Digital Neuromorphic Design of a Liquid State Machine for
Real-Time Processing
Anvesh Polepalli, Nicholas Soures, Dhireesha Kudithipudi
Nanocomputing Research Lab
Rochester Institute of Technology
e-mail: dxkeec@rit.edu
Abstract—The Liquid State Machine (LSM) is a form of
reservoir computing which emulates the brains capability of
processing spatio-temporal data. This type of network generates
highly descriptive responses to continuous input streams. The
response is then used to extract information about the input
stream. A single LSM network can be used as a generic
intelligent processor that processes different streams of data
(or) on same stream of data to extract different features. The
LSM has been shown to perform well in tasks dependent on
a systems behavior through time. The LSM’s intrinsic memory
and its reduced training complexity make it a suitable choice
for hardware implementations for spatio-temporal applications.
Existing behavioral models of LSM cannot process real time data
due to their hardware complexity or inability to deal with real-
time data or both. The proposed model focuses