
statistically significant.
Altuzarra et al. 105 developing Gender inequality in education, gender inequality Cross country Gender equality contribution
(2021) countries (1990 in lablour force, gender inequality in institutional panel regression in growth seems to be greater
to 2017) representation and economic growth in SSA but female to male
ratio of labour market
participation is not
statistically significant in the
region.
Kanwal and South Asia Gender inequality in education, income inequality, Fixed effects and Gender inequality in
Munir (2015) (1980-2010) and per capita income random effects education promotes income
methodology inequality while reduces
education level. An inequality
in education reduces per
capita income (PCI).
37
38
CHAPTER - 3
TREND ANALYSIS IN MAJOR
INDICATORS OF GENDER
INEQUALITY AND ECONOMIC
GROWTH IN SOUTH ASIAN
COUNTRIES
CHAPTER - 3
TRENDS IN GENDER INEQUALITY INDICATORS AND
ECONOMIC GROWTH IN SOUTH ASIAN COUNTRIES
This chapter analyses the trend of selected gender inequality indicators in South Asian
economies namely; Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka for the period 1980-
2020. Considering the gender inequality in three dimensions viz; health, education and labour
force participation various indicators of gender inequality have been used such as female to
male ratio of life expectancy at birth, and female to male ratio of mortality rate for measuring
gender inequality in health. Female to male ratio of gross enrollment in primary education,
female to male ratio of gross enrollment in secondary education, and female to male ratio of
gross enrollment in tertiary education for measuring gender inequality in education. And,
female to male ratio of labour force participation rate for measuring gender inequality in
labour force have been selected. Country wise trend analysis is followed by the overall trend
for region of selected variables in South Asian region. Present study is divided into four
sections; section 3.1 analyses the trends of male and female life expectancy rate and male and
female mortality rate showing gender inequality in health dimension. Section 3.2 presents the
trends of male and female gross enrollment ratio in primary, male and female gross
enrollment ratio in secondary, and male and female gross enrollment ratio in tertiary
education showing gender inequality in education dimension. Section 3.3 presents the trend
of male and female labour force participation rate showing gender inequality in labour force
participation. Section 3.4 analyses the trends of gender inequality index in South Asian
countries. Section 3.5 presents the trend of economic growth, and control variables like, gross
fixed capital formation and population growth.
3.1 Trends in Gender Inequality in Health in South Asian Countries

Health indicators describe the population‘s health status. There are leading health indicators
available for countries such as crude death rates, life expectancy at birth, health life
expectancy rate, maternal mortality rate, child mortality rate, access to health services, mental
health, nutrition‘s and obesity, reproduction and sexual health, and etc. Due to availability of
the data present study have selected life expectancy at birth and child mortality rate for the
trend analysis. Life expectancy is a prominent indicator of health which measures how long a
person can expect to live and life expectancy at birth is measured in years. Higher life
39
expectancy indicates longer life of a person and vice versa. This section will present the
statistical data to disclose gender dimensions of health status using life expectancy and infant
mortality rate indicator in South Asian countries. Female to male ratio describes the
difference between female and male on the basis of gender.
Life Expectancy at Birth

Life expectancy at birth shows the number of years a new born infant would be living if
prevailing patterns of mortality at the time of its birth were to stay the same during its
lifetime.
40
Trends in Male and Female Life Expectancy at Birth in Bangladesh
Figure No. 3.1 represent the trends of female and male life expectancy separately for
Bangladesh. Bangladesh is showing an increasing trend for both female and male life
expectancy. Female life expectancy is found to be higher than that of male during the study
period indicating that women are living longer than male. According to Bangladesh Sample
Vital Statistics 2018, women live a less risky lifestyle because of less consumption of drugs
and alcohol. Even, female shares a social bond with family. Again, female is relatively more
health conscious so their life span is comparatively longer.
Figure No. 3.1: Male and Female Life Expectancy at Birth (in Years) in Bangladesh
Life expectancy at birth, female (years) Life expectancy at birth, male (years)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1981
1988
1995
2002
1980
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
41
Trends in Male and Female Life Expectancy at Birth in India
Figure No. 3.2 represent the trends of female and male life expectancy separately for India.
India is showing an increasing trend for both female and male life expectancy. According to
Sample Registration System report, 2018 (SRS), females in India have a higher life
expectancy than males the advantage in female may be largely due to biological factors such
as genetics or hormones, especially estrogens, which enhance the body‘s immune defences
against infectious disease. Life expectancy of female is higher in India than male life
expectancy meaning that female is living longer than male.
Figure No. 3.2: Male and Female Life Expectancy at Birth (in Years) in India
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1990
2010
2011
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
42
Trends in Male and Female Life Expectancy at Birth in Nepal
Figure No. 3.3 represents the trends of female and male life expectancy separately for Nepal.
Nepal is showing an increasing trend for both female and male life expectancy. Female life
expectancy is higher than male in Nepal. Male life expectancy is gradually rising over the
entire period and tries to close the gender gap in life expectancy. According to Human
Development Report 2021-2022, Nepal has now overtaken other South Asian countries and
has become the second highest life expectancy country after Sri Lanka. According to study of
Crimmins et al. (2019), public health services and literacy rate has contributed to higher life
expectancy of women in Nepal.
Figure No. 3.3: Male and Female Life Expectancy at Birth (in Years) in Nepal
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1982
1990
1998
2006
2014
1980
1981
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
43
Trends in Male and Female Life Expectancy at Birth in Pakistan
Figure No. 3.4 represent the trends of female and male life expectancy separately for
Pakistan. Pakistan is showing an increasing trend for both female and male life expectancy.
Female life expectancy is higher than male life expectancy over the period but male life
expectancy gradually rising over the entire period and almost tries to close gender gap in life
expectancy.
Figure No. 3.4: Male and Female Life Expectancy at Birth (in Years) in Pakistan
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1991
2009
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
44
Trends in Male and Female Life Expectancy at Birth in Sri Lanka
Figure No. 3.5 represents the trends of female and male life expectancy separately for Sri
Lanka. Sri Lanka is showing an increasing trend for both female and male life expectancy.
Female life expectancy is higher than male life expectancy over the period but male life
expectancy gradually rising over the entire period and almost tries to close gender gap in life
expectancy. Sri Lanka reported with highest life expectancy in the region where female life
expectancy is about to cross 80 years. Among South Asian countries male life expectancy is
highest in comparison to remaining countries. The main reason to increase life expectancy
rate in Sri Lanka is its universal health coverage established in year 1989 which provides all-
inclusive care to all citizens. Besides this, according to Favas et al. 2022, Sri Lanka has
shifted the focus on community centric approach from health care to target non
communicable diseases.
Figure No. 3.5: Male and Female Life Expectancy at Birth (in Years) in Sri Lanka
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1990
2010
2011
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
45
Trends in Ratio of Female to Male Life Expectancy in South Asia
Figure No. 3.6 signifies the trends of the life expectancy at birth as a female to male ratio
from 1980-2020. In South Asian region all the countries show a ratio above one except
Bangladesh before year 1991 reflecting that life expectancy of female is exceeding the life
expectancy of male. The ratio of life expectancy is decreasing in Sri Lanka meaning that it is
closing the gap between female and male but Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Pakistan showing
a consistent increase in this ratio over the period of time, which shows that the life
expectancy of male is at disadvantaged position. Female life expectancy is rising faster than
males may reflect any number of factors, including the influence on health of habits, such as
smoking (Stotsky et al., 2016). As shown in figure no 3.6 that gender inequality in health in
Sri Lanka is decreasing because the ratio of female to male value is moving towards one
which reflects gender equality. But in rest countries like; Bangladesh, India, Nepal and
Pakistan moving away from one which means there exists a gender inequality in health.
Figure No. 3.6: Life Expectancy at Birth (in Years) as Ratio of Female to Male in South
Asia
Bangladesh India Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka
1.12
1.1
1.08
1.06
1.04
1.02
0.98
0.96
0.94
0.92
0.9
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
46
Infant Mortality Rate
Infant mortality rate is one of the most important indicators to measure the health status in the
economy. Infant mortality rate is the number of infants dying before completing one year of
age per 1,000 live births in a given defined year. Infant mortality rate is one of the key
indicators of a nation‘s health status. High level of infant mortality reduces the life
expectancy years in the country. Infant mortality rate is an important maker of the overall
health of a society
47
Trends in Male and Female Infant Mortality Rate in Bangladesh
Figure No. 3.7 shows the trend of female and male infant mortality rate separately for
Bangladesh. Bangladesh is showing a declining trend for both female and male infant
mortality. And, male mortality rate is higher than female but this gap is closing slowly.
Sharpe decline in infant mortality rate in Bangladesh has been observed during the two
decades since 1990s (According to National Institute of Population Research and Training,
Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey 2014). Pneumonia with other serious infections,
birth asphyxia, prematurity and low birth weight are the responsible factors for more deaths
in Bangladesh.
Figure No. 3.7: Male and Female Infant Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births) in
Bangladesh
Mortality rate, infant, female (per 1,000 live births) Mortality rate, infant, male (per 1,000 live births)
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1981
2006
2014
1980
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
48
Trends in Male and Female Infant Mortality Rate in India
Figure No. 3.8 shows the trend of female and male infant mortality rate separately for India.
India is showing a declining trend for both female and male infant mortality. It has been
observed that male mortality is higher compared to female before year 2000 but after that
female mortality is exceeding the male mortality rate. Over the past decade, the effectiveness
of growth in lowering infant mortality rate increased, due to good public investment in health.
Between 1992-1993 and 1998-1999, and between 1998-1999 and 2005-2006, every
percentage point economic growth led to about 0.38 percentage point of decline in infant
mortality rate (Dhirar et al. 2018).
Figure No. 3.8: Male and Female Infant Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births) in India
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1981
1995
1980
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
49
Trends in Male and Female Infant Mortality Rate in Nepal
Figure No. 3.9 shows the trend of female and male infant mortality rate separately for Nepal.
Nepal is showing a declining trend for both female and male infant mortality, and male
mortality is higher than female‘s but the gap is closing slowly.
According to World Health Organisation (WHO), Government of Nepal has implemented the
Nepal National Vitamin A programme (NVAP) in 1993. This programme delivered two
rounds of vitamin A a year to children in priority districts of the country that had vitamin A
deficiency.
Figure No. 3.9: Male and Female Infant Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births) in Nepal
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1988
2002
2016
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2017
2018
2019
2020
50
Trends in Male and Female Infant Mortality Rate in Pakistan
Figure No. 3.10 shows the trend of female and male infant mortality rate separately for
Pakistan. Pakistan is showing a declining trend for both female and male infant mortality but
male mortality is higher than female but the gap is maintained throughout the time period.
According to Pakistan‘s annual report 2018 by UNICEF statistics, the child mortality rate in
Pakistan is terrible; the major causes of mortality are pneumonia and diarrhea.
Figure No. 3.10: Male and Female Infant Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births) in
Pakistan
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1981
1995
1980
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
51
Trends in Male and Female Infant Mortality Rate in Sri Lanka
Figure No. 3.11 shows the trend of female and male infant mortality rate separately for Sri
Lanka. Sri Lanka is showing a declining trend for both female and male infant mortality rate
with some fluctuations in 2004 and 2009. According to Annual Health Bulletin 2019, general
sanitation and access to healthcare improved with the fastest period of decline falling. In
2004 and 2009 neonatal deaths were high. Over the time male mortality is higher than female
but the gap is closing slowly.
Figure No. 3.11: Male and Female Infant Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births) in Sri
Lanka
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
1981
1994
2012
1980
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
52
Trends in Ratio of Female to Male Infant Mortality Rate in South Asia
Figure No. 3.12 shows the trends in the female to male ratio of infant mortality rate for South
Asian countries from 1980-2020. All of the countries show a ratio below one, except India
only before 1997 reflecting that infant mortality for males exceeds females. It is observed that
infant mortality rate is having a value above one since 1999 in India which is showing that
females are facing more infant deaths comparison to males. Rest of the countries is facing
more or less same level of gender inequality in infant mortality rate.
Figure No. 3.12: Infant Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births) as Ratio of Female to Male
in South Asia
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1985
2016
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2017
2018
2019
2020
53
54
Trends in Male and Female Primary School Enrollment in Bangladesh
Figure No. 3.13 shows the trend of primary school enrollment in Bangladesh. Bangladesh is
showing an increasing trend for both female and male primary school enrollment. The value
of school enrollment in primary education is found high for male during 1980 to 1990. After
2006 we can observe a shift, where female enrollment in primary education is high till 2020.
The government of Bangladesh has been taken various initiatives steps to progress the
position of female education such as Reaching out of School children PROJECT (ROSC). On
the other hand, female students have been getting stipend from the government.
The primary school enrollment for female is 124.98 as of 2020, over the period of time this
variable has reached a highest value of 124.98 in 2020 and smallest value of 54.85 in 1983.
Whereas, the value for primary school enrollment for male is 114.35 as of 2020, over the
years this variable has reached a highest value of 114.35 in 2020 and smallest value of 80.58
in 1987.
Figure No. 3.13: Male and Female School Enrollment, Primary (% gross) in Bangladesh
School enrollment, primary, female (% gross) School enrollment, primary, male (% gross)
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2017 2018 2020
55
Trends in Male and Female Primary School Enrollment in India
Figure No. 3.14 show the trend of primary school enrollment in India. India is showing an
increasing trend for female but male primary enrolment showing almost constant trend. The
value of school enrollment in primary education is found high for male between 1980 to
2007. After 2007 we can see a shift, where female enrollment in primary education is high till
2020. Mid-Day Meal, Sarva Siksha Abhiyan, Mahila Samakhya, and etc are major
government programs which are playing foremost role in promoting female enrollment in
primary level.
The value for primary enrollment for female is 100.90 as of 2020, over the years this variable
reached a maximum value of 123.55 in 2016 and lowest value of 65.61 in 1980. Whereas, the
value for primary enrollment for male is 98.98 as of 2020, over the years this variable
touched a supreme value of 110.38 in 2007 and lowest value of 98.85 in 1998.
Figure No. 3.14: Male and Female School Enrollment, Primary (% gross) in India
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1982
1993
2008
1980
1981
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2007
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2020
56
Trends in Male and Female Primary School Enrollment in Nepal
Figure No. 3.15 shows the trend of primary school enrollment in Nepal. Nepal is showing an
increasing trend for female but male primary school enrolment is fluctuation trend over the
period of time. The value of school enrollment in primary education is found high for male
between 1980 to 2007. From 2008 we can see a shift, where female enrollment in primary
education is high till 2019. According to Acharya (2019), The Nepal government has
launched the Basic and Primary Education Project (BEEP) in 1992 for the improvement in
the quality of education for female.
The value for primary enrollment for female is 126.26 as of 2020, over the years this variable
touched a supreme value of 156.02 in 2011 and smallest value of 39.23 in 1981. Whereas, the
value for primary enrollment for male is 127.60 as of 2020, over the years this indicator
reached a supreme value of 144.25 in 2011 and lowest value of 101.58 in 1981.
Figure No. 3.15: Male and Female School Enrollment, Primary (% gross) in Nepal
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2019
2020
57
Trends in Male and Female Primary School Enrollment in Pakistan
Figure No. 3.16 shows the trend of primary school enrollment in Pakistan. Pakistan is
showing an increasing trend for both female and male primary school enrollment. The value
of school enrollment in primary education is found high for male between 1980 to 2019.
Female enrollment in primary education is lower than male education trough out the period of
time. Socio economic and political instability of the countries like urban rural gap, inadequate
school infrastructure, poverty and cultural practices causes low female enrollment in the
nation.
The value for primary enrollment for female is 89.24 as of 2019, over the years this indicator
reached a supreme value of 89.24 in 2019 and lowest value of 32.62 in 1980. Whereas, the
value for primary enrollment for male is 101.28 as of 2019, over the years this indicator
reached a supreme value of 101.97 in 2018 and smallest value of 64.90 in 1980.
Figure No. 3.16: Male and Female School Enrollment, Primary (% gross) in Pakistan
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
2003
2005
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
2000
2001
2002
2004
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
58
Trends in Male and Female Primary School Enrollment in Sri Lanka
Figure No. 3.17 shows the trend of primary school enrollment in Sri Lanka.
Sri Lanka is showing a more or less constant trend with some fluctuations for both female
and male primary school enrollment. The value of school enrollment in primary education is
found high for male between 1980 to 2020 except for year 2004. Female enrollment in
primary education is lower than male education trough out the period of time.
The value for primary enrollment for female is 100.33 as of 2020, over the years this
indicator reached a supreme value of 121.01 in 1986 and smallest value of 98.04 in 2009.
Whereas, the value for primary enrollment for male is 100.26 as of 2020, over the years this
Figure No. 3.17: Male and Female School Enrollment, Primary (% gross) in Sri Lanka
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1980
1987
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1998
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
59
Secondary School Enrollment
Gross enrollment ratio is the ratio of total enrollment, regardless of age, to the population of
the age group that officially corresponds to the level of education shown. Secondary
education completes the provision of basic education that began at the primary level, and
aims at laying the foundations for lifelong learning and human development, by offering
more subject- or skill-oriented instruction using more specialized teachers.
60
Trends in Male and Female Secondary School Enrollment in Bangladesh
Figure No. 3.18 shows the trend of secondary school enrollment in Bangladesh. Bangladesh
is showing an increasing trend for both female and male secondary school enrollment. The
value of school enrollment in secondary education is found high for male between 1980 to
1999. From 2000 we can see a shift, where female enrollment in secondary education is high
for female till 2020. The administration of Bangladesh has been taken diverse steps to
improve the status of female education. According to Karim and Mohammad (2019), it has
been found that Secondary Education Quality and Access Enhancement Project (SEQAEP)
provide incentives to students to improve academic performance.
The value for secondary enrollment for female is 81.48 as of 2020, over the years this
Whereas, the value for secondary enrollment for male is 67.54 as of 2020, over the years this
Figure No. 3.18: Male and Female School Enrollment, Secondary (% gross) in
Bangladesh
School enrollment, secondary, female (% gross) School enrollment, secondary, male (% gross)
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1990
1980
1981
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
61
Trends in Male and Female Secondary School Enrollment in India
Figure No. 3.19 shows the trend of secondary school enrollment in India. India is showing an
increasing trend for both female and male secondary school enrollment. The value of school
enrollment in Secondary education is found high for male between 1980 to 2012. After 2012
we can see a shift, where female enrollment in secondary education is high till 2019.
According to Gupta et al. (2021), education Ministry, the Beti Bachao Beti Padhao Scheme
(BBBP) has been promoting the female education in the nation.
variable reached a supreme value of 75.66 in 2020 and smallest value of 38.30 in 1980.
Figure No. 3.19: Male and Female School Enrollment, Secondary (% gross) in India
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1988
2005
2013
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1986
1987
1989
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
62
Trends in Male and Female Secondary School Enrollment in Nepal
Figure No. 20 shows the trend of secondary school enrollment in Nepal. Nepal is showing an
increasing trend for both female and male secondary school enrolment with some
fluctuations. The value of school enrollment in secondary education is found high for male
between 1980 to 2011. From 2012 we can see a shift, where female enrollment in secondary
education is high till 2020.
Figure No. 3.20: Male and Female School Enrollment, Secondary (% gross) in Nepal
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1983
1994
2009
1981
1982
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1995
1996
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2005
2006
2007
2008
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2019
2020
63
Trends in Male and Female Secondary School Enrollment in Pakistan
Figure No. 3.21 shows the trend of secondary school enrollment in Pakistan. Pakistan is
showing an increasing trend for both female and male secondary school enrollment. The
value of school enrollment in secondary education is found high for male between 1980 to
2019. Female enrollment in secondary education is lower than male education trough out the
period of time.
Figure No. 3.21: Male and Female School Enrollment, Secondary (% gross) in Pakistan
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1981
2009
1980
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
2006
2007
2008
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
64
Trends in Male and Female Secondary School Enrollment in Sri Lanka
Figure No. 3.22 shows the trend of secondary school enrollment in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka is
showing an increasing trend for both female and male secondary school enrollment. Sri
Lanka performs best in South Asian countries in secondary enrolment. The value of school
enrollment in secondary education is found high for female between 1980 to 2018. Male
enrollment in secondary education is lower than female education trough out the period of
time.
variable reached a supreme value of 98.04 in 2018 and lowest value of 51.73 in 1981.
Figure No. 3.22: Male and Female School Enrollment, Secondary (% gross) in Sri
Lanka
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 2010 2011 2012 2013 2016 2017 2018
65
66
Trends in Male and Female Tertiary School Enrollment in Bangladesh
Figure No. 3.23 shows the trend of tertiary school enrollment in Bangladesh. Bangladesh is
showing fluctuation but an increasing trend for both female and male secondary school
enrollment. The value of school enrollment in tertiary education is found high for male
between 1980 to 2020. Tertiary enrollment of female is lower than male enrollment due to
several reasons like early marriage, high fertility and taking care of household work.
The value for tertiary enrollment for female is 19.84 as of 2020, over the years this indicator
reached a supreme value of 20.01 in 2019 and smallest value of 0.88 in 1981. Whereas, the
value for tertiary enrollment for male is 25.70 as of 2020, over the period of time this variable
reached a supreme value of 27.86 in 2019 and smallest value of 5.21 in 1981.
Figure No. 3.23: Male and Female School Enrollment, Tertiary (% gross) in Bangladesh
School enrollment, tertiary, female (% gross) School enrollment, tertiary, male (% gross)
30
25
20
15
10
0
2008
2012
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2009
2011
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
67
Trends in Male and Female Tertiary School Enrollment in India
Figure No. 3.24 shows the trend of tertiary school enrollment in India. India is showing an
increasing trend for both female and male secondary school enrollment. The value of school
enrollment in tertiary education is found high for male between 1980 to 2013. After 2013 we
can observe a shift, where female enrollment in tertiary education is increasing. According to
a report published by the Power of International Education, more women are perusing higher
education now than ever before. Others factor like late marriages can be a reason. The value
for tertiary school enrollment for female is 31.29 as of 2020, over the years this indicator
reached a maximum value of 31.29 in 2020 and minimum value of 2.66 in 1980. Whereas,
the value for tertiary school enrollment for male is 27.79 as of 2020, over the period of time
this indicator reached a maximum value of 27.79 in 2020 and minimum value of 6.84 in
1982.
Figure No. 3.24: Male and Female School Enrollment, Tertiary (% gross) in India
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1995
1996
1997
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2009
2010
2011
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
68
Trends in Male and Female Tertiary School Enrollment in Nepal
Figure No. 3.25 shows the trend of tertiary school enrollment in Nepal. Nepal is showing a
fluctuating trend for both female and male tertiary school enrollment. After year 2013 Nepal
has faced a shape decline in both female and male enrolment. Although Nepal has achieved
gender parity in primary school enrolment, girls drop out ratio is high at higher education.
This may be due to living in a remote area, being from a low-income family and more
especially early marriage. (Acharya 2021). The value of school enrollment in tertiary
education is found high for male between 1980 to 2016. From 2017 we can see a shift, where
female enrollment in tertiary education is high till 2020.
The value for tertiary school enrollment for female is 13.75 as of 2020, over the years this
variable reached a highest value of 15.38 in 2013 and lowest value of 1.27 in 1982. Whereas,
the value for tertiary school enrollment for male is 13.15 as of 2020, over the period of time
this indicator reached a highest value of 19.04 in 2013 and lowest value of 4.93 in 1983.
Figure No. 3.25: Male and Female School Enrollment, Tertiary (% gross) in Nepal
25
20
15
10
0
1983 1989 1990 1991 2000 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2008 2009 2010 2011 2013 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
69
Trends in Male and Female Tertiary School Enrollment in Pakistan
Figure No. 3.26 shows the trend of secondary school enrollment in Pakistan. Pakistan is
showing an increasing but not steady trend for both female and male tertiary school
enrollment. The value of school enrollment in tertiary education is found high for male
between 1980 to 2019 except the year 2014 only. Female enrollment in tertiary education is
lower than male education trough out the period of time. The main reason behind low female
enrolment is gender-based discrimination in the nation due to poverty (Khurshid 2016).
The value for tertiary enrollment for female is 12.11 as of 2019, over the period of time this
variable reached a highest value of 12.11 in 2019 and lowest value of 0.89 in 1992. Whereas,
the value for tertiary enrollment for male is 12.31 as of 2019, over the years this indicator
reached a highest value of 12.31 in 2019 and lowest value of 2.98 in 2003.
Figure No. 3.26: Male and Female School Enrollment, Tertiary (% gross) in Pakistan
14
12
10
0
1980 1986 1987 1988 1990 1992 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
70
Trends in Male and Female Tertiary School Enrollment in Sri Lanka
Figure No. 3.27 shows the trend of tertiary school enrollment in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka is
showing a content increasing trend for both female and male tertiary school enrollment. The
value of school enrollment in tertiary education is found high for male between 1980 to 1994.
From 2010 we can observe a shift, where female enrollment in tertiary education is high till
2020. More and more girls are attending and completing school, and fewer are getting
married. The value for tertiary enrollment for female is 26.67 as of 2020, over the years this
Whereas, the value for tertiary enrollment for male is 16.52 as of 2020, over the years this
Figure No. 3.27: Male and Female School Enrollment, Tertiary (% gross) in Sri Lanka
30
25
20
15
10
0
1981 1983 1984 1985 1986 1994 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
71
3.3 Trends in Gender Inequality in Labour Force Participation in South
Asian Courtiers
According to OECD, the labour force, or a currently active population, comprises all persons
who fulfil the requirement for inclusion among the employed or the unemployed. Labour
force indicators are statistics that describe key aspects of schooling which permit the
evaluation and monitoring of schools, teachers, programs, and students.
There are leading labour force indicators are available for countries such as labour force
participation rate, employment to population ratio and status of employment, and etc. Due to
availability of the data present study have selected labour force participation rate for the trend
analysis. This section will present the statistical data to disclose gender dimensions of labour
force status using labour force participation rate in South Asian countries. Female to male
ratio describes the difference between female and male on the basis of gender.
Labour Force Participation Rate

Labour force participation rates are calculated as the labour force divided by the total
working age population. The working age population denotes to people aged from 15 to 64.
This indicator is broken down by age group and it is measured as a percentage of each age
group.
72
Trends in Male and Female Labour Force Participation Rate in Bangladesh
Figure No. 3.28 shows the trend of labour force participation rate. Bangladesh is showing a
steady and increasing trend for female labour force participation rate but male labour force
participation rate is showing a slight declining trend. Bangladesh has ranked 141st out of 146
countries (Global Gender Gap Index 2022, published by the World Economic Forum).
Bangladesh has deteriorated its situation, in comparison to the last year before, where
Bangladesh ranked 147th out of 156 countries in 2021 now it ranks 141st out of 146 countries
in 2022. It ranges from 88.91% in 1990 to 78.56% in 2020 for male participants. And, it
ranges from 26.63% in 1990 to 34.54% in 2020 for female participants. Trend of labour force
analysis shows that, female LFPR went through a continuous rise during 1990 to 2019, while
male LFPR has decreased till 2016. The gap between male and female LFPR has been
closing over the period of time.
Figure No. 3.28: Male and Female Labour Force Participation Rate (% of population
ages 15+) in Bangladesh
Labour force participation rate, female (% of female population ages 15+)

Labour force participation rate, male (% of male population ages 15+)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2002
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
73
Trends in Male and Female Labour Force Participation Rate in India
Figure No. 3.29 shows the trend of labour force participation rate. India is showing a steady
but a slight declining trend for both female and male labour force participation rate. India has
ranked 143rd out of 146 countries (Global Gender Gap Index 2022, published by the World
Economic Forum). India has improved its situation, in comparison to the last year before,
where India ranked 151st out of 156 countries in 2021 now it ranks 143rd out of 146 countries
in 2022. It ranges from 84.22% in 1990 to 69.43% in 2020 for male participants. And, it
ranges from 30.44% in 1990 to 18.60% in 2020 for female participants. Trend of labour force
analysis show that female LFPR went through a continuous fall during 2005 to 2018 while
male LFPR has decreased during 2007 to 2020. The gap between male and female LFPR has
been becoming broader over the period of time. The main reason for low female LFPR in
India is efficient public transport, violence against women and societal norm. And further a
lot of women in India are exclusively involved in the household activity taking care of their
family.
ages 15+) in India

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1992
1999
1988
1990
1991
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
74
Trends in Male and Female Labour Force Participation Rate in Nepal
Figure No. 3.30 shows the trend of labour force participation rate. Nepal is showing a U-
shaped trend for female labour force participation rate but male labour force participation rate
is showing a slight declining trend. Nepal has ranked 98th out of 146 countries (Global
Gender Gap Index 2022, published by the World Economic Forum). Nepal has improved its
situation, in comparison to the last year before, where Nepal ranked 107th out of 156
countries in 2021 now it ranks 98th out of 146 countries in 2022. It ranges from 90.70% in
1990 to 79.47% in 2020 for male participants. And, it ranges from 81.25% in 1990 to 75.69%
in 2020 for female participants. Trend of labour force analysis shows that female LFPR went
through a fall from 2019 to 2022 due to Covid-19 impact. While, male LFPR has decreased
during 2000 to 2020. The gap between male and female LFPR has been closing rapidly over
the period of time. The main reason for high female LFPR in Nepal is social norms and
cultural practises where women are responsible for the taking care of the livestock and are
also required to work in the agricultural sector high international migration of the working
age men. Therefore, Nepal is an outline for the female LFPR in South Asia.
ages 15+) in Nepal

95
90
85
80
75
70
65
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
75
Trends in Male and Female Labour Force Participation Rate in Pakistan
Figure No. 3.31 shows the trend of labour force participation rate. Pakistan is showing a
content trend for male labour force participation rate and female labour force participation is
shoeing a slow bit increasing trend. Pakistan has ranked 152nd out of 146 countries (Global
Gender Gap Index 2022, published by the World Economic Forum). Pakistan has no such
change in its situation, in comparison to the last year before, where Pakistan ranked 145th out
of 156 countries in 2021 now it ranks 152nd out of 146 countries in 2022. Pakistan has the
lowest females LFPR in South Asia. It ranges from 84.25% in 1990 to 77.71% in 2020 for
male participants. And, it ranges from 11.22% in 1990 to 20.60% in 2020 for female
participants. Trend of labour force analysis shows that female LFPR went through an increase
but changes are very slow. While, male LFPR has showing more or less constant trend. The
gap between male and female LFPR is huge which creates gender inequality. The emerging
reason behind low female LFPR rates are a lack of access to safe transport, social norms, and
household responsibilities that prevent women from having the time to work in labour
market.
ages 15+) in Pakistan

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2002
2003
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
76
Trends in Male and Female Labour Force Participation Rate in Sri Lanka
Figure No. 3.32 shows the trend of labour force participation rate. Sri Lanka is showing a
content trend for both male and female labour force participation rate. Sri Lanka has ranked
122nd out of 146 countries (Global Gender Gap Index 2022, published by the World
Economic Forum). Sri Lanka has no such change in its situation, in comparison to the last
year before, where Sri Lanka ranked 132nd out of 156 countries in 2021 now it ranks 122nd
out of 146 countries in 2022. It ranges from 77.59% in 1990 to 68.28% in 2020 for male
participants. And, it ranges from 45.12% in 1990 to 30.77% in 2020 for female participants.
Trend of labour force analysis show that female LFPR went through an increase but changes
are very slow. While, male LFPR has showing more or less constant trend.
ages 15+) in Sri Lanka

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1998
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
77
Figure No. 3.33: Ratio of Female to Male Labour Force Participation Rate (% of
population ages 15+) in South Asia
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1990
2000
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
78
3.4 Trends of Gender Inequality Index in South Asian Countries
Gender Inequality Index

This composite indicator, GII measures gender inequality between female and male in three
dimensions viz; health, empowerment and labour participation. These three dimensions has
been derived from five major indicators; maternal mortality rate, adolescent fertility rate,
education attainment (secondary and above), parliament representation and labour force
participation.
Overall, the GII is constructed to discover the extent to which national achievements in these
aspects of human development are eroded by gender inequalities. It ranges from 0 to 1. 0
means women and men faces equal and 1 means women and men faces poorly inequality in
all the dimensions.
79
Trends in Gender Inequality Index in Bangladesh
Figure No. 3.34 shows the trend of gender inequality index. Bangladesh has ranked 71th out
of 146 countries (Global Gender Gap Index 2022, published by the World Economic Forum).
Bangladesh has deteriorated its situation, in comparison to the last year before, where
Bangladesh ranked 65th out of 156 countries in 2021 now it ranks 71th out of 146 countries in
2022. Then, what made Bangladesh a worst performing country in the gender inequality
index. According to Global Gender Gap Report 2022, Bangladesh is one of the worst
performing nations in equal economic opportunities for women. The prime reasons behind
poor performance are the lack of women in performance in the leadership roles, lack of
women in professional and technical jobs, and low level of participation rate in labour force.
Women are the victims of gender-based violence, another critical area to focus on would be
child marriage. As Bangladesh has the highest prevalence of child marriage in South Asia
and ranked 134th in the health and survival.
Figure No. 3.34: Gender Inequality Index in Bangladesh
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1996
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
80
Trends in Gender Inequality Index in India
Figure No. 3.35 shows the trend of gender inequality index. Bangladesh has ranked 135th out
of 146 nations (Global Gender Gap Index 2022, published by the World Economic Forum).
India has improved its situation, in comparison to the last year before, where India ranked
140th out of 156 countries in 2021 now it ranks 135th out of 146 countries in 2022. India has
made a significant development in encouraging gender equality, and has a value of 0.48 in
2019 (Economic Survey 2022-2023).
Figure No. 3.35: Gender Inequality Index in India
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1995
2002
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
81
Trends in Gender Inequality Index in Nepal
Figure No. 3.36 shows the trend of gender inequality index. Nepal has ranked 96th out of 146
countries (Global Gender Gap Index 2022, published by the World Economic Forum). Nepal
has improved its situation, in comparison to the last year before, where Nepal ranked 106th
out of 156 countries in 2021 now it ranks 96th out of 146 countries in 2022. Nepal has made a
significant progress in promoting gender equality, and has a value of 0.48 in 2019 (Economic
Survey 2022-2023).
Figure No. 3.36: Gender Inequality Index in Nepal
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
2014
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
82
Trends in Gender Inequality Index in Pakistan
Figure No. 3.37 shows the trend of gender inequality index in Pakistan. Pakistan has ranked
145th out of 146 countries (Global Gender Gap Index 2022, published by the World
Economic Forum). Nepal has retreated its situation, in comparison to the last year before,
where Pakistan ranked 153rd out of 156 countries in 2021 now it ranks 145th out of 146
countries in 2022. Pakistan has not made significant progress in promoting gender equality,
and has a value of 0.48 in 2019. According to Global Gender Gap Report 2022, inadequate
educational opportunities, low status of women in society and lack of decision making power
are the major causes for gender inequality in the Pakistan.
Figure No. 3.37: Gender Inequality Index in Pakistan
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1997
2006
2017
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2018
2019
2020
83
Trends in Gender Inequality Index in Sri Lanka
Figure No. 3.38 shows the trend of gender inequality index. Sri Lanka has ranked 110th out of
146 countries (Global Gender Gap Index 2022, published by the World Economic Forum).
Sri Lanka has detreated its situation, in comparison to the last year before, where Sri Lanka
ranked 116th out of 156 countries in 2021 now it ranks 110th out of 146 countries in 2022. Sri
Lanka has made a significant progress in promoting gender equality, and has a value of 0.41
in 2019. In the south Asian region Sri Lanka is the country which is close to the gender
equality.
Figure No. 3.38: Gender Inequality Index in Sri Lanka
0.5
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
84
Trends in Gender Inequality Index in South Asia
Figure No. 3.39 shows the trend of gender inequality index in South Asia. According to
Global Gender Gap Report 2022, among the eight regions in the world, South Asia ranks the
lowest. Sri Lanka and India have progress on closing the gender gap in the share of women in
senior positions. Sri Lanka is having lowest value of gender inequality index which means it
is having less inequality on the basis of gender. Bangladesh, India and Pakistan are having
more or less same level of gender inequality.
Figure No. 3.39: Gender Inequality Index in South Asia
Bangladesh Inida Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1992
2003
1990
1991
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
85
3.5 Trends of other Selected Variables in South Asian Countries
This section analyses the trend of economic growth, investment and population in the South
Asian countries. Details of the variables are presents in the Table No. 3.1.
Table No. 3.1: Details of Variables

Phenomenon Variable used
Economic Growth Growth Rate of GDP (annual %)
Capital Gross Fixed Capital Formation (% of GDPG)
Population Population Growth Rate (annual %)
Economic Growth
The growth rate of gross domestic product at market price based on constant local currency
has been used to measure the economic growth of Indian economy during the sample period.
86
Trends in Economic Growth in Bangladesh
Figure No. 3.40 shows the trend of growth rate of GDP. It ranges from 0.81% in 1980 to
3.44% in 2020. The maximum and minimum growth rate has been recorded in 2019 and 1980
respectively.
As shown in the figure no. 3.40 the trend of GDPG is not steady and shows various ups and
downs in the economy but the economy has earned 7% plus growth rate of GDP a total of 7
times, 7.23% growth in 1981, 7.05% growth in 2007, in 7.11% growth in 2016, 7.31%
growth in 2018 and finally 7.88% growth in 2019.
Bangladesh‘s exports, remittance performance and the private sector in the economy have
aided the country‘s positive growth. Downfall of the GDP growth rate has the most plausible
reason behind it for example 0.81% growth of GDP in 1980 and 2.13% growth of GDPG in
1982 due to high inflation, fuel crisis and trade deficit.
Figure No. 3.40: GDP Growth (annual %) in Bangladesh
GDP growth (annual %)

9
0
1992
2011
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
87
Trends in Economic Growth in India
Figure No. 3.41 shows the trend of economic growth rate in India. It ranges from 6.73% in
1980 to -6.59% in 2020. The maximum and minimum growth rate has been recorded in 1988
and 2020 respectively.
downs in the economy. Most of the downfall of the GDPG has the most plausible reason
behind it for example 1% growth in 1991 when India was facing massive internal and
external economic challenges and 3% growth of GDP in 2008 due to Subprime Crisis. The
impact of COVID-19 on Indian economy is evident by the -6.9% growth rate of the GDP. A
reasonable and stable growth of the GDPG is evident during 2003 to 2007 when the GDP
growth rate remains around 7%.
Figure No. 3.41: GDP Growth (annual %) in India

12
10
0
1990
2010
2011
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
-2
-4
-6
-8
88
Trends in Economic Growth in Nepal
Figure No. 3.42 shows the trend of economic growth of GDP. It ranges from -2.31% in 1980
to -2.36% in 2020. The maximum and minimum growth rate has been recorded in 1984 and
1983 respectively.
downs in the economy. Most of the downfall of the GDPG have the most plausible reason
behind it for example -2.31% growth in 1980 and -2.97% growth in 1983 when Nepal was
facing massive internal economic challenges like food crisis and in 2002 growth rate of
GDPG was reported 0.21% due to stagnant non-agricultural activities with particularly
manufacturing and tourism sector. In 2016 growth rate of GDP was only 0.43% due to the 7.8
magnitude earthquake in April, 2015. The impact of COVID-19 on Nepali‘s economy is
evident by the -2.3% growth rate of the GDPG.
Figure No. 3.42: GDP Growth (annual %) in Nepal

12
10
0
1980
2000
2007
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
-2
-4
89
Trends in Economic Growth in Pakistan
Figure No. 3.43 shows the trend of growth of GDP. It ranges from 10.21% in 1980 to -1.32%
in 2020. The maximum and minimum growth rate has been recorded in 1980 and 2020
respectively.
behind it for example 1.75% growth in 1993 and 0.01% growth in 1997 due to political
instability, widespread corruption and lack of law enforcement hamper investment and
foreign aid when Pakistan was facing massive internal and external economic challenges and
1.70% growth of GDP in 2008 due to Subprime Crisis. The impact of COVID-19 on
Pakistani economy is evident by the -1.32% growth rate of the GDP. A reasonable and stable
growth of the GDP is evident during 1980 to 1992 when the GDP growth rate remains around
7%.
Figure No. 3.43: GDP Growth (annual %) in Pakistan

12
10
0
1990
2010
2011
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
-2
90
Trends in Economic Growth in Sri Lanka
Figure No. 3.44 shows the trend of economic growth of GDP. It ranges from 5.84% in 1980
to -3.61% in 2020. The maximum and minimum growth rate has been recorded in 2012 and
2020 respectively.
behind it for example 1.72% growth in 1987 when Sri Lanka was facing massive internal and
external economic challenges and -1.54% growth of GDP in 2001 is due to hit by series of
global and domestic economic problems and was affected by the Tamil Tiger terrorist attack
on Sri Lankan international airport and military air force base. The impact of COVID-19 on
Sri Lankan economy is evident by the -3.6% growth rate of the GDP. A reasonable and stable
growth of the GDP is evident during 2003 to 2012 when the GDP growth rate remains around
6.4%.
Figure No. 3.44: GDP Growth rate (annual %) in Sri Lanka

10
0
1990
2006
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
-2
-4
-6
91
Trends in Economic Growth in South Asian Countries
As shown in the figure No. 3.45 the trend of GDPG is not steady and shows various ups and
downs in the economy. According to the World Bank report (2017), between year 2013 and
2016 in South Asian country‘s economic growth increased from 6.2 percent to 7.5 percent
while other developing countries faced flat or even negative economic growth. In the recent
years, Bangladesh has emerged as a leading manufacturer of textile products and become a
frontrunner in South Asian countries. The impact of COVID-19 on Indian economy is evident
by the % growth rate of the GDP. A reasonable and stable growth of the GDP is evident
during 2003 to 2007 when the GDP growth rate remains around 7%. Sri Lanka also faced
shaped decline in economic growth due to Covid-19 and constant rise in foreign debt and also
economy experienced ethical tension of separatist movement in the minority of Tamil
community.
Figure No. 3.45: GDP Growth rate (Annual %) in South Asia

12
10
0
1988
1993
2017
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1989
1990
1991
1992
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2018
2019
2020
-2
-4
-6
-8
92
93
Trends in Gross Fixed Capital Formation in Bangladesh
Figure No. 3.46 shows the trend of gross fixed capital formation as a percentage of GDP in
Bangladesh. The gross fixed capital formation ranges from 14.43% in 1980 to 31.30% in
2020, the maximum and minimum were recorded in 2019 and 1980 (32.21% and 14.43%)
respectively.
As shown in the figure no. 3.46 the trend of gross fixed capital formation is increasing over
the period of time in the economy. In 2017, gross fixed capital formation for Bangladesh was
30.94%. Gross fixed capital formation of Bangladesh has increased from 22.12% in 1998 to
30.93% in 2017.
Figure No. 3.46: Gross Fixed Capital Formation (% of GDP) in Bangladesh
Gross fixed capital formation (% of GDP)

35
30
25
20
15
10
0
1990
2010
2011
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
94
Trends in Gross Fixed Capital Formation in India
India. The gross fixed capital formation ranges from 19.67% in 1980 to 26.58% in 2020, the
maximum and minimum levels were recorded in 2007 and 1980 (35.81% and 19.67%)
respectively.
As shown in the figure no. 3.47 the trend of gross fixed capital formation is increasing
initially but it has been decreasing since 2007. After independence, the capital formation in
India was just 0.41 % (NAS, 2011 NAS back series 1950-51 to 2004-05), it rose to about
36% in 2007. This growth seems to be pretty remarkable. One can realise a declining trend in
capital formation since 2010-11. Systematic and regular attempts have been made after the
economic reforms in 1991 to attract other sources of investment like foreign direct
investment to meet up the growing requirement of the production. Although these attempts
did not prove adequate and there are contradictory views upon the role of foreign investment
for capital formation.
Figure No. 3.47: Gross Fixed Capital Formation (% of GDP) in India

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
1983
1990
2019
1980
1981
1982
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2020
95
Trends in Gross Fixed Capital Formation in Nepal
Nepal. The gross fixed capital formation ranges from 15.76% in 1980 to 30.46% in 2020, the
maximum and minimum were recorded in 2019 and 1981 (33.81% and 15.74%) respectively.
As shown in the figure no. 3.48 the trend of gross fixed capital formation is increasing but bit
steady in the economy. Systematic and regular attempts have been made after the 1999 and a
constant increase has observed of 33.81% in 2019. It is the highest value over the past 45
year.
Figure No. 3.48: Gross Fixed Capital Formation (% of GDP) in Nepal
Nepla
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
2007
2008
2009
2010
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
96
Trends in Gross Fixed Capital Formation in Pakistan
Pakistan. As shown in the figure no. 3.49 the trend of gross fixed capital formation is not
steady and has faced ups and down in the economy. The gross fixed capital formation ranges
from 16.81% in 1980 to 13.27% in 2020, the maximum and minimum were recorded in 1993
and 2011 (19.11% and 12.52%) respectively. This progress of gross fixed capital formal
appears to be fairly inspiring. One can see a decreasing trend in capital formation since 1998
and 2011.
Figure No. 3.49: Gross Fixed Capital Formation (% of GDP) in Pakistan

25
20
15
10
0
1986
2008
2015
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
97
Trends in Gross Fixed Capital Formation in Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka. The gross fixed capital formation ranges from 31.33% in 1980 to 25.39% in 2020,
the maximum and minimum were recorded in 1980 and 2011 (31.33% and 20.03%)
respectively. As shown in the figure no. 3.50 the trend of gross fixed capital formation is not
steady and has faced ups and down in the economy.
Figure No. 3.50: Gross Fixed Capital Formation (% of GDP) in Sri Lanka

35
30
25
20
15
10
0
1987
2003
2019
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2020
98
Trends in Gross Fixed Capital Formation in South Asian Countries
Figure No. 3.51 shows the trend of gross fixed capital formation for the South Asian
countries. Gross fixed capital formation is showing an increasing trend till 2007 afterwards it
has started falling. Trend of gross fixed capital formation in Bangladesh shows a constant
increase over the period of time. In Nepal also it shows an increasing trend after 1999.
Pakistan faced a sharp decline since 1993. In all of five countries India has a good and
increasing capital formation and Nepal has the least capital formation.
Figure No. 3.51: Gross Fixed Capital Formation (% of GDP) in South Asia
Bangladehs Inida Nepla Pakistan Sri Lanka

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
1980
2004
2015
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
99
100
Trends in Population Growth in Bangladesh
Figure No. 3.52 shows the trend of annual percentage of population growth in Bangladesh. It
ranges from 2.68% in 1980 to 1% in 2020. The maximum and minimum growth rate has been
recorded in 1980 and 2020 respectively.
Bangladesh shows a declining trend. One can see a sharp declining trend between 1998 and
2009 in population growth. According to Bora et al. 2023, UN Report 2022 says decreasing
population growth rate in Bangladesh is a result of low level of fertility due to female
education and family planning programmes.
Figure No. 3.52: Population Growth (Annual %) in Bangladesh
Population growth (annual %)

3
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
1989
2005
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
101
Trends in Population Growth in India
Figure No. 3.53 shows the trend of annual percentage of population growth in India. It ranges
from 2.30% in 1980 to 0.98% in 2020. The maximum and minimum growth rate has been
recorded in 1982 and 2020 respectively.
India shows a declining trend. One can see a sharp declining trend in population growth since
1981. According to National Institute of Health, Family planning measures and late marriages
are leading to decline in the birth rate.
Figure No. 3.53: Population Growth Rate (Annual %) in India

2.5
1.5
0.5
0
2002
2008
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
102
Trends in Population Growth in Nepal
Figure No. 3.54 shows the trend of annual population growth in Nepal. It ranges from 2.30%
in 1980 to 0.98% in 2020. The maximum and minimum growth rate has been recorded in
1993 and 2013 respectively. Nepal shows a fluctuating trend regarding population growth.
One can see a sharp declining trend in population growth and even a negative population
growth rate from 2012 to 2014. According to Nepal Demographic and Health Survey 2006,
the main reason behind the slow growth in population appears to be outward migration of
Nepal is for jobs and studies.
Total fertility rate has also declined in the country. According to a report of national planning
commission of Nepal, during the 1980-2015 total fertility rate has declined by more than half,
from 5.62 children per women in 1980-1985 to 2.32 children per women in 2010-2015.
Figure No. 3.54: Population Growth (Annual %) in Nepal

3
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
1995
2003
2011
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
-0.5
103
Trends in Population Growth in Pakistan
Figure No. 3.55 shows the trend of annual percentage of population growth in Pakistan. It
ranges from 3.24% in 1980 to 1.97% in 2020. The maximum and minimum growth rate has
been recorded in 1983 and 2020 respectively. Pakistan shows a declining trend over the
period of time.
Overpopulation is one of the key issues in Pakistan as it is now the fifth most populous
country in the world. According Dorling (2021), the United Nations World Population
prospects 2019, population of Pakistan is projected to reach 262.96 million in 2030. High
fertility rate, inadequate sexual education and lack of birth control provision are the major
reason for high population growth in Pakistan.
Figure No. 3.55: Population Growth (Annual %) in Pakistan

4
3.5
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
1996
2019
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2020
104
Trends in Population Growth in Sri Lanka
Figure No. 3.56 shows the trend of annual percentage of population growth in Sri Lanka. It
ranges from 1.65% in 1980 to 0.53% in 2020. The maximum and minimum growth rate has
been recorded in 1980 and 2012 respectively. Sri Lanka shows a fluctuating trend over the
period of time. One can see a sharp declining trend in population growth in 1998 and 2012.
Sri Lanka has witnessed rapid demographic transition since 1988. Manel (2023) due to
fertility decline and extended life expectancy, population in Sri Lanka has transformed from a
phase with high fertility, high mortality and low natural growth to a phase with low fertility,
low mortality and low natural growth.
Figure No. 3.56: Population Growth (Annual %) in Sri Lanka

1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1981
1986
1991
1996
2001
2006
2011
2016
1980
1982
1983
1984
1985
1987
1988
1989
1990
1992
1993
1994
1995
1997
1998
1999
2000
2002
2003
2004
2005
2007
2008
2009
2010
2012
2013
2014
2015
2017
2018
2019
2020
105
Trends in Population Growth in South Asian Countries
Figure No. 3.57 shows the trend of annual percentage of population growth for South Asian
countries. Among the region Nepal shows the highest growth rate and rest of the countries
show the moderate growth rate of population.
Pakistan has reported with the extremely population growth rate in the region because to high
fertility rate, inadequate sexual education and birth control provision. If we focus on the
country with lowest population growth in the region Sri Lanka is the one. Remaining
countries like Bangladesh and India is showing more or less same level of trend of population
growth whereas, Nepal is showing fluctuating trend of population growth in the selected
countries.
Figure No. 3.57: Population Growth (Annual %) in South Asia
Bangladehs Inida Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka

4
3.5
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
-0.5
106
The present chapter represents the trends in gender inequality indicators in South Asian
countries during 1980 to 2020. Trends in gender inequality in health, education and labour
force indicators have been discussed. The trend of gender inequality index also has been
discussed. The trend of gander inequality indicators shows the importance of health,
education and labour force equality in the society.
In South Asian region all the countries show a female to male ratio of life expectancy above
one except Bangladesh before year 1991 reflecting that life expectancy of female is
exceeding the life expectancy of male meaning that female is living longer than male. If we
see gender inequality in infant mortality rate, all of the countries show a ratio below one,
except India only before 1997 reflecting that infant mortality for males exceeds females. In
India females are facing more infant deaths comparison to males. Rest of the countries are
facing more or less same level of gender inequality in terms of infant mortality rate.
Trend of female and male primary school enrolment is increasing in case of Bangladesh and
Pakistan, whereas Sri Lanka shows more or less constant trend. In case of India primary
School enrolment has an increasing trend for female but trend of male primary school
enrolment is fluctuating over the period of time. Trend of female and male secondary school
enrolment ratio shows an increasing trend for all countries. Tertiary school enrolment ratio
shows an increasing trend for Bangladesh, India, and Sri Lanka and a fluctuating trend has
been observed for Nepal and Pakistan.
Gender inequality in labour force shows a ratio below one for all countries, reflecting that
labour force participation rate for male exceeds female. However, gender inequality in labour
force participation still persists.
Sri Lanka is having lowest value of gender inequality index which means it is having less
inequality on the basis of gender. Bangladesh, India and Pakistan are having more or less
same level of gender inequality.
107
CHAPTER - 4
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GENDER
INEQUALITY AND ECONOMIC
GROWTH: EMPIRICAL FINDINGS
CHAPTER - 4
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GENDER INEQUALITY AND

ECONOMIC GROWTH IN SOUTH ASIA: EMPIRICAL
FINDINGS
This chapter presents the empirical findings on the relationship between gender inequality
and economic growth in South Asian economies namely; Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan,
and Sri Lanka during 1980-2020. Towards this objective the empirical estimation strategy
includes three steps; first, testing the stationarity of the variables using Unit Root Tests such
as Levin et al. (2002) [LLC], Im et al. (2003) [IPS], Augmented Dickey Fuller [ADF] and
Phillips and Perron (1988) [PP]. Second, panel ARDL-PMG approach of cointegration by
Pesaran et al. (1999) to examine the long run and short run association of variables has been
employed. Third, to test for the direction of causality between gender inequality and
economic growth Granger Causality method has been employed.
This chapter is divided into six sections. Section 4.1 briefly presents the description of the
selected variables for the study and model specified to examine the relationship between
gender inequality and economic growth. Section 4.2 presents the descriptive statistics of the
selected variables and correlation matrix. Section 4.3 presents the stationarity status of the
variables. Section 4.4 presents the empirical findings on the relationship between gender
inequality and economic growth. Section 4.5 presents the direction of the causality among
selected variables. The concluding section 4.6 summarizes the findings of this chapter.
4.1 Model Specification

Following Khan et al. (2016), the model used to capture the empirical relationship between
gender inequality and economic growth in South Asian economies for 1980-2020 is as
follows:
g = α1 + β1GI+ β2GFCF+β3PG+ε1
In this equation g refers growth rate of GDP, GI is the gender inequality indicator in three
dimensions i.e health, education and labour force participation, GFCF is the gross fixed
capital formation, PG is the population growth rate and ε1 is the error term.
108
From the knowledge of previously available literature, Dollar and Gatti (1999), Klasen
(2002), and Khan et al. (2016) study have used female to male ratio of health indicators to
measure gender inequality in health, female to male ratio of education indicators to measure
gender inequality in education, and female to male ratio of labour force indicators to measure
gender inequality in labour force.
Table No. 4.2: Correlation between Indicators of Gender Inequality in Health and
GDPG
GDPG RLR RIM GFCF PG
GDPG 1
RLE -0.01 1
RIM -0.23 -0.46 1
GFCF 0.24 0.37 0.35 1
PG -0.01 -0.69 0.17 -0.64 1
Table No. 4.3: Correlation between Indicators of Gender Inequality in Education and
GDPG
GDPG RPE RSE RTE GFCG PG
GDPG 1
RPE -0.09 1
RSE -0.07 0.91 1
RTE -0.05 0.57 0.67 1
GFCF 0.21 0.66 0.66 0.69 1
PG -0.02 -0.85 -0.84 -0.59 -0.65 1
109
Table No. 4.4: Correlation between Indicators of Gender Inequality in Labour Force
Participation and GDPG
GDPG RLFP GCGF PG
GDPG 1
RLFP -0.04 1
GFCG 0.31 0.14 1
PG -0.08 -0.31 -0.57 1
As presented in table no. 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4 negative correlation coefficients are highlighted in
red colour and positive correlation coefficients are highlighted in blue colour. In each colour
the darker shades represent strong correlation while lighter shades represent weak correlation.
It can be observed from the table that most of the variables are negatively correlated.
4.2 Descriptive Statistics

To gain insights of the nature of variable we use descriptive statistics. Table no. 4.5 shows
the descriptive statistical analysis of the selected variables in South Asian countries over the
period of time from 1980-2020.
110
Table No. 4.5: Descriptive Statistics of the Variables
GDPG RLE RIM RPE RSE RTE RLFP GII CFCF PG
Mean 5.36 1.04 0.89 0.94 0.87 0.81 0.48 0.57 23.78 1.45
Median 5.14 1.03 0.85 0.97 0.89 0.72 0.36 0.56 25.59 1.34
Max. 9.14 1.10 1.03 1.16 1.16 1.78 0.96 0.75 35.81 2.95
Mini. 0.12 0.99 0.80 0.53 0.41 0.19 0.13 0.36 12.52 -0.26
Std. Dev. 2.03 0.02 0.07 0.13 0.18 0.35 0.26 0.10 6.20 0.65
Skewness -0.22 1.67 0.90 -0.84 -0.63 0.92 0.92 -0.12 -0.20 -0.15
Kurtosis 2.71 4.74 2.13 3.84 2.76 3.69 2.18 1.98 2.01 2.83
Jarque- 0.69 35.57 10.04 8.89 4.13 9.82 10.27 6.85 2.85 0.31
Bera
0.70 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.24 0.85
p-value
111
Table no. 4.5 represents the descriptive statistics of the variables for the time period 1980-
2020. It includes value of central tendency (i.e., mean and median) of the variables. Skewness
and kurtosis exhibit the normality property of the variables. Skewness is the tilt in the
distribution and the value within the -2 and +2 range exhibits the normally distributed series.
The skewness of a symmetric distribution, such as the normal distribution, is zero. Kurtosis is
the peakedness or flatness of the distribution of the series and the value within the -3 and +3
range exhibits the normally distributed series. The Jarque-Bera test statistics tests the
normality of the series. It is the mean-based coefficients of skewness and kurtosis. It
measures the difference of the skewness and kurtosis of the series with those from the normal
distribution. The null hypothesis of normality against the alternative hypothesis of non-
normality has been tested. If the probability value is less than Jarque-Bera chi-square at the
5% level of significance, we fail to reject the null hypothesis for GDPG, RSE, GFCF and PG
variables which satisfy the normality criteria and follow the normal distribution.
4.3 Cross-Sectional Dependence

Before employing the unit root test, the existence of cross-sectional dependence will be
tested. To examine cross sectional dependence, Lagrange Multiplier LM test by Breusch
Pegan is applies.
Table No. 4.6: The Result of LM Test for Cross Sectional Dependence
Variables LM statistic
GDPG 32.14***
RLE 246.14***
RIM 142.82***
RPE 182.22***
RSE 206.65***
RTE 132.12***
RLFP 163.52***
GII 239.78***
GFCF 104.58***
PG 255.87***
*** show the level of significance at 1%.
112
The result of LM test for cross-sectional dependence test are summarised in table No.4.6. The
null hypothesis: no cross-sectional dependence. The probability value of all the series is
statistically significant at 1% significance level, meaning that less than 0.05 which reject the
null hypothesis of no cross-sectional hypothesis and summarised that there is a presence of
cross-sectional dependence.
4.4 Stationarity of the Variables

In order to set the step for panel regression investigation, the series are subject to examination
of unit root. For that purpose, Levin et al. (2002) [LLC], Im et al. (2003) [IPS], Augmented
Dickey Fuller (ADF), Phillips and Perron (1988) [PP] and second generation of IPS (CIPS)
by Pesaran (2007) tests have been used. For all the tests, the null hypothesis is presence of a
unit root.
113
Table No. 4.7: The Result of Unit Root Tests: Series in Level
-3.46*** -2.64*** -1.93 -0.92 -0.87 0.69 -0.93 1.03 -0.08 -3.89***
LLC (0.0003) (0.0041) (0.0262) (0.17777) (0.1911) (0.7557) (0.1753) (0.8505) (0.4662) (0.0000)
-7.34*** 2.20*** 1.74 0.98 1.59 2.59 0.26 2.31 0.29 5.08***
IPS (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0406) (0.8381) (0.9447) (0.9952) (0.3962) (0.9896) (0.6161) (0.0000)
70.08*** 21.95*** 20.74 9.27 6.20 2.32 31.51 2.73 9.51 29.33***
ADF (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0230) (0.5062) (0.7982) (0.9932) (0.0005) (0.9870) (0.4839) (0.0000)
67.70*** 30.09*** 15.51 9.96 7.92 2.61 19.86 2.02 10.55 58.42***
PP (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.1143) (0.4436) (0.6365) (0.9891) (0.0305) (0.9961) (0.3930) (0.0000)
-4.10*** -2.73*** -0.80 -4.22 -1.52 -2.46 -2.65*** -2.57 -2.64*** -2.56***
CIPS
The values in brackets showing corresponding p values

*** show the level of significance at 1%.
114
Table No. 4.8: The Result of Unit Root Tests: Series in First Difference
-15.02 -3.25 -6.63*** -6.13*** -9.58*** -8.95*** -4.32*** -3.02** -9.78*** 3.40
LLC (0.0000) (0.0006) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0012) (0.0000) (0.0000)
-17.21 -2.90 -7.19*** -7.00*** -8.90*** -6.65*** -6.08*** -3.23** -11.02*** -4.07
IPS (0.0000) (0.0019) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0016) (0.0000) (0.0000)
158.78 31.85 74.79*** 64.79*** 78.17*** 58.75*** 56.80*** 39.59*** 110.94*** 40.33
ADF (0.0000) (0.0004) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000)
146.91 10.22 73.98*** 80.92*** 79.60*** 60.42*** 61.29*** 54.98*** 134.66*** 47.10
PP (0.0000) (0.4206) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000) (0.0000)
-5.14 -3.10 -4.02*** -5.25*** -2.80*** -3.06*** -2.65 -3.69*** -5.46 -3.13
CIPS
The values in brackets showing corresponding p values

*** shows the level of significance at 1% and ** shows the level of significance at 5%.
115
Panel unit root tests result of LLC, IPS, ADF, PP, and CIPS are summarised in Table No. 4.7
and 4.8. As shown from the table series are stationary of different orders. GDPG, RLE and
PG are stationary at level, hence are I(0) and reaming variables i.e., RIM, RPE, RSE, RTE,
RLFP, GII and GFCF are stationary at first difference, hence integrated of order I(1). LLC,
IPS, ADF and PP stationarity test also discover that no variables are integrated of order I(2).
According to second generation CIPS panel unit root test, GDPG, RLE, RLFP, GFCF, and
PG reactionary at level. Series such as RIM, RPE, RSE, RTE, and GII are stationary at first
difference hence I(1) based on CIPS. Since some variables are I(0) and some are I(1) led to
use of ARDL-PMG approach to co-integration.
4.5 Results of Panel Auto Regressive Distributed Lag Based on Pooled

Mean Group (ARDL-PMG) Approach to Co integration
The objective of this study is to empirically examine the relationship between gender
inequality in health, education and labour force and economic growth in selected South Asian
countries during 1980 - 2020. The ARDL-PMG approach, presented by Pesaran et al. (1999)
has been used to explore short run and long run dynamics. The ARDL-PMG approach allows
for short and long run relationships and can be identified as an error correction model. The
ARDL method is more relevant because it can be used irrespective of integration order of the
series, whether integration of variables is on level or level and first difference except in case
of second difference. In addition, this technique gives reliable and efficient estimation results
since it removes the problem of endogeneity by incorporating lag length for both dependent
and independent variables.
116
Table no. 4.9, 4.10 and 4.11 represents the result of short run and long run coefficient of
gender inequality in health and economic growth using health indicators alternatively.
Table No. 4.9: PMG Long Run and ECM Estimates Results
(GDPG is dependent variable)
Variables Coefficient t-statistics p-value
Long run
RLE -63.81** -2.22 0.02

RIM -6.95 1.46 0.14
GFCF 0.24*** 4.57 0.00
PG -1.32** -2.22 0.02
Short run
ECT(-1) -1.64*** -3.19 0.00

(GDPG(-1)) 0.45 1.41 0.16
(GDPG(-2)) 0.06 1.41 0.66
(RLE) 12311.16 0.43 0.05
(RLE(-1)) -21.96*** 1.93 0.00
(RLE(-2)) 12987.48 -2.32 0.22
(RLE(-3)) 16570.43 0.82 0.40
(RIM) -147.14 -1.38 0.16
(RIM(-1)) -95.99 -0.76 0.44
(RIM(-2)) -113.19 -1.03 0.30
(RIM(-3)) -57.78 -0.40 0.68
(GFCF) 0.48*** 2.70 0.00
(GFCF(-1)) -0.04** 2.20 0.02
(GFCF(-2)) -0.17 -0.21 0.83
(GFCF(-3)) -0.05 -0.66 0.50
(PG) 110.37 -0.99 0.32
(PG(-1)) -58.09 -1.21 0.22
(PG(-2)) 110.37 -0.99 0.32
(PG(-3)) -63.20 1.05 0.29
Constant 108.11** 3.21 0.00
Note: is the first difference operator
*** Level of significance: 1%; ** level of significance: 5%; * level of significance: 10%
Table No.4.9 shows the findings of long run and short run effect of gender inequality in
health on economic growth using ARDL-PMG estimator. The findings of the estimation
confirms the presence of a long run association between variables, because the adjustment
coefficient value (error correction term) is negative and statistically significant at 1% level of
significance. This result proves that the process coverage over the long run. The speed of
117
adjustment is perceived to be high at 1.64 %. The study reveals the negative and significant
impact of RLE on GDPG in both short and long run. Consequently 1 % increase in RLE
decreases GDPG by 63.81% and 21.96 % over the long run and short run, respectively.
However, RIM has a negative impact of GDPG in the both long and short run. A 1 %
increase in RIM decreases GDPG by 6.95% over the long run and 27.96 % over the short run.
GFCF has a positive and significant impact on GDPG in both long and short run. A 1 %
increase in GFCF increases GDPG by 0.24 % in long run and 0.48 % in short run. PG has a
negative and significant impact on GDPG in long run. A 1 % increase in PG decreases GDPG
by 1.39 %.
(RLE is dependent variable)
Long run
GDPG -0.06*** -3.95 0.00

GFCF -0.02*** -7.81 0.00
PG 0.09*** 3.63 0.00
Short run
ECT(-1) -0.02 -0.70 0.48

D(RLE(-1)) 0.95*** 32.07 0.00
(GDPG) -0.00 -0.63 0.52
(GDPG(-1)) -0.00 -0.66 0.50
(GFCF) -0.00 -0.99 0.32
(GFCF(-1)) -0.00 -0.62 0.53
(PG) -0.00 -0.68 0.49
(PG(-1)) -0.00 -1.21 0.22
Constant 0.45** 6.71 0.00
As shown in Table No. 4.10, the findings of the estimation prove the presence of a long run
association, because the adjustment coefficient (error correction term) is negative. When,
RLE is taken as a dependent variable. Study reveals that, GDPG, GFCF and PG have a
negative and significant impact on RLE in long run. Consequently, 1 % increase in GDPG
decreases RLE by 0.06 %, 1 % increase in GFCF decreases RLE by 0.02 % and 1 % increase
in PG decrease RLE by 0.09 %, in long run.
118
(RIM is dependent variable)
Long run
GDPG -0.01* -1.67 0.09

GFCF -0.01 -0.45 0.65
PG -0.03*** -3.99 0.00
Short run
ECT(-1) -0.17 -0.89 0.37

(GDPG) -0.01 -0.74 0.45
(GFCF) -0.03** -2.35 0.02
(PG) 0.06 0.98 0.32
Constant 0.06 0.67 0.50
Table No. 4.11 shows the result of the estimates prove the presence of a long run relationship,
as the adjustment coefficient (error correction term) is negative. GDPG, GFCF and PG have a
negative effect on RIM in both long and short run. 1% increase in GDPG decreases RIM by
0.002 % in long run only and 1% increase in GFCF decreases RIM by 2.35 % in short run.
119
Table no 4.12, 4.13 and 4.14 represents the result of country wise short run estimates of
gender inequality in health and economic growth using health indicators alternatively.
Table No. 4.12: ARDL-PMG Short Run Estimates Results Country Wise
Country Variables Coefficient t-statistics
ECT(-1) -1.73*** -12.60
(0.0011)
(GDPG(-1)) 0.35** 4.60
(0.0192)
(RLE) -2136.32 -0.00
(0.9 997)
Bangladesh (RIM) -68.10 -0.02
(0.9792)
(GFCF) 0.34** 5.78
(0.0103)
(PG(-1)) -70.92 -0.13
(0.9027)
ECT(-1) -2.023*** -8.90
(0.0030)
(GDPG(-1)) 0.81*** 6.44
(0.0076)
(RLE(-1)) -40886.58 -0.00
(0.9999)
India (RIM) -69.63 -0.02
(0.9842)
(GFCF) 0.72*** 8.58
(0.0033)
(PG) -286.59 -0.01
(0.9922)
ECT(-1) -3.09*** -14.66
(0.0007)
(GDPG(-1)) 1.31*** 13.21
(0.0009)
(RLE(-1)) -45870.95 -0.00
(0.9999)
Nepal (RIM) -568.84 -0.03
(0.9772)
(GFCF(-1)) -0.664360*** -5.89
(0.0098)
(PG) -13.78 -0.09
(0.9284)
ECT(-1) -1.48*** -9.90
(0.0022)
(GDPG(-1)) 0.38** 4.31
(0.0230)
(RLE(-1)) -19681.41 -0.00
(0.9999)
120
Pakistan (RIM) -2.10 -3.22
(1.0000)
(GFCF) 0.65*** 7.10
(0.0057)
(PG) -32.89 -0.03
(0.9711)
ECT(-1) 0.10 1.62
(0.2021)
(GDPG(-1)) -0.61*** -11.72
(0.0013)
(RLE(-1)) -5269.57 -0.00
(0.9990)
(RIM) -27.04 -0.10
Sri Lanka (0.9263)
(GFCF) 1.00*** 35.09
(0.0001)
(PG) -2.12 -0.92
(0.4233)
(RLE is dependent variable)
ECT(-1) 0.02*** 18007.62
(0.0000)
(RLE(-1)) 1.03*** 2463.66
(0.0000)
(GDPG(-1)) 0.01*** 37878.55
(0.0000)
Bangladesh (GFCF) -0.01*** -20400.55
(0.0001)
(PG(-1)) -0.02*** 695.26
(0.0000)
ECT(-1) 0.05*** 3639.69
(0.0000)
(RLE(-1)) 0.91*** 425.35
(0.0000)
(GDPG(-1)) 0.02*** 25034.83
(0.0006)
India (GFCF) 0.01*** 32916.13
(0.0000)
(PG(-1)) -0.06*** -37.73
(0.0000)
ECT(-1) -0.01*** -38409.06
(0.0000)
(RLE(-1)) 0.98*** 6441.95
(0.0000)
121
(GDPG(-1)) -0.06*** -602636.7
(0.0000)
Nepal (GFCF(-1)) 0.03*** -328687.2
(0.0000)
(PG(-1)) -0.01*** -20282.l2
(0.0000)
ECT(-1) 0.09*** 32872.51
(0.0000)
(RLE(-1)) 0.98*** 501.22
(0.0000)
(GDPG(-1)) 0.01*** 117538.89
(0.0000)
Pakistan (GFCF) 0.01*** 78652.81
(0.0000)
(PG(-1)) -0.08*** -520.31
(0.0000)
ECT(-1) -0.03*** -5502.46
(0.0000)
(RLE) 0.86*** 613.44
(0.0000)
(GDPG(-1)) 0.01*** -34685.78
(0.0000)
(GFCF) -0.03*** 045556.43
Sri Lanka (0.0000)
(PG(-1)) -0.01*** -35.05
(0.0000)
(RIM is dependent variable)
ECT(-1) -0.13*** -18.47
(0.0003)
(GDPG) 0.03*** 8.72
Bangladesh (0.0000)
(GFCF) 0.01*** 4.92
(0.0000)
(PG) 0.02*** 32.72
(0.0001)
ECT(-1) -0.02** -10.23
(0.0020)
(GDPG) 0.09*** 6.27
India (0.0000)
(GFCF) 0.03*** 16.20
(0.0000)
(PG) 0.33*** 31.75
(0.0000)
122
ECT(-1) 0.21*** 41.07
(0.0000)
(GDPG) 0.01*** 16.51
Nepal (0.0000)
(GFCF) 0.03*** 7.29
(0.0000)
(PG) 0.00*** 19.16
(0.0000)
ECT(-1) -0.02*** -10.23
(0.0020)
(GDPG) 0.04*** 6.27
Pakistan (0.0000)
(GFCF) 0.03*** 15.20
(0.0000)
(PG) 0.33*** 31.75
(0.0001)
ECT(-1) -0.94*** -40.30
(0.0000)
(GDPG) -0.07*** -17.48
Sri Lanka (0.0000)
(GFCF) 0.03*** 6.36
(0.0000)
(PG) 0.02*** 27.77
(0.0000)
Table No. 4.12, 4.13 and 4.14 represents the feedback of coefficients and ECT. In this section
we have examined the short run estimates of variables country wise.
In Table No. 4.12 when GDPG is the dependent variables. Bangladesh, India, Nepal and
Pakistan have a negative and significant ECT which implies explanatory variables to adjust
back to equilibrium. In Table No. 4.13, when RLE is dependent variables. Nepal and Sri
Lanka only have a negative and significant ECT which implies explanatory variables to
adjust back to equilibrium. In Table No. 4.14, when RIM is the dependent variable.
Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka have a negative and significant ECT which
implies independent variables to correct back to equilibrium. Coefficient of RLE and RIM are
having a negative but insignificant effect on GDPG in every economy in Table No. 4.12, it
implies that is does have any significant effect on GDPG in short run. A positive and
significant relationship found among GFCF and GDPG in all economies, meaning that capital
stock in economies boosting the growth of the economy.
123
Table no. 4.15, 4.16, 4.17 and 4.18 represents the result of short run and long run coefficient
of gender inequality in education and economic growth using education indicators
alternatively.
Long run
RPE -7.60 -0.96 0.33

RSE -8.51*** -4.56 0.00
RTE -19.38* -1.88 0.06
GFCF 0.75*** 10.86 0.00
PG -2.02** -3.18 0.00
Short run
ECT(-1) -0.97*** -5.62 0.00

D(GDPG) 0.01* 0.00 0.09
D(GDPG(-1)) -0.13 -0.66 0.50
D(RPE) -5.99 -0.97 0.33
D(RPE(-1)) -19.31** -2.35 0.02
D(RSE) 24.87 1.37 0.17
D(RSE(-1)) -2.20* -1.83 0.06
D(RTE) -2.94 -0.54 0.58
D(RTE(-1)) -6.59* -0.43 0.06
D(GFCF) 0.76** 2.03 0.04
D(GFCF(-1)) -0.17 -0.57 0.56
D(PG) 26.95* 1.98 0.05
D(PG(-1)) -28.14* -1.69 0.09
Constant 8.24*** 4.78 0.00
Table No. 4.15 shows the finding of long run and short run effect of gender inequality in
education on economic growth using ARDL-PMG estimator. The outcome of the estimation
confirms the presence of a long run association, as the adjustment coefficient (error
correction term) is negative and statistically significant at 1 % level of significance. PECM
result shows that following a deviation from the equilibrium due to shock, it will take about
0.97 % of the independent variables to adjust back to equilibrium. The speed of adjustment is
supposed to be high at 1.97 %. Study reveals that RSE, RTE and PG have a negative and
significant effect on GDPG in both in long and short term. Consequently 1 % increase in RSE
decreases GDPG by 8.51% and 2.20 % in the long run and short run respectively. Likewise, 1
124
% increase in RTE decreases GDPG by 19.38 % and 6.59 % over the long run and short run,
respectively. And 1 % increase in PG decreases GDPG by 2.02 % and 28.24 % over the long
run and short run, respectively. GFCF has a positive and significant impact on GDPG in both
long and short run. A 1 % increase in GFCF increases GDPG by 0.75 % in long run and 0.76
% in short run.
(RPE is dependent variable)
Long run
GDPG -0.01*** -19.74 0.00

GFCF -0.03*** -52.10 0.00
PG -0.46*** -141.49 0.01
Short run
ECT(-1) -0.86 -1.02 0.30

D(RPE(-1)) 0.19 0.55 0.58
D(GDPG) -0.01 -1.21 0.22
D(GDPG(-1)) -0.01 -1.08 0.28
D(GFCF) 0.03 0.92 0.35
D(GFCF(-1)) 0.01 0.87 0.38
D(PG) -0.30 -0.74 0.45
D(PG(-1)) 0.08 0.25 0.79
Constant 2.0 1.03 0.30
*** Level of significance: 1%
Table No. 4.16 shows the results of long run and short run effect of GDPG on gender
inequality in primary education using ARDL-PMG estimator. Study reveals that GDPG,
GFCF and PG have a negative and significant effect on RPE in long run. Consequently 1 %
increase in GDPG decreases RPE by 0.01%. Likewise, 1 % increase in GFCF decreases RPE
by 0.03 % and 1 % increase in PG decreases RPE by 0.46%.
125
(RSE is dependent variable)
Long run
GDPG -0.01*** -3.21 0.00

GFCF -0.02*** 12.42 0.00
PG -0.05 -1.54 0.12
Short run
ECT(-1) -0.43 -1.63 0.10

D(RSE(-1)) -0.25** -2.42 0.01
D(GDPG) 0.0003 0.06 0.94
D(GDPG(-1)) 0.001 1.22 0.22
D(GFCF) 0.001* 0.09 0.92
D(GFCF(-1)) -0.003* -0.48 0.62
D(PG) 0.72** 1.96 0.05
D(PG(-1)) -0.43 -1.75 0.48
Constant -0.05 -0.70 0.24
inequality in secondary education using ARDL-PMG estimator. Study reveals that GDPG
and GFCF have a negative and significant effect on RSE in long run. Consequently 1 %
increase in GDPG decreases RSE by 0.01% and 1 % increase in GFCF decreases RSE by
0.02 %.
126
(RTE is dependent variable)
Long run
GDPG -0.23*** -14.46 0.00

GFCF -0.12*** -31.56 0.00
PG -0.77*** 13.16 0.01
Short run
ECT(-1) -0.08** -1.04 0.02

D(RTE(-1)) -0.14 -0.79 0.43
D(GDPG) 0.01 0.91 0.36
D(GDPG(-1)) 0.02 1.18 0.23
D(GFCF) -0.00 -1.33 0.18
D(GFCF(-1)) 0.01* 1.89 0.06
D(PG) 0.28 0.88 0.38
D(PG(-1)) -0.70 -1.05 0.29
Constant 0.75* 0.58 0.06
inequality in tertiary education using ARDL-PMG estimator. The results of the estimates
prove the presence of a long run association because the adjustment coefficient (error
result shows that after a divergence from the equilibrium due to shock, it will take about 0.08
% of the independent variables to adjust back to equilibrium. The speed of adjustment is
perceived to be high at 0.08 %. Study reveals that GDPG, GFCF and PG have a negative and
significant effect on RTE in long run. Consequently 1 % increase in GDPG decreases RTE by
0.23 %, 1 % increase in GFCF decreases RTE by 0.12 % and 1 % increase in PG decreases
RTE by 0.01 %. In short run coefficient GFCF have a negative and significant effect on RTE
as 1 % increase in GFCF decreases RTE by 0.01 %.
127
Table no. 4.19, 4.20, 4.21 and 4.22 represents the result of country wise short run estimates of
gender inequality in education and economic growth using education indicators alternatively
country wise.
ECT(-1) -0.97*** -12.98
(0.0012)
D(RPE) -2.83 -0.02
(0.9791)
D(RSE(-1)) -6.63 -0.29
(0.7883)
Bangladesh D(RTE) -4.33 -0.04
(0.9652)
D(GFCF) 1.72** 5.77
(0.0103)
D(PG) -8.94 -0.05
(0.9565)
ECT(-1) -1.21*** -31.39
(0.0001)
D(RPE) -8.57 -0.02
(0.9785)
D(RSE(-2)) -9.51*** -0.00
(0.0033)
India D(RTE) -18.53 -0.01
(0.9868)
D(GFCF(-1)) 0.34 1.41
(0.2509)
D(PG) -48.72 -0.00
(0.9992)
ECT(-1) -1.23*** -36.45
(0.0000)
D(RPE(-1)) -47.24 -0.03
(0.9737)
D(RSE) -14.79 -0.02
(0.9808)
Nepal D(RTE) -0.38 -0.03
(0.9762)
D(GFCF(-1)) 1.16*** 6.20
(0.0084)
D(PG) -4.95 -0.03
(0.9757)
ECT(-1) -1.15*** -29.41
(0.0001)
D(RPE(-1)) 2.63*** 0.00
(0.0048)
128
D(RSE(-1)) -1.10 -0.00
(0.9950)
Pakistan D(RTE(-1)) -5.88 -0.09
(0.9283)
D(GFCF(-1)) 0.37** 3.29
(0.0459)
D(PG(-1)) -40.24 -0.24
(0.9926)
ECT(-1) -0.30*** -12.22
(0.0012)
D(RPE) -27.94 -0.11
(0.9176)
D(RSE) -5.13 -0.02
(0.9827)
D(RTE(-1)) -4.95*** -42.41
Sri Lanka (0.0000)
D(GFCF) 0.98*** 59.42
(0.0000)
D(PG) -26.96** -2.43
(0.0343)
(RPE is dependent variable)
ECT(-1) -4.24*** -86.35
(0.0000)
D(RPE(-1)) 1.40*** 164.05
(0.0000)
D(GDPG(-1)) -0.02*** -3040.68
Bangladesh (0.0000)
D(GFCF(-1)) -0.07*** -1683.37
(0.0000)
D(PG) -1.93*** -498.54
(0.0000)
ECT(-1) -0.08*** -16.72
(0.0005)
D(RPE(-1)) -0.47*** -8.18
(0.0038)
India D(GDPG(-1)) -0.08*** -609.11
(0.0000)
D(GFCF(-1)) -0.01*** -607.91
(0.0000)
D(PG(-1)) -0.65*** -1.61
(0.2041)
ECT(-1) 0.01*** 41.33
(0.0000)
129
D(RPE(-1)) 0.45*** 12.60
(0.0011)
D(GDPG) 0.03*** 480.81
(0.0000)
Nepal D(GFCF(-1)) -0.02*** -395.99
(0.0000)
D(PG(-1)) -0.01*** -6.49
(0.0074)
ECT(-1) -0.01*** -6.70
(0.0068)
D(RPE(-1)) -0.04 -0.82
(0.4681)
D(GDPG(-1)) -0.01*** -256.24
Pakistan (0.0000)
D(GFCF) -0.05*** -30.09
(0.0001)
D(PG) -0.28* -2.92
(0.0615)
ECT(-1) -0.03*** -9.95
(0.0022)
D(RPE(-1)) -0.38*** -15.72
(0.0006)
Sri Lanka D(GDPG(-1)) -0.03*** 57.15
(0.0000)
D(GFCF(-1)) -0.02*** -600.07
(0.0000)
D(PG) -0.09*** 4.69
(0.0183)
(RSE is dependent variable)
ECT(-1) -0.15*** -31.33
(0.0001)
D(RSE(-1)) -0.37*** -12.01
(0.0012)
Bangladesh D(GDPG(-1)) -0.01*** -15.75
(0.0000)
D(GFCF(-1)) 0.02*** 64.84
(0.0000)
D(PG(-1)) -1.10*** -8.67
(0.0032)
ECT(-1) -0.29*** -80.54
(0.0000)
130
D(RSE(-1)) -0.44*** -17.88
(0.0000)
India D(GDPG(-1)) 0.001*** 3871.91
(0.0000)
D(GFCF(-1)) -0.002*** -19.98
(0.0000)
D(PG) 0.85*** 2.82
(0.0667)
ECT(-1) -0.07*** -10.68
(0.0018)
D(RSE(-1)) -0.22*** -7.22
(0.0055)
Nepal D(GDPG(-1)) -0.06*** -13.96
(0.0000)
D(GFCF(-1)) -0.02*** -97.57
(0.0000)
D(PG) -0.05*** -9.02
(0.0000)
ECT(-1) -1.50*** -46.29
(0.0000)
D(RSE(-1)) 0.13*** 11.50
(0.0014)
Pakistan D(GDPG(-1)) -0.01*** 1038.00
(0.0000)
D(GFCF(-1)) -0.02*** -912.90
(0.0010)
D(PG(-1)) -0.94*** -9.82
(0.0022)
ECT(-1) -0.16*** -105.24
(0.0000)
D(RSE(-1)) -0.35*** -17.75
(0.0004)
Sri Lanka D(GDPG(-1)) 0.00*** 323.63
(0.0000)
D(GFCF(-1)) -0.01*** -243.60
(0.0000)
D(PG(-1)) -0.09*** -74.64
(0.0000)
131
(RTE is dependent variable)
ECT(-1) 0.0003*** 8.01
(0.0040)
D(RTE(-1)) -0.64*** -20.43
(0.0003)
D(GDPG(-1)) -0.0004*** -26.94
(0.0000)
Bangladesh D(GFCF) -0.012*** -72.37
(0.0000)
D(PG(-1)) -0.569*** -9.75
(0.0023)
ECT(-1) 0.008*** 11.80
(0.0000)
D(RTE(-1)) -0.14*** -2.81
(0.0669)
D(GDPG(-1)) -0.003*** -8.11
(0.0000)
India D(GFCF(-1)) -0.001*** -17.03
(0.0000)
D(PG) -0.24 -0.39
(0.7203)
ECT(-1) -0.006 -0.17
(08694)
D(RTE(-1)) 0.44* 2.48
(0.0888)
D(GDPG) -0.01*** -8.97
(0.0000)
Nepal D(GFCF(-1)) -0.001 -1.35
(0.4512)
D(PG(-1)) -0.50 -0.86
(0.3962)
ECT(-1) -0.02*** -58.32
(0.0000)
D(RTE(-1)) -0.31** -5.48
(0.0119)
D(GDPG) -0.01*** -15.63
(0.0000)
Pakistan D(GFCF) -0.01*** -38.98
(0.0000)
D(PG(-1)) -3.31 -0.91
(0.4296)
ECT(-1) -0.40*** -0.007
(0.0000)
D(RTE(-1)) -0.03*** 0.004
(0.0000)
D(GDPG(-1)) 0.11*** 0.001
132
(0.0000)
Sri Lanka D(GFCF(-1)) 0.00*** 0.0002

(0.0000)
D(PG(-1)) 0.23*** 0.0005
(0.0000)
Table No. 4.19, 4.20, 4.21 and 4.21 represents the feedback of coefficients and ECT. In this
section we have examined the short run estimates of variables country wise.
In Table No. 4.19, when GDPG is the dependent variables. All five countries have a negative
and significant ECT which implies explanatory variables to adjust back to equilibrium. In
Table No. 4.20, when RPE is dependent variables. Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka
only have a negative and significant ECT which implies explanatory variables to adjust back
to equilibrium. In Table No. 4.21, when RSE is the dependent variable. All five countries
have a negative and significant ECT which implies explanatory variables to adjust back to
equilibrium. In Table No. 4.22, when RTE is the dependent variable. Nepal, Pakistan and Sri
Lanka have a negative and significant ECT which implies explanatory variables to adjust
back to equilibrium.
133
Table No. 4.23 and 4.24 represents the result of short run and long run coefficient of gender
inequality in labour force and economic growth.
Long run
RLFP -23.55*** -6.27 0.00

GFCF 0.43*** 6.80 0.00
PG -1.68*** -5.06 0.00
Short run
ECT(-1) -1.05 -1.22 0.22

D(GDPG(-1) 0.13 0.21 0.82
D(GDPG(-2) -0.06 -0.18 0.85
D(RLFP) 81.84 1.10 0.27
D(RLFP(-1)) 17.51 0.13 0.89
D(RLFP(-2)) 43.72 0.50 0.61
D(RLFP(-3)) -216.23 -1.05 0.29
D(GFCF) 0.35 0.97 0.33
D(GFCF(-1)) -0.16 -0.67 0.50
D(GFCF(-2)) -0.07 -0.51 0.60
D(GFCF(-3)) -0.47 -1.46 0.14
D(PG) 93.85 0.58 0.55
D(PG(-1)) -278.49 -0.84 0.40
D(PG(-2)) 347.76 1.03 0.30
D(PG(-3)) -189.31 -1.22 0.22
Constant -21.34 -1.29 0.19
*** Level of significance: 1%
Table No. 4.23 shows the long run and short run effect of gender inequality in labour force
participation on economic growth using ARDL-PMG estimator. Study reveals that RLFP and
PG have a negative and significant effect on GDPG in long run. Consequently 1 % increase
in RLFP decreases GDPG by 23.55 % and 1 % increase in PG decreases GDPG by 1.67 %.
GFCF has a positive and significant effect on GDPG as 1 % increase in GFCF increases
GDPG by 0.43 %.
134
(RLFP is dependent variable)
Long run
GDPG -0.002* -1.67 0.09

GFCF -0.0005* -0.45 0.06
PG 0.03*** 3.99 0.00
Short run
ECT(-1) -0.17** -0.89 0.03

D(GDPG) 0.002 0.74 0.45
D(GFCF) -0.001** -2.35 -0.02
D(PG) 0.06 0.98 0.32
Constant 0.09 0.67 0.50
Table No. 4.24 shows the findings of long run and short run effect of gender inequality in
health on economic growth using ARDL-PMG estimator. The findings of the estimates verify
the presence of a long run association because the adjustment coefficient (error correction
term) is negative and statistically significant at 1 % level of significance. PECM findings
shows that after a divergence from the equilibrium due to shock, it will take about 0.17 % of
the independent variables to adjust back to equilibrium. The speed of adjustment is perceived
to be high at 0.17 %. Study reveals that GDPG, GFCF and PG have a negative and significant
effect on RLFP in long run. Consequently 1 % increase in GDPG decreases RLFP by 0.002
%, 1 % increase in GFCF decreases RLFP by 0.005 % and 1 % increase in PG decreases
RLFP by 0.03 %. In short run coefficient GFCF have a negative and significant effect on
RLFP as 1 % increase in GFCF decreases RLFP by 0.001 %.
135
Table No. 4.25 and 4.26 represents the result of country wise short run estimates of gender
inequality in labour force and economic growth.
ECT(-1) 1.51*** 9.22
(0.0027)
D(GDPG(-2) -1.01*** -27.35
(0.0005)
D(RLFP(-1)) -102.57 0.83
(0.9385)
Bangladesh D(GFCF(-1)) -0.44*** -7.28
(0.0053)
D(PG(_3)) 2.98 0.02
(0.9838)
ECT(-1) -1.96*** -30.70
(0.0001)
D(GDPG(-1) 0.85*** 23.60
(0.0002)
D(RLFP) -215.47 -0.05
(0.9607)
India D(GFCF(-3)) -0.86*** -31.83
(0.0001)
D(PG) -7.93 -0.06
(0.9509)
ECT(-1) -2.40*** -9.04
(0.0029)
D(GDPG(-1) 0.82** 5.51
(0.0117)
D(RLFP(-2)) -229.12 -0.008
(0.9995)
Nepal D(GFCF) -0.41 -2.45
(0.0913)
D(PG(-3)) -1.10 -0.007
(0.9946)
ECT(-1) -2.90*** -10.0
(0.0021)
D(GDPG(-2) 0.86*** 10.75
(0.0017)
D(RLFP(-2)) -12.92 -0.01
(0.9870)
Pakistan D(GFCF(-1)) -0.75*** -12.01
(0.0012)
D(PG(-2)) 49.90 0.010
(0.9397)
ECT(-1) 0.47*** 12.43
(0.0011)
136
D(GDPG(-1) -0.71*** -14.7
(0.0007)
D(RLFP(-1)) -30.90 -0.11
(0.9180)
D(GFCF(-1)) -0.53*** -14.74
Sri Lanka (0.0007)
D(PG) -0.36 -0.22
(0.8337)
(RLFP is dependent variable)
Country Variables Coefficient t-Statistics
ECT(-1) -0.13*** -18.47
(0.0003)
D(GDPG) 0.0009*** 872.08
Bangladesh (0.0000)
D(GFCF) 0.003*** 492.92
(0.0000)
D(PG) 0.02*** 32.72
(0.0001)
ECT(-1) -0.02*** -10.23
(0.0020)
D(GDPG) 0.0008*** 6277.48
India (0.0000)
D(GFCF) 0.0001*** 162.09
(0.0000)
D(PG) 0.33*** 31.75
(0.0001)
ECT(-1) 0.21*** 41.07
(0.0000)
D(GDPG) 0.001*** 1651.95
Nepal (0.0000)
D(GFCF) 0.002*** 7290.68
(0.0000)
D(PG) 0.002*** 191.64
(0.0000)
ECT(-1) -0.02*** -10.23
(0.0020)
D(GDPG) 0.06*** 6277.48
Pakistan (0.0000)
D(GFCF) 0.0001*** 162.09
(0.0000)
D(PG) 0.33*** 31.75
(0.0001)
ECT(-1) -0.94*** -40.30
(0.0000)
137
D(GDPG) -0.0003*** -174.85
Sri Lanka (0.0000)
D(GFCF) 0.002*** 636.82
(0.0000)
D(PG) 0.006*** 70.59
(0.0001)
Table No. 4.25 and 4.26 represents the feedback of coefficients and ECT. In this section we
have examined the short run estimates of variables country wise. In table no 4.25, when
GDPG is the dependent variables India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka have a negative and
significant ECT which implies explanatory variables to adjust back to equilibrium. In table no
4.26, when RLFP is dependent variables. Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka have a
negative and significant ECT which implies explanatory variables to adjust back to
equilibrium.
138
Table No. 4.27 and 4.28 represent the result of short run and long run coefficient of gender
inequality index and economic growth.
Long run
GII -13.39*** -4.97 0.00

GFCF 0.16*** 3.76 0.00
PG -2.27*** -6.51 0.00
Short run
ECT(-1) -1.09* -1.70 0.05

D(GDPG(-1)) 0.0004 0.001 0.99
D(GDPG(-2)) -0.13 -0.66 0.50
D(GII) -36.91 -1.16 0.24
D(GII(-1)) 18.07 0.79 0.42
D(GII(-2)) 59.73 0.92 0.35
D(GCF) 0.56*** 3.84 0.00
D(GCF(-1)) -0.08 -0.51 0.60
D(GCF(-2)) -0.21** -2.28 0.02
D(PG) -24.69** -1.20 0.00
D(PG(-1)) 46.01 1.13 0.25
D(PG(-2)) -28.22 -1.04 0.30
Constant 5.91* 1.68 0.09
*** level of significance: 1%; ** level of significance: 5%; * level of significance: 10%
Table No. 4.27 signifies the results of long run and short run effect of GII, GFCF and PG on
GDPG using ARDL-PMG estimator. The outcomes of the estimation verify the presence of a
long run association, because adjustment coefficient (error correction term) is negative and
statistically significant at 1 % level of significance. PECM finding shows that after a
divergence from the equilibrium due to shock, it will take about 1.09 % of the explanatory
variables to adjust back to equilibrium. The speed of adjustment is perceived to be high at
1.09 %.
The study discloses the negative and significant connection between GII and GDPG in short
and long run. As a result, a 1 % increase in GII leads to a 13.39 % and 36.91 % decrease in
GDPG in the long and short term respectively. However, the study also reveals the negative
and significant relationship between GDPG and PG in long term. As 1 % increase in PG
leads to 2.27 % decrease in economic growth in long term. GFCF has a positive significant
139
impact on GDPG in both short and long term. A 1 % increase in GFCF leads to 0.16 %
increase in the long term and 0.56 % increase in the short term respectively in GDPG.
(GII is dependent variable)
Long run
GDPG -0.01*** -3.53 0.00
GFCF -0.008*** -2.48 0.01
PG -0.05*** -2.92 0.00
Short run
ECT(-1) -0.27** -1.52 0.03
D(GII(-1)) 0.19* 1.78 0.07
D(GII(-2)) 0.13 0.64 0.52
D(GDPG) -0.0009 -1.28 0.20
D(GCF) -0.001 -1.01 0.31
D(PG) -0.04 -0.44 0.66
Constant 0.11 1.37 0.17
As shown in Table No. 4.28, when GII is the dependent variable, the outcomes of the
estimation verify the presence of a long run association, because adjustment coefficient (error
outcome specifies that after a divergence from the equilibrium due to shock, it will take about
-0.27 % of the independent variables to adjust back to equilibrium. The speed of adjustment
is perceived to be low at -0.27%. GDPG, GFCF and PG all affecting GII negative and
significantly over the long term. A 1 % rise in GDPG reduces GII by 0.01 % over the long
term, similarly, a 1 % rise in GFCF reduces GII by 0.008 % over the long term and a 1% rise
in PG reduces GII by 0.05 % in the long term.
140
Table no 4.29 and 4.30 represents the result of country wise short run estimates of gender
inequality index and economic growth.
0.26***
ECT(-1) (0.0018) 10.65
-0.99***
D(GDPG(-1)) (0.0001) -27.61
-10.87
D(GII) (0.3603) -1.07
Bangladesh 0.68***
D(GCF) (0.0012) 12.18
-11.23
D(PG) (0.8929) -0.14
-1.21***
ECT(-1) (0.0043) -7.82
0.30**
D(GDPG(-1)) (0.0229) 4.31
-153.29
D(GII) (0.9899) -0.01
India 0.31***
D(GCF) (0.0052) 7.35
-22.10
D(PG) (0.9989) -0.001
-3.14***
ECT(-1) (0.0009) -13.47
1.20***
D(GDPG(-1)) (0.0017) 10.82
-23.72
D(GII(-1)) (0.9634) -0.04
Nepal -0.49***
D(GCF(-2)) (0.0055) -7.21
-33.47
D(PG(-1)) (0.8476) -0.20
-1.63**
ECT(-1) (0.0169) -4.82
0.45*
Pakistan D(GDPG(-1)) (0.0974) 2.38
1.44
D(GII) (0.9987) 0.001
0.69***
D(GCF) (0.0029) 8.95
-102.75
D(PG) (0.9614) -0.05
0.26**
ECT(-1) (0.0440) 3.35
141
-0.96***
D(GDPG(-1)) (0.0011) -12.50
-49.43
Sri Lanka D(GII) (0.9732) -0.03
0.98***
D(GCF) (0.0001) 28.18
-1.91
D(PG) (0.3010) -1.24
is the first difference operator. is the first difference operator
(GII is dependent variables)
-0.97***
ECT(-1) (0.0007) -14.85
0.43***
D(GII(-1)) (0.0016) 11.02
0.002***
D(GDPG) (0.0000) 45.59
Bangladesh -0.005***
D(GCF) (0.0000) -45.58
-0.27***
D(PG) (0.0017) -10.69
0.02***
ECT(-1) (0.0000) 44.38
0.16***
D(GII(-1)) (0.0058) 7.07
-0.005***
D(GDPG) (0.0000) -8408.32
India 0.006***
D(GCF) (0.0000) 5977.48
-0.21***
D(PG) (0.0000) -68.84
-0.12***
ECT(-1) (0.0002) -22.26
0.44***
D(GII(-1)) (0.0007) 14.28
0.006***
D(GDPG) (0.0000) 430.84
Nepal 0.001***
D(GCF) (0.0000) 228.78
0.002
D(PG) (0.1320) 2.05
-0.004
ECT(-1) (0.3415) -1.12
142
-0.23***
D(GII(-2)) (0.0045) -7.72
-0.003***
Pakistan D(GDPG) (0.0000) -435.06
-0.001***
D(GCF) (0.0000) -508.94
0.28***
D(PG) (0.0000) 52.64
-0.32***
ECT(-1) (0.0000) -40.72
-0.02
D(GII(-2)) (0.2171) -1.55
-0.003***
Sri Lanka D(GDPG) (0.0000) -7717.27
-0.002***
D(GCF) (0.0000) -2037.84
-0.01***
D(PG) (0.0000) -228.90
is the first difference operator. is the first difference operator
Table No. 4.29 represents the feedback of coefficients and ECT. In this section we have
examined the short run estimates country wise. All countries except Bangladesh and Sri
Lanka are showing negative and significant ECT which implies independent variables to
adjust back to equilibrium. Coefficient of GII and PG are having a negative but insignificant
effect on GDPG in every economy except Pakistan, it implies that is does not have any
significant effect on GDPG in short run. In Pakistan coefficient of GII and PG is having an
insignificant value whereas, GII is positive and PG is negative. A negative but insignificant
relationship is exits between PG and GDPG implies that no significant relationship is found
between PG and GDPG in any of the five countries in the short run. Population is having an
adverse effect on economic growth in short run; none of the country‘s demographic reaps the
economic growth.
As shown in Table No. 4.30, county wise coefficients and ECT. All countries except India
are showing negative and significant ECT which implies explanatory variables to adjust back
to equilibrium. India is showing a positive and significant ECT, which implies explanatory
variables to adjust away from the equilibrium. Coefficient of GDPG is having a adverse and
significant effect on GII in every economy except Bangladesh and Nepal, it implies that is
does have significant effect on GDPG in short run. In Bangladesh and Nepal, coefficient of
GDPG is having positive and significant value which implies that, GDPG is increasing the
GII in the given countries.
143
The ARDL model approves the long-run relationship. Seeing this, the direction of this
association is a vital aspect to explore for policy actions. Therefore, the present study
employs the VECM-based Granger causality to check the short run and long run causality
and Pairwise Dumitrescu-Hurlin panel causality test between variables.
4.6 Pairwise Dumitrescu-Hurlin Panel Causality Test Results-Based on

Granger Causality Test
Finally, at last study employs the panel causality test developed by Dumitrescu-Hurlin
(2012). Dumitrescu-Hurlin test is a simple version of Granger Causality.
144
Table No. 4.31: Pairwise Dumitrescu-Hurlin Panel Causality Test Results
Causality Direction W-statistics Zbar-statistics p-value Decision
RLE does not homogeneously cause GDPG 4.540* 2.387 0.016 H0 Rejected
GDPG does not homogeneously cause RLE 1.754 -0.366 0.714 Fail to reject H0
RIM does not homogeneously cause GDPG 1.859 -0.262 0.793 Fail to reject H0
GDPG does not homogeneously cause RIM 1.858 -0.263 0.792 Fail to reject H0
GFCF does not homogeneously cause RLE 11.331*** 9.100 0.000 H0 Rejected
RLE does not homogeneously cause GFCF 6.205*** 4.032 0.000 H0 Rejected
PG does not homogeneously cause RLE 13.103*** 10.851 0.000 H0 Rejected
RLE does not homogeneously cause PG 28.611*** 26.179 0.000 H0 Rejected
GFCF does not homogeneously cause RIM 1.762 -0.358 0.720 Fail to reject H0
RIM does not homogeneously cause GFCF 4.159** 2.010 0.044 H0 Rejected
PG does not homogeneously cause RIM 3.728 1.584 0.113 Fail to reject H0
RIM does not homogeneously cause PG 12.037*** 9.797 0.000 H0 Rejected
RPE does not homogeneously cause GDPG 6.491*** 3.947 0.000 H0 Rejected
GDPG does not homogeneously cause RPE 2.710 0.474 0.635 Fail to reject H0
RSE does not homogeneously cause GDPG 3.920 1.573 0.115 Fail to reject H0
GDPG does not homogeneously cause RSE 3.923 1.557 0.115 Fail to reject H0
RTE does not homogeneously cause GDPG 3.115 0.680 0.496 Fail to reject H0
GDPG does not homogeneously cause RTE 5.731** 2.847 0.004 H0 Rejected
GFCF does not homogeneously cause RPE 3.779 1.456 0.145 Fail to reject H0
145
RPE does not homogeneously cause GFCF 6.036*** 3.530 0.000 H0 Rejected
PG does not homogeneously cause RPE 6.397*** 3.861 0.000 H0 Rejected
RPE does not homogeneously cause PG 7.985*** 5.320 0.000 H0 Rejected
GFCF does not homogeneously cause RSE 6.486*** 3.920 0.000 H0 Rejected
RSE does not homogeneously cause GFCF 5.599** 3.109 0.001 H0 Rejected
PG does not homogeneously cause RSE 3.996 1.642 0.100 Fail to reject H0
RSE does not homogeneously cause PG 6.014** 3.489 0.005 H0 Rejected
GFCF does not homogeneously cause RTE 1.853 -0.366 0.714 Fail to reject H0
RTE does not homogeneously cause GFCF 5.184** 2.394 0.016 H0 Rejected
PG does not homogeneously cause RTE 9.530*** 5.99 0.000 H0 Rejected
RTE does not homogeneously cause PG 9.127*** 5.66 0.000 H0 Rejected
RLFP does not homogeneously cause GDPG 3.133 -0.045 0.963 Fail to reject H0
GDPG does not homogeneously cause RLFP 1.239 -0.881 0.378 Fail to reject H0
GFCF does not homogeneously cause RLFP 2.645 0.433 0.664 Fail to reject H0
RLFP does not homogeneously cause GFCF 7.391*** 4.874 0.000 H0 Rejected
PG does not homogeneously cause RLFP 3.657 1.380 0.167 Fail to reject H0
RLFP does not homogeneously cause PG 6.501*** 4.041 0.000 H0 Rejected
GII does not homogeneously cause GDPG 0.601 -1.47390 0.140 Fail to reject H0
GDPG does not homogeneously cause GII 3.271 1.00316 0.315 Fail to reject H0
GFCF does not homogeneously cause GII 3.59440 1.30258 0.192 Fail to reject H0
GII does not homogeneously cause GFCF 2.05489 -0.12580 0.899 Fail to reject H0
146
PG does not homogeneously cause GII 7.99426 5.38481 7.080 Fail to reject H0
GII does not homogeneously cause PG 13.2781*** 10.2872 0.000 H0 Rejected
GFCF does not homogeneously cause GDPG 4.555** 2.402 0.016 H0 Rejected
GDPG does not homogeneously cause GFCF 6.281*** 4.108 0.000 H0 Rejected
PG does not homogeneously cause GDPG 6.920*** 4.740 0.000 H0 Rejected
GDPG does not homogeneously cause PG 1.564 -0.553 0.579 Fail to reject H0
PG does not homogeneously cause GFCF 4.182** 2.033 0.002 H0 Rejected
GFCF does not homogeneously cause PG 7.802*** 5.611 0.000 H0 Rejected
147
RIM
RLE RPE
GDPG
RSE
RTE
GFCF
RLFP
PG GII
148
Table No. 4.31 represents the result of panel causality and reveals a bidirectional causality
between RLE and GFCF, RLE and PG, RPE and PG, RSE and GFCF, RTE and GFCF, RTE
and PG, GDPG and GFCF, PG and GFCF. Whereas, a unidirectional causality is found to be
running from RLE to GDPG, RIM to GFCF and PG, RPE to GDPG and GFCF, GDPG to
RTE, RSE to PG, RLFP to GFCF, LFPR to PG, GII to PG, PG to GDPG.
Chapter Summary
This study represents the empirical finding of the association between gender inequality and
economic growth in south Asian economies for 1980-2020. To summarise, this chapter
begins with the introduction of the selected variables used in the study to empirically examine
the association between gender inequality in health, education and labour force and economic
growth. Since the inequality is a composite or multidimensional concept and no single aspect
of the gender inequality can completely represent the clear picture. Therefore, indicators to
measure the gender-based inequality in three dimensions viz health, education and labour
force participation have been selected.
The Levin et al., Im et al., Augmented Dickey Fuller, Phillips and Perron and CIPS test has
been used to check the stationary status of the series. Study finds that series are stationary of
different orders some variables are I (0) while some are I (1) which lead to the use of ARDL-
PMG approach to cointegration.
Second, panel ARDL-PMG approach by Pesaran et al. (1999) of cointegration has been
employed to inspect the long run and short run association between variables. Estimated
results show that all the variables are cointegrated with economic growth.
Third, to test for the direction of causality between gender inequality and economic growth
Pairwise Dumitrescu-Hurlin Granger Causality test has been employed.
149
CHAPTER - 5
CONCLUSION
CHAPTER - 5
CONCLUSION
This chapter is separated into three sections. Section 5.1 summarises the findings on the
association between gender-based inequality and economic growth in South Asian countries.
Section 5.2 discusses the policy implications based on the empirical findings and section 5.3
attempts to advise the path of the future research investigations.
5.1 Summary of Empirical Findings

This study aims to empirically examine the association between gender inequality and
economic growth in South Asian economies namely; Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and
Sri Lanka during time period 1980-2020. In order to achieve this objective, the empirical
association between gender-based inequality in health, education, and labour force and
economic growth have been studied. A comprehensive and representative measure of gender
inequality is needed to compare the relative situation of women and men. Gender Inequality
Index is constructed by UNDP for this purpose. GII is a composite index comprising of
reproductive health, empowerment and the labour market. The present study has also used
Gender Inequality Index to assess the above stated relationship.
A number of researches have studies and empirically inspected the association among gender
inequality and economic growth. These empirical studies have examined this association
using various methodologies and variables; however, most of the studies have been done on
the topic of gender inequality and economic growth, economies as a whole. Very limited such
studies are available on South Asia economies. Furthermore, previous existing studies used
educational gap and labour force participation gap as a proxy for gender inequality. The use
of gender inequality indicators in health, education and labour force participation could be a
suitable exercise in order to examine the association among gender inequality and economic
growth in South Asian region.
Study uses panel ARDL-PMG method to inspect long run and short run association between
gender inequality and economic growth. The direction of the causality has been inspected
using Dumitrescu-Hurlin panel causality test results-based on Granger Causality test.
150
Panel Evidence
The empirical findings on the relationship between gender inequality in health and
economic growth are summarised below:
 Result of empirical analysis finds long run association between gender inequality in heath
and economic growth. Results also indicate that gender inequality in life expectancy and
gender inequality in mortality rate positively impacts economic growth in South Asian
countries in short run and long run. The results indicate that gross fixed capital formation
have positive and significant impact on economic growth in both short and long run and
population growth negatively affects economic growth in long run but in short run it has
no significant impact on economic growth.
 When dependent variable is gender inequality in life expectancy; Result of empirical

analysis find long run association between gender inequality in life expectancy, economic
growth, gross fixed capital formation, and population growth. Results also indicate that
economic growth positively impacts gender inequality in life expectancy.
 When gender inequality in mortality rate is taken as a dependent variable. Result of

empirical analysis find long run association between gender inequality in mortality rate,
economic growth, and gross fixed capital formation and growth of population. Study
reveals that, economic growth has a positive and significant impact on gender inequality
in mortality rate.
151
The empirical findings on the relationship between gender inequality in education and
 Result of empirical analysis finds long run association between gender-based inequality
in education, economic growth, and gross fixed capital formation and population growth.
Findings indicate that gender-based inequality in secondary education, gender inequality
in tertiary education positively and population growth negatively impacts economic
growth in both short and long run. Gross fixed capital formation positively impacts
economic growth in both long and short term.
 When gender inequality in primary education is taken as a dependent variable. Study

reveals that economic growth positively impacts gender inequality in primary education
in long run. But we did not find any impact on gender inequality in primary education in
short run.
 When gender inequality in secondary education is taken as a dependent variable. Finding

reveals that economic growth positively impacts gender inequality in secondary education
in long run. We did not find any impact on gender-based inequality in case of secondary
education in short run.
 When gender inequality in tertiary education is taken as a dependent variable. Finding of

empirical analysis find long run association between gender inequality in tertiary
education, economic growth, gross fixed capital formation and population growth. Study
reveals that economic growth positively impacts gender inequality in tertiary education in
long run. We did not find any impact of variables on gender inequality in tertiary
152
The empirical findings on the relationship between gender inequality in labour force
participation and economic growth are summarised below:
 Result of empirical analysis find long run connection between economic growth, gender
inequality in labour force, gross fixed capital formation, and population growth. Results
also indicate that gender inequality in labour force and population growth positively
impacts economic growth in long run. Gross fixed capital formation effects economic
growth positive and significantly in long run only. We did not find any impact of these
variables on economic growth in short run.
 When dependent variable is gender inequality in labour force; Results of empirical

analysis find long run association between gender inequality in labour force, economic
growth, gross fixed capital formation, and population growth. Study reveals that
economic growth positively impacts gender inequality in labour force participation in
long run. Economic growth and population growth do not affect gender inequality in
labour force in short run.
153
The empirical findings on the relationship between gender inequality index and
 Result of empirical analysis finds long run relationship between economic growth, gender
inequality index, and gross fixed capital formation and population growth. Results also
indicate that gender inequality index and population growth negatively impact growth of
the economy in long runs and Gross fixed capital formation positively affects growth of
the economy in short and long run.
 When gender inequality index is taken as a dependent variable. Result of empirical

analysis finds long run association between gender inequality index, economic growth,
capital formation, and population growth. Findings also show that economic growth,
gross fixed capital formation, and population growth negatively affect gender inequality
index in long run. These variables do not affect gender inequality index in short run.
154
Country Wise Evidence
 When economic growth is the dependent variable, Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Pakistan
equilibrium. When gender inequality in life expectancy is dependent variable, Nepal and
Sri Lanka only have a negative and significant ECT which implies explanatory variables
to adjust back to equilibrium. When dependent variable is gender inequality in mortality
rate; Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka have a negative and significant ECT
which implies independent variables to adjust back to equilibrium. Coefficient of RLE
and RIM are having a negative but insignificant effect on GDPG in every economy it
implies that, it does have any significant effect on economic growth in short run. A
positive and significant relationship found among gross fixed capital formation and
economic growth in all economies, meaning that capital formation in economies is
boosting the growth of the economy.
 When economic growth is the dependent variables, all five countries have a negative and
significant ECT which implies explanatory variables to adjust back to equilibrium. When
dependent variable is gender inequality in primary education; Bangladesh, India, Pakistan
and Sri Lanka have a have a negative and significant ECT which implies explanatory
variables to adjust back to equilibrium. When gender inequality in secondary education is
the dependent variable, all five countries have a negative and significant ECT which
implies explanatory variables to adjust back to equilibrium. When dependent variable is
gender inequality in tertiary; Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka have an adverse and
significant ECT which implies independent variables to correct back to equilibrium.
Coefficient of gender inequality in primary education, secondary education, tertiary
education and population growth having a negative and significant effect on economic
growth in every economy and coefficient of gross fixed capital formation having a
positive and significant value except India.
155
and economic growth are summarised below:
 When dependent variable is economic growth; India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka have a
equilibrium and when gender inequality in labour force participation is dependent
variables. Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka have a negative and significant ECT
which implies independent variables to correct back to equilibrium. Coefficient of gender
inequality in labour force and growth of population is having an adverse but insignificant
effect on growth in every country. Coefficient of gross fixed capital formation is having
an adverse and significant effect on economic growth in all countries. Coefficient of
economic growth, gross fixed capital formation and population growth are having a
positive and significant effect on gender based-inequality in labour force in all countries
except for economic growth in Sri Lanka.
 When economic growth is the dependent variable, all countries except Bangladesh and Sri
correct back to equilibrium. Coefficient of gender inequality index and PG are having a
negative but insignificant effect on economic growth in every economy except Pakistan,
it implies that is does not have any significant affect on growth in short run. In Pakistan
coefficients of gender inequality index and population growth is having an insignificant
value. And when gender inequality index is the dependent variables, all countries except
India are showing negative and significant ECT which implies independent variables to
correct back to equilibrium. Coefficient of economic growth is having an adverse and
significant effect on gender inequality index in every economy except Bangladesh and
Nepal, it implies that is does have significant effect on economic growth in short run. In
Bangladesh and Nepal, coefficient of economic growth is having positive and significant
value which implies that, economic growth is increasing the gender inequality index in
the given countries.
156
Findings of the resent study lead to the following conclusions:
All forms of gender inequality whether it is in health, education and labour force
participation tend to increase economic growth in South Asian countries. Firstly, results
indicate that gender inequality in health positively impacts economic growth in short run and
long run. Second, gender inequality in secondary and tertiary education increase economic
growth in long run while gender inequality in primary education increases economic growth
only in short run. Third, gender inequality in labour force participation increases growth of
the economies in the long run but it is not having any significant effect in short run. Forth,
economic growth positively impacts to gender inequality in health, education and labour
force in long run. Lastly, gender inequality measured through gender inequality index found
to be negatively affecting economic growth and economic growth is affecting gender
inequality index negatively in long run, Increase in gender inequality when measured as a
composite index hampers GDP growth.
Findings of the study also supported by these studies; Khan et al. (2016), Seguino (2000),
Busse and Spielmann (2006), Barro and Lee (1994) Barro and Sala-i-Martin (1995) and
Niimi (2009). Niimi (2009) state that gender inequality is significant especially in South
Asian region and Seguino (2000) state that Asian economies that have discrimination against
women the most grew faster, gender discrimination and low female participation stimulate
investment.
5.2 Policy Implications

Based on the empirical findings present study has the following policy implications:
 Gender inequality in health, education, and labour force participation essentially require
solid policy agenda to sustained long term economic growth in South Asian region so the
gender equality will promote growth. At the cost of girl‘s health, education and labour
force participation, economic growth can be achieved but it will destroy the economic and
social structure of the region. Policies should be made in such a manner that parents get
encouraged to educate their girl child. To achieve gender equality in terms of health
outcomes it is required to give a special attention to develop a robust health care structure.
Economic growth in south Asia is not leading to gender equality rather growth promotes
inequality. Growth strategy in these countries must be gender inclusive.
157
 Gender inequalities in labour force participation also require implementing policies to
ensure safety of women at work place so that they are encouraged to access the
employment opportunities in the labour market. These steps will not only promote gender
equality in the society but also promotes the economic growth. Iceland is the best
example for gender equal country in the world.
 Gender budgeting can be a policy option for the government to endorse gender equality
through the budget against persistent gender. According to world economic forum‘s
global gender gap index report 2022 Iceland got the highest score of 0.91, as gender
budgeting policy is practiced by the government (Gíslason and Símonardóttir, 2018).
 To reduce the overall gender inequality to promote economic growth in more appropriate
way, multi-pronged strategy needs to be implemented like; policy formulation, proper
implementation and awareness building.
5.3 Scope for the Future Research

Present study attempts to examine the relationship between gender inequality and economic
growth. Gender inequality is examined in three dimensions i.e. health, education, and labour
force participation. However future research can be done by using other dimensions of gender
inequality such as inequality in political participation. Further this study did not control for
the social, cultural and religious differences across region which can spuriously affect the
results.
158
REFERENCES
REFERENCES
 Acharya, A., Subedi, S., Gyawali, N., Poudyal, N., Lamichhane, G., Bastola, G., ... &
Parajuli, N. (2021). Digital learning initiatives, challenges and achievement in higher
education in Nepal amidst COVID-19. International Journal of Asian Education, 2(3),
415-428.
 Acharya, B. (2019). Education Policies and Practices for Basic and Primary Education
Development in Nepal. Molung Educational Frontier, 9, 41-53.
 Adhikari, S., & Karn, S. (2020). Social Protection in Nepal: Opportunities and
Challenges.
 Aduku, E. B., Anyanwu, O. C., & Edeme, R. K. (2022). Gender Gap, Intensive
Growth and Economic Welfare in Sub-Saharan African Countries. In Environmental
Sustainability, Growth Trajectory and Gender: Contemporary Issues of Developing
Economies (pp. 153-165). Emerald Publishing Limited.
 Ahang, M. (2014). The impact of gender inequality on economic growth in developed

countries. Advances in Environmental Biology, 8(17), 508-513.
 Akhtar, R., Masud, M. M., Jafrin, N., & Shahabudin, S. M. (2023). Economic growth,
gender inequality, openness of trade, and female labour force participation: a nonlinear
ARDL approach. Economic Change and Restructuring, 1-28.
 Akram, N., Hamid, A., & Bashir, S. (2011). Gender differentials in education and their
impact on economic growth of Pakistan. Journal of Business & Economics, 3(1), 102.
 Al Rakhis, M. (2015). Impact of Gender Inequality on Economic Growth in the Arab

Region. Kuwait City: Sciences Po Kuwait Program.
 Al-Nimri, A., Shawawareh, F., & Altarawneh, Y. (2023). How Does Trade Openness
and Economic Growth Affect Gender Gap: A Cross-Country Study.
 Al-Shammari, N., & Al Rakhis, M. (2017). Impact of gender inequality on economic

growth in the Arab region. Research in Applied Economics, 9(2), 18-31.
 Altuzarra, A., Gálvez-Gálvez, C., & González-Flores, A. (2021). Is gender inequality a
159
barrier to economic growth? A panel data analysis of developing
countries. Sustainability, 13(1), 367.
 Andersson, A. (2010). The Effect of Increased Gender Equality on Economic Growth

in Developing Countries.
 Appiah, E. K., Arko-Achemfuor, A., & Adeyeye, O. P. (2018). Appreciation of

diversity and inclusion in Sub-Sahara Africa: The socioeconomic implications. Cogent
Social Sciences, 4(1), 1521058.
 Ashraf, Q. H., Weil, D. N., & Wilde, J. (2013). The effect of fertility reduction on
economic growth. Population and development review, 39(1), 97-130.
 Asteriou, D., Pilbeam, K., & Pratiwi, C. E. (2021). Public debt and economic growth:
panel data evidence for Asian countries. Journal of Economics and Finance, 45, 270-
287.
 Atiq, F., & Qadri, F. S. (2021). Does Gender Inequality Affect Economic
Growth? Empirics from Asian Countries. International Journal on Women
Empowerment, 7(1), 1-11.
 Baliamoune-Lutz, M., & McGillivray, M. (2007). Gender inequality and growth:

Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa and Arab countries. African Development
Review, 21(2), 224-242.
 Baliamoune‐ Lutz, M., & McGillivray, M. (2009). Does gender inequality reduce
growth in sub‐ Saharan African and Arab countries?. African Development
Review, 21(2), 224-242.
 Baliamoune–Lutz, M., & McGillivray, M. (2015). The impact of gender inequality in

education on income in Africa and the Middle East. Economic Modelling, 47, 1-11.
 Baloch, A., Shah, S. Z., Noor, Z. M., & Rasheed, B. (2016). An empirical analysis of
the impact of gender gap on economic growth: A panel data approach. The Empirical
Economics Letters, 15(12), 1157-1166.
 Baltagi, B. H., & Baltagi, B. H. (2008). Econometric analysis of panel data (Vol. 4).
Chichester: Wiley.
 Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 2019. Report of Bangladesh Sample Vital Statistics
160
2018.
 Baqai, H., & Mehreen, S. (2020). Role of Women in Inclusive Growth and
Sustainability: An Indicative Study. Journal of Management Sciences, 7(2), 1-14.
 Barin, N. E., Kundak, S., & Cenikli, V. S. (2020). The Effects of Female Employment
on Economic Growth: An Application of Panel Data on the Member Countries of the
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. In Contemporary Issues in Business Economics
and Finance (Vol. 104, pp. 29-44). Emerald Publishing Limited.
 Barro, R. J., & Lee, J. W. (1994). Data set for a panel of 138 countries.
 Barro, R. J., & Lee, J. W. (1994, June). Sources of economic growth. In Carnegie-
Rochester conference series on public policy (Vol. 40, pp. 1-46). North-Holland.
 Batra, R., & Reio Jr, T. G. (2016). Gender inequality issues in India. Advances in
Developing Human Resources, 18(1), 88-101.
 Baumann, F. (2021). The next frontier—human development and the anthropocene:

UNDP human development report 2020. Environment: Science and Policy for
Sustainable Development, 63(3), 34-40.
 Bayramov, V., Islamli, N., & Mammadov, E. (2023). Assessment of Gender Equality
& Women's Empowerment in the Post-Soviet Space. Available at SSRN 4323803.
 Bentzen, J., & Engsted, T. (2001). A revival of the autoregressive distributed lag
model in estimating energy demand relationships. Energy, 26(1), 45-55.
 Blumberg, R. L. (2005, August). Women‘s economic empowerment as the magic
potion of development. In 100th Annual Meeting of the American Sociological
Association, August, Philadelphia.
 Bora, J. K., Saikia, N., Kebede, E. B., & Lutz, W. (2023). Revisiting the causes of
fertility decline in Bangladesh: the relative importance of female education and family
planning programs. Asian Population Studies, 19(1), 81-104.
 Breusch, T. S., & Pagan, A. R. (1980). The Lagrange multiplier test and its
applications to model specification in econometrics. The review of economic
studies, 47(1), 239-253.
 Brinda, E. M., Rajkumar, A. P., & Enemark, U. (2015). Association between gender
inequality index and child mortality rates: a cross-national study of 138
161
countries. BMC public health, 15(1), 1-6.
 Brummet, Q. (2008). The effect of gender inequality on growth: a cross-country

empirical study. The Park Place Economist, 16(1), 12-23.
 Busse, M., & Spielmann, C. (2006). Gender inequality and trade. Review of
International Economics, 14(3), 362-379.
 Busse, M., & Spielmann, C. (2006). Gender inequality and trade. Review of
International Economics, 14(3), 362-379.
 Bussmann, M. (2009). The effect of trade openness on women‘s welfare and work
life. World Development, 37(6), 1027-1038.
 Cabeza-García, L., Del Brio, E. B., & Oscanoa-Victorio, M. L. (2018). Gender factors
and inclusive economic growth: The silent revolution. Sustainability, 10(1), 121.
 Chatterjee, D., & Banerjee, P. (2023). Gender Inequality in India Intertwined Between
Education and Employment. In Gender Inequality and its Implications on Education
and Health (pp. 79-90). Emerald Publishing Limited.
 Crimmins, E. M., Shim, H., Zhang, Y. S., & Kim, J. K. (2019). Differences between
men and women in mortality and the health dimensions of the morbidity
process. Clinical chemistry, 65(1), 135-145.
 CSO. (2011). National Accounts Statistics: Back Series 1950-51 to 2004-05. Central
Statistical Organisation, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation.
 Dekaraja, D. An analysis of performance of South Asian nations in human

development.
 Dhirar, N., Dudeja, S., Khandekar, J., & Bachani, D. (2018). Childhood morbidity and
mortality in India—analysis of national family health survey 4 (NFHS-4)
findings. Indian pediatrics, 55, 335-338.
 Dollar, D., & Gatti, R. (1999). Gender inequality, income, and growth: are good times
good for women? (Vol. 1). Washington, DC: Development Research Group, The World
Bank.
 Dorling, D. (2021). World population prospects at the UN: our numbers are not our
problem?. In The Struggle for Social Sustainability (pp. 129-154). Policy Press.
162
 Dougherty, C. (2011). Introduction to econometrics. Oxford university press, USA.
 Duflo, E. (2012). Women empowerment and economic development. Journal of

Economic literature, 50(4), 1051-1079.
 Dumitrescu, E. I., & Hurlin, C. (2012). Testing for Granger non-causality in
heterogeneous panels. Economic modelling, 29(4), 1450-1460.
 El Alaoui, A. (2016). Impact of women‘s education on the economic growth: An

empirical analysis applied to Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Egypt. International
Journal of Social Sciences and Education Research, 2(3), 960-979.
 Elveren, A. Y. (2014). Women‘s labour force participation and pay inequality:

evidence from panel co integration. Applied Economics Letters, 21(12), 862-865.
 Elveren, A. Y., Moghadam, V. M., & Dudu, S. (2022, September). Militarization,

women's labor force participation, and gender inequality: Evidence from global data.
In Women's Studies International Forum (Vol. 94, p. 102621). Pergamon.
 Erdogan, S., Yildirim, D. C., & Tosuner, O. (2012). The Effect of Gender Inequality in
Education on Health: Evidence from Turkey. Educational Sciences: Theory and
Practice, 12(3), 1860-1866.
 Esen, Ö., & Seren, G. Y. (2021). The impact of gender inequality in education and
employment on economic performance in Turkey: evidence from a cointegration
approach. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal, 41(4), 592-607.
 Esteve-Volart, B. (2000) Sex Discrimination and Growth, IMF Working Paper

WP/00/84, Washington DC: African Department, International Monetary Fund.
 Esteve-Volart, B. (2004). Gender discrimination and growth: Theory and evidence
from India. LSE STICERD Research Paper No. DEDPS42.
 Favara, M. G. (2003). An empirical reassessment of the relationship between finance

and growth. International Monetary Fund.
 Favas, C., Ansbro, É., Eweka, E., Agarwal, G., Lazo Porras, M., Tsiligianni, I., ... &
Murphy, A. (2022). Factors influencing the implementation of remote delivery
strategies for non-communicable Disease Care in Low-and Middle-Income Countries:
a narrative review. Public Health Reviews, 43, 1604583.
 Fiedler, J. L. (2000). The Nepal National Vitamin A Program: prototype to emulate or
163
donor enclave?. Health Policy and Planning, 15(2), 145-156.
 Forbes, K. J. (2000). A reassessment of the relationship between inequality and

growth. American economic review, 90(4), 869-887.
 Forsythe, N., Korzeniewicz, R. P., & Durrant, V. (2000). Gender inequalities and
economic growth: A longitudinal evaluation. Economic development and cultural
change, 48(3), 573-617.
 Galor, O., & Weil, D. N. (1996). The Gender Gap. Fertility, and Growth, V The
American Economic Review, 86(3), 374.
 Ghani, W. A. W. A. K., Rusli, I. F., Biak, D. R. A., & Idris, A. (2013). An application
of the theory of planned behaviour to study the influencing factors of participation in
source separation of food waste. Waste management, 33(5), 1276-1281.
 Ghatak, S., & Siddiki, J. U. (2001). The use of the ARDL approach in estimating
virtual exchange rates in India. Journal of Applied statistics, 28(5), 573-583.
 Ghosh, M. (2018). Gender equality, growth and human development in India. Asian
Development Perspectives (ADP), 9(1), 68-87.
 Girón, A., & Kazemikhasragh, A. (2022). Gender equality and economic growth in
Asia and Africa: Empirical analysis of developing and least developed
countries. Journal of the knowledge economy, 13, 1433-1443.
 Gupta, N. (2020). Rationalizing gender inequality at scientific research organizations:

A reproduction of the Indian socio-cultural context. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion:
An International Journal, 39(6), 689-706.
 Gupta, R., Singhal, G. L., Goyal, A., Kaur, G., Purohit, N., & Prinja, S. (2021).
Combatting the imbalance of sex ratio at birth: medium-term impact of India‘s
National Programme of Beti Bachao Beti Padhao in the Haryana State of India. Health
Policy and Planning, 36(10), 1499-1507.
 Hazarika, G., Khraiche, M., & Kutlu, L. (2023). Gender equity in labor market
opportunities and aggregate technical efficiency: a case of equity promoting
efficiency. Applied Economics, 1-12.
 Hill, M. A., & King, E. (1995). Women's education and economic well-
being. Feminist economics, 1(2), 21-46.
164
 Hill, M. A., & King, E. M. (1993). Women‘s education in developing countries: An
overview. Women’s education in developing countries: Barriers, benefits and policies,
1-50.
 Hong, G., Kim, S., Park, G., & Sim, S. G. (2019). Female education externality and
inclusive growth. Sustainability, 11(12), 3344.
 Im, K. S., Pesaran, M. H., & Shin, Y. (1997). Testing for Unit Roots in Heterogeneous
Panels‖, Mimeo, Department of Applied Economics, University of Cambridge.
 Jayachandran, S. (2014). The roots of gender inequality in developing countries (No.

w20380).
 Jha, P., & Nagar, N. (2015). A study of gender inequality in India. The International
Journal of Indian Psychology, 2(3), 46-53.
 Johansen, S., & Juselius, K. (1990). Maximum likelihood estimation and inference on
cointegration—with appucations to the demand for money. Oxford Bulletin of
Economics and statistics, 52(2), 169-210.
 Kabir, D., & Hussain, S. A. GENDER INEQUALITY AND ECONOMIC GROWTH:

A CROSS-COUNTRY ANALYSIS. In 15th Islamic Countries Conference on
Statistical Sciences, ICCS-15,145-156.
 Kanwal, A., & Munir, K. (2015). The impact of educational and gender inequality on
income inequality in South Asia.
 Karoui, K., & Feki, R. (2018). The impacts of gender inequality in education on
economic growth in Tunisia: an empirical analysis. Quality & Quantity, 52, 1265-
1273.
 Kazandjian, R., Kolovich, L., Kochhar, K., & Newiak, M. (2019). Gender equality and
economic diversification. Social Sciences, 8(4), 118.
 Kennedy, T., Rae, M., Sheridan, A., & Valadkhani, A. (2017). Reducing gender wage
inequality increases economic prosperity for all: Insights from Australia. Economic
Analysis and Policy, 55, 14-24.
 Kesti, E. (2018). The effect of gender equality in education on economic growth, A

study of developing countries in Asia,1-43.
165
 Khan, H. N., Khan, M. A., Razli, R. B., Sahfie, A. A. B., Shehzada, G., Krebs, K. L.,
& Sarvghad, N. (2016). Health care expenditure and economic growth in SAARC
countries (1995–2012): a panel causality analysis. Applied Research in Quality of
Life, 11, 639-661.
 Khayria, K., & Feki, R. (2015). Gender inequality and economic development.
Business and Economics Journal, 6(4).
 Khera, P. (2016). Macroeconomic impacts of gender inequality and informality in

India. International Monetary Fund.
 Khurshid, A. (2016). Domesticated gender (in) equality: Women‘s education & gender
relations among rural communities in Pakistan. International Journal of Educational
Development, 51, 43-50.
 Kim, J. (2013). Gender difference in employment and income in China's labor

market. The Journal of East Asian Affairs, 31-53.
 Kim, J., Lee, J. W., & Shin, K. (2016). A model of gender inequality and economic
growth. Asian Development Bank Economics Working Paper Series, (475).
 King, E. M., Klasen, S., & Porter, M. (2008). Gender and Development
Challenge. Copenhagen Consensus Project.
 Klasen, S. (2000). Does gender inequality reduce growth and development? Evidence
from cross-country regressions.
 Klasen, S. (2002). Does gender inequality in education reduce economic development:
evidence from cross-country regressions? World Bank Economic Review.
 Klasen, S. (2002). Low Schooling for Girls, Slower Growth for All? Cross-country
Evidence on the Effect of Gender Inequality in Education on Economic Development.
World Bank Economic Review, 16(3), 345-73.
 Klasen, S., & Lamanna, F. (2009). The impact of gender inequality in education and
employment on economic growth: new evidence for a panel of countries. Feminist
economics, 15(3), 91-132.
 Knowles, S., Lorgelly, P. K., & Owen, P. D. (2002). Are educational gender gaps a
brake on economic development? Some cross‐ country empirical evidence. Oxford
economic papers, 54(1), 118-149.
166
 Koengkan, M., Fuinhas, J. A., Belucio, M., Kazemzadeh, E., Poveda, Y. E. M.,
Alavijeh, N. K., & Santiago, R. (2022). The Consequences of Gender Inequality on
Latin America‘s Economic Growth: Macroeconomic Evidence. Sexes, 3(3), 396-412.
 Lagerlöf, N. P. (2003). Gender equality and long-run growth. Journal of Economic

Growth, 8, 403-426.
 Levin, A., Lin, C. F., & Chu, C. S. J. (2002). Unit root tests in panel data: asymptotic
and finite-sample properties. Journal of econometrics, 108(1), 1-24.
 Mackenbach, J. P., Meerding, W. J., & Kunst, A. E. (2011). Economic costs of health
inequalities in the European Union. Journal of Epidemiology & Community
Health, 65(5), 412-419.
 Manel, D. P. K. (2023). Factors Influence on Changes of Population Growth in Sri

Lanka: From 1970 to 2019. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies, 10(2),
01-12.
 Mata, J. R. (2023). Gender equality in Spain and Portugal 2006-2022: economy and
competitiveness. GCG: revista de globalización, competitividad y
gobernabilidad, 17(1), 117-133.
 Matthew, O., Adeniji, A., Osabohien, R., Olawande, T., & Atolagbe, T. (2020).
Gender inequality, maternal mortality and inclusive growth in Nigeria. Social
Indicators Research, 147, 763-780.
 Mátyás, L., & Sevestre, P. (Eds.). (2013). The econometrics of panel data: handbook
of theory and applications (Vol. 28). Springer Science & Business Media.
 Minasyan, A., Zenker, J., Klasen, S., & Vollmer, S. (2019). Educational gender gaps
and economic growth: A systematic review and meta-regression analysis. World
Development, 122, 199-217.
 Morrison, A., & Morrison, A. R. (2007). Gender equality, poverty and economic
growth.
 Morrison, A., Raju, D., & Sinha, N. (2008). Gender equality is good for the
poor. Poverty in Focus,“Gender Equality, 13, 16-17.
 Mr, A. K. (2019). Examining the impact of an English in action training program on
secondary-school english teachers‘ classroom practice in Bangladesh.
167
 Mujahid, N., & uz Zafar, N. (2012). Economic growth-female labour force
participation nexus: an empirical evidence for Pakistan. The Pakistan Development
Review, 565-585.
 Mukherjee, P., & Mukhopadhyay, I. (2013). Impact of gender inequality on economic

growth: A study of developing countries. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social
Science (IOSR-JHSS), 13(2), 61-69.
 National Institute of Population Research and Training (NIPORT)., Mitra and

Associates., ICF International. Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey 2014.
Dhaka, Bangladesh and Calverton, Maryland, USA: NIPORT, Mitra and Associates,
and ICF International; 2015.
 Niimi, Y. (2009). Gender equality and inclusive growth in developing

Asia. INEQUALITY AND INCLUSIVE GROWTH: MEASUREMENT, POLICY
ISSUES, AND COUNTRY STUDIES, Forthcoming, Asian Development Bank
Economics Working Paper Series, (186).
 Obstfeld, M., & Taylor, A. M. (2017). International monetary relations: Taking

finance seriously. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 31(3), 3-28.
 ORGI (2020). Sample registration system statistical report 2018. Report, Office of the
Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India, New Delhi: Government of
India.
 Oztunc, H., Oo, Z. C., & Serin, Z. V. (2015). Effects of female education on economic
growth: A cross country empirical study. Educational Sciences: Theory &
Practice, 15(2), 349-357.
 Pervaiz, Z., Chani, M. I., Jan, S. A., & Chaudhary, A. R. (2011). Gender inequality
and economic growth: A time series analysis for Pakistan. Published in: Middle-East
Journal of Scientific Research, Vol. 10, No. 4 (2011): pp. 434-439.
 Pesaran, M. H. (2007). A simple panel unit root test in the presence of cross‐ section
dependence. Journal of applied econometrics, 22(2), 265-312.
 Pesaran, M. H., Shin, Y., & Smith, R. P. (1999). Pooled mean group estimation of
dynamic heterogeneous panels. Journal of the American statistical
Association, 94(446), 621-634.
168
 Phillips, P. C., & Perron, P. (1988). Testing for a unit root in time series
regression. biometrika, 75(2), 335-346.
 Rai, B. (2023). A Critique of Gender Inequality: Study of Education and Health in the
North Bengal Region. In Gender Inequality and its Implications on Education and
Health: A Global Perspective (pp. 91-100). Emerald Publishing Limited.
 Ram, H., Chakravorty, S., & Goli, S. (2022). Does gender inequality affect economic
development? An Evidence based on analysis of cross-national panel data of 158
countries.
 Ridhwan, M. M., Nijkamp, P., Ismail, A., & M. Irsyad, L. (2022). The effect of health
on economic growth: A meta-regression analysis. Empirical economics, 63(6), 3211-
3251.
 Sala-i-Martin, X. X., & Barro, R. J. (1995). Technological diffusion, convergence, and

growth (No. 735). Center discussion paper.
 Saltelli, A. (2007). Composite indicators between analysis and advocacy. Social

Indicators Research, 81(1), 65–77.
 Sarafidis, V., Yamagata, T., & Robertson, D. (2009). A test of cross section
dependence for a linear dynamic panel model with regressors. Journal of
econometrics, 148(2), 149-161.
 Seguino, S. (2000). Gender inequality and economic growth: A cross-country

analysis. World development, 28(7), 1211-1230.
 Siah, A. K., & Lee, G. H. (2015). Female labour force participation, infant mortality
and fertility in Malaysia. Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy, 20(4), 613-629.
 Stefko, R., Gavurova, B., Ivankova, V., & Rigelsky, M. (2020). Gender inequalities in
health and their effect on the economic prosperity represented by the GDP of selected
developed countries—Empirical study. International Journal of Environmental
Research and Public Health, 17(10), 3555.
 Stepanenko, O., Tarasenko, K., Karakoz, O., Dolbenko, T., & Markevych, L. (2021).
Gender issue in modern education: Theory and practice. International Journal of
Advanced and Applied Sciences, 8(11), 87-95.
169
 Stotsky, M. J. G., Shibuya, S., Kolovich, M. L., & Kebhaj, S. (2016). Trends in gender
equality and women’s advancement. International Monetary Fund.
 Suri, T., Boozer, M. A., Ranis, G., & Stewart, F. (2011). Paths to success: The
relationship between human development and economic growth. World
Development, 39(4), 506-522.
 Tisdell, C. A. (2021). How has India‘s economic growth and development affected its
gender inequality?. Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy, 26(2), 209-229.
 Tzannatos, Z. (1999). Women and labor market changes in the global economy: Growth
helps, inequalities hurt and public policy matters. World development, 27(3), 551-569.
 United Nations Development Programme (Lesotho). (2005). Towards the Achievement
of the Millennium Development Goals. United Nations Development Programme.
 Vaid, D. (2004). Gendered inequality in educational transitions. Economic and
Political Weekly, 3927-3938.
 World Bank. (2000). World development report 2000/2001: Attacking poverty. The
World Bank.
 World Bank. (2006). World development report 2007: Development and the next
generation. The World Bank.
 World Economic Forum. (2022). The global gender gap report 2022. Insight Report.
Geneva, Switzerland: World Economic Forum.
 World Health Organization, & UNICEF. (2017). Annual report 2016: intervention and
implementation research (No. TDR/IIR/17.1). World Health Organization.
 World Health Organization. (2016). Annual technical report 2015: department of

reproductive health and research, including UNDP/UNFPA/WHO/World Bank
Special Programme of Research Training in Human Reproduction (HRP) (No.
WHO/RHR/HRP/16.08). World Health Organization.
 World Health Organization. (2019). World health statistics overview 2019: monitoring
health for the SDGs, sustainable development goals (No. WHO/DAD/2019.1). World
Health Organization.
 Wu, X., Ali, A., Zhang, T., Chen, J., & Hu, W. (2022). An empirical analysis of the
impact of gender inequality and sex ratios at birth on China‘s economic
growth. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 1003467.
170
 Yumusak, I. G., Bilen, M., & Ates, H. (2013). The Impacts of gender inequality in
education on economic growth in Turkey. Procedia-Social and Behavioral
Sciences, 103, 1093-1103.
171
Ph.D.
Thesis
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GENDER INEQUALITY
AND ECONOMIC GROWTH IN SOUTH ASIAN
COUNTRIES : AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS
ECONOMIC GROWTH IN SOUTH ASIAN COUNTRIES : AN
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GENDER INEQUALITY AND
EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS
A Thesis
submitted for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
in
ECONOMICS
Submitted by
Abida khatoon
Under the Joint Supervision of
Prof. Siddharth Shastri Dr. Swati Shastri

Department of Economics Associate Professor & Head
Banasthali Vidyapith Department of Economics
- Abida khatoon
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

BANASTHALI VIDYAPITH
Rajasthan, India
2023
2023
CHAPTER - 5
CONCLUSION
This chapter is separated into three sections. Section 5.1 summarises the findings on the
association between gender-based inequality and economic growth in South Asian countries.
Section 5.2 discusses the policy implications based on the empirical findings and section 5.3
attempts to advise the path of the future research investigations.
5.1 Summary of Empirical Findings

This study aims to empirically examine the association between gender inequality and
economic growth in South Asian economies namely; Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and
Sri Lanka during time period 1980-2020. In order to achieve this objective, the empirical
association between gender-based inequality in health, education, and labour force and
economic growth have been studied. A comprehensive and representative measure of gender
inequality is needed to compare the relative situation of women and men. Gender Inequality
Index is constructed by UNDP for this purpose. GII is a composite index comprising of
reproductive health, empowerment and the labour market. The present study has also used
Gender Inequality Index to assess the above stated relationship.
A number of researches have studies and empirically inspected the association among gender
inequality and economic growth. These empirical studies have examined this association
using various methodologies and variables; however, most of the studies have been done on
the topic of gender inequality and economic growth, economies as a whole. Very limited such
studies are available on South Asia economies. Furthermore, previous existing studies used
educational gap and labour force participation gap as a proxy for gender inequality. The use
of gender inequality indicators in health, education and labour force participation could be a
suitable exercise in order to examine the association among gender inequality and economic
growth in South Asian region.
Study uses panel ARDL-PMG method to inspect long run and short run association between
gender inequality and economic growth. The direction of the causality has been inspected
using Dumitrescu-Hurlin panel causality test results-based on Granger Causality test.
150
Panel Evidence
 Result of empirical analysis finds long run association between gender inequality in heath
and economic growth. Results also indicate that gender inequality in life expectancy and
gender inequality in mortality rate positively impacts economic growth in South Asian
countries in short run and long run. The results indicate that gross fixed capital formation
have positive and significant impact on economic growth in both short and long run and
population growth negatively affects economic growth in long run but in short run it has
no significant impact on economic growth.
 When dependent variable is gender inequality in life expectancy; Result of empirical

analysis find long run association between gender inequality in life expectancy, economic
growth, gross fixed capital formation, and population growth. Results also indicate that
economic growth positively impacts gender inequality in life expectancy.
 When gender inequality in mortality rate is taken as a dependent variable. Result of

empirical analysis find long run association between gender inequality in mortality rate,
economic growth, and gross fixed capital formation and growth of population. Study
reveals that, economic growth has a positive and significant impact on gender inequality
in mortality rate.
151
 Result of empirical analysis finds long run association between gender-based inequality
in education, economic growth, and gross fixed capital formation and population growth.
Findings indicate that gender-based inequality in secondary education, gender inequality
in tertiary education positively and population growth negatively impacts economic
growth in both short and long run. Gross fixed capital formation positively impacts
economic growth in both long and short term.
 When gender inequality in primary education is taken as a dependent variable. Study

reveals that economic growth positively impacts gender inequality in primary education
in long run. But we did not find any impact on gender inequality in primary education in
short run.
 When gender inequality in secondary education is taken as a dependent variable. Finding

reveals that economic growth positively impacts gender inequality in secondary education
in long run. We did not find any impact on gender-based inequality in case of secondary
 When gender inequality in tertiary education is taken as a dependent variable. Finding of

empirical analysis find long run association between gender inequality in tertiary
education, economic growth, gross fixed capital formation and population growth. Study
reveals that economic growth positively impacts gender inequality in tertiary education in
long run. We did not find any impact of variables on gender inequality in tertiary
152
participation and economic growth are summarised below:
 Result of empirical analysis find long run connection between economic growth, gender
inequality in labour force, gross fixed capital formation, and population growth. Results
also indicate that gender inequality in labour force and population growth positively
impacts economic growth in long run. Gross fixed capital formation effects economic
growth positive and significantly in long run only. We did not find any impact of these
variables on economic growth in short run.
 When dependent variable is gender inequality in labour force; Results of empirical

analysis find long run association between gender inequality in labour force, economic
growth, gross fixed capital formation, and population growth. Study reveals that
economic growth positively impacts gender inequality in labour force participation in
long run. Economic growth and population growth do not affect gender inequality in
labour force in short run.
153
 Result of empirical analysis finds long run relationship between economic growth, gender
inequality index, and gross fixed capital formation and population growth. Results also
indicate that gender inequality index and population growth negatively impact growth of
the economy in long runs and Gross fixed capital formation positively affects growth of
the economy in short and long run.
 When gender inequality index is taken as a dependent variable. Result of empirical

analysis finds long run association between gender inequality index, economic growth,
capital formation, and population growth. Findings also show that economic growth,
gross fixed capital formation, and population growth negatively affect gender inequality
index in long run. These variables do not affect gender inequality index in short run.
154
Country Wise Evidence
 When economic growth is the dependent variable, Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Pakistan
equilibrium. When gender inequality in life expectancy is dependent variable, Nepal and
Sri Lanka only have a negative and significant ECT which implies explanatory variables
to adjust back to equilibrium. When dependent variable is gender inequality in mortality
rate; Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka have a negative and significant ECT
which implies independent variables to adjust back to equilibrium. Coefficient of RLE
and RIM are having a negative but insignificant effect on GDPG in every economy it
implies that, it does have any significant effect on economic growth in short run. A
positive and significant relationship found among gross fixed capital formation and
economic growth in all economies, meaning that capital formation in economies is
boosting the growth of the economy.
 When economic growth is the dependent variables, all five countries have a negative and
significant ECT which implies explanatory variables to adjust back to equilibrium. When
dependent variable is gender inequality in primary education; Bangladesh, India, Pakistan
and Sri Lanka have a have a negative and significant ECT which implies explanatory
variables to adjust back to equilibrium. When gender inequality in secondary education is
the dependent variable, all five countries have a negative and significant ECT which
implies explanatory variables to adjust back to equilibrium. When dependent variable is
gender inequality in tertiary; Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka have an adverse and
significant ECT which implies independent variables to correct back to equilibrium.
Coefficient of gender inequality in primary education, secondary education, tertiary
education and population growth having a negative and significant effect on economic
growth in every economy and coefficient of gross fixed capital formation having a
positive and significant value except India.
155
and economic growth are summarised below:
 When dependent variable is economic growth; India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka have a
equilibrium and when gender inequality in labour force participation is dependent
variables. Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka have a negative and significant ECT
which implies independent variables to correct back to equilibrium. Coefficient of gender
inequality in labour force and growth of population is having an adverse but insignificant
effect on growth in every country. Coefficient of gross fixed capital formation is having
an adverse and significant effect on economic growth in all countries. Coefficient of
economic growth, gross fixed capital formation and population growth are having a
positive and significant effect on gender based-inequality in labour force in all countries
except for economic growth in Sri Lanka.
 When economic growth is the dependent variable, all countries except Bangladesh and Sri
correct back to equilibrium. Coefficient of gender inequality index and PG are having a
negative but insignificant effect on economic growth in every economy except Pakistan,
it implies that is does not have any significant affect on growth in short run. In Pakistan
coefficients of gender inequality index and population growth is having an insignificant
value. And when gender inequality index is the dependent variables, all countries except
India are showing negative and significant ECT which implies independent variables to
correct back to equilibrium. Coefficient of economic growth is having an adverse and
significant effect on gender inequality index in every economy except Bangladesh and
Nepal, it implies that is does have significant effect on economic growth in short run. In
Bangladesh and Nepal, coefficient of economic growth is having positive and significant
value which implies that, economic growth is increasing the gender inequality index in
the given countries.
156
Findings of the resent study lead to the following conclusions:
All forms of gender inequality whether it is in health, education and labour force
participation tend to increase economic growth in South Asian countries. Firstly, results
indicate that gender inequality in health positively impacts economic growth in short run and
long run. Second, gender inequality in secondary and tertiary education increase economic
growth in long run while gender inequality in primary education increases economic growth
only in short run. Third, gender inequality in labour force participation increases growth of
the economies in the long run but it is not having any significant effect in short run. Forth,
economic growth positively impacts to gender inequality in health, education and labour
force in long run. Lastly, gender inequality measured through gender inequality index found
to be negatively affecting economic growth and economic growth is affecting gender
inequality index negatively in long run, Increase in gender inequality when measured as a
composite index hampers GDP growth.
Findings of the study also supported by these studies; Khan et al. (2016), Seguino (2000),
Busse and Spielmann (2006), Barro and Lee (1994) Barro and Sala-i-Martin (1995) and
Niimi (2009). Niimi (2009) state that gender inequality is significant especially in South
Asian region and Seguino (2000) state that Asian economies that have discrimination against
women the most grew faster, gender discrimination and low female participation stimulate
investment.
5.2 Policy Implications

Based on the empirical findings present study has the following policy implications:
 Gender inequality in health, education, and labour force participation essentially require
solid policy agenda to sustained long term economic growth in South Asian region so the
gender equality will promote growth. At the cost of girl‘s health, education and labour
force participation, economic growth can be achieved but it will destroy the economic and
social structure of the region. Policies should be made in such a manner that parents get
encouraged to educate their girl child. To achieve gender equality in terms of health
outcomes it is required to give a special attention to develop a robust health care structure.
Economic growth in south Asia is not leading to gender equality rather growth promotes
inequality. Growth strategy in these countries must be gender inclusive.
157
 Gender inequalities in labour force participation also require implementing policies to
ensure safety of women at work place so that they are encouraged to access the
employment opportunities in the labour market. These steps will not only promote gender
equality in the society but also promotes the economic growth. Iceland is the best
example for gender equal country in the world.
 Gender budgeting can be a policy option for the government to endorse gender equality
through the budget against persistent gender. According to world economic forum‘s
global gender gap index report 2022 Iceland got the highest score of 0.91, as gender
budgeting policy is practiced by the government (Gíslason and Símonardóttir, 2018).
 To reduce the overall gender inequality to promote economic growth in more appropriate
way, multi-pronged strategy needs to be implemented like; policy formulation, proper
implementation and awareness building.
5.3 Scope for the Future Research

Present study attempts to examine the relationship between gender inequality and economic
growth. Gender inequality is examined in three dimensions i.e. health, education, and labour
force participation. However future research can be done by using other dimensions of gender
inequality such as inequality in political participation. Further this study did not control for
the social, cultural and religious differences across region which can spuriously affect the
results.
158

01 Title Merged

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

01 Title Merged

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GENDER INEQUALITY

AND ECONOMIC GROWTH IN SOUTH ASIAN

Under the Joint Supervision of

Prof. Siddharth Shastri Dr. Swati Shastri

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

Economic Growth in South Asian Countries: An Empirical Analysis” which is being

Faculty of Social Sciences (Department of Economics), Banasthali Vidyapith Rajasthan, is a

institution in India or abroad.

Date: Prof. Siddharth Shastri

Dr. Swati Shastri

Date: Ms. Abida Khatoon

I express my heartfelt thanks to my supervisors Prof. Siddharth Shastri, Department

I am thankful to the faculty members of Department of Economics, Banasthali Vidyapith. I

Ms. Abida Khatoon

ADF Augmented Dickey–Fuller

IPS Im, Pesaran and Shin

Table No. Table Name Page No.

Figure No. Figure Name Page No.

1.2 Theoretical Linkages between Gender Inequality and Economic Growth

1.2.2 Does Economic Growth Affect Gender Inequality?

1.3 Status of Gender Inequality in South Asian Countries

1.4 Objectives and Hypothesis of the Study

1.4.2 Hypothesis of the Study

1.5 Indicators of Gender Inequality

Whereas political participation domain is explained through;

1.6 Data Description and Methodology

1.6.2.1 Trend Analysis, Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Matrix

1.6.2.2 Cross Sectional Dependence Test

𝑦𝑖𝑡 = 𝛼𝑖 + 𝛽′𝑥𝑖𝑡 + 𝑢𝑖𝑡

CIPS statistic may be defined as:

Equation 1: Dependent variable is growth rate of GDP

∆GDPGit = α0 + α1 ∆GDPGi,t−j + α2 ∆HIi,t−j + α3 ∆GFCFi,t−j + α4 ∆PGi,t−j

Equation 2: Dependent variable is growth rate of GDP

∆GDPGit = α0 + α1 ∆GDPGi,t−j + α2 ∆EIi,t−j + α3 ∆GFCFi,t−j + α4 ∆PGi,t−j

Equation 3: Dependent variable is growth rate of GDP

∆GDPGit = α0 + α1 ∆GDPGi,t−j + α2 ∆RLFPi,t−j + α3 ∆GFCFi,t−j + α4 ∆PGi,t−j

∆GDPGit = β0 + β1 ∆GDPGi,t−j + β2 ∆EIi,t−j + β3 ∆GFCFi,t−j + β4 ∆PGi,t−j

∆GDPGit = β0 + β1 ∆GDPGi,t−j + β2 ∆RLFPi,t−j + β3 ∆GFCFi,t−j + β4 ∆PGi,t−j

∆GDPGit = β0 + β1 ∆GDPGi,t−j + β2 ∆GIIi,t−j + β3 ∆GFCFi,t−j + β4 ∆PGi,t−j

𝑦𝑖,𝑡 = 𝛼𝑖 + 𝛾𝑖𝑘 𝑦𝑖,𝑡−𝑘 + 𝛽𝑖𝑘 𝑥𝑖,𝑡−𝑘 + 𝜀𝑖,𝑡

1.7 Significance of the Study

1.8 Limitations of the Study

2.1 Gender Inequality and Economic Growth: Review of Empirical

7. Esteve–Volart (2000) empirically examined the impact of gender inequality in primary

30. Ghani et al. (2013) analyzed determinants of female participation on entrepreneurship in

Summary of Empirical Literature is presented in Table No. 2.1.

Author Country & Gender Inequality Indicator Methodology Results

3.1 Trends in Gender Inequality in Health in South Asian Countries

Life Expectancy at Birth

Bangladesh India Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka

Bangladesh India Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka

Labour Force Participation Rate

Labour force participation rate, female (% of female population ages 15+)

Labour force participation rate, female (% of female population ages 15+)

Labour force participation rate, female (% of female population ages 15+)

Labour force participation rate, female (% of female population ages 15+)

Labour force participation rate, female (% of female population ages 15+)

Bangladesh India Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka

Gender Inequality Index

Figure No. 3.34: Gender Inequality Index in Bangladesh

Figure No. 3.35: Gender Inequality Index in India

Figure No. 3.36: Gender Inequality Index in Nepal

Figure No. 3.37: Gender Inequality Index in Pakistan

Figure No. 3.38: Gender Inequality Index in Sri Lanka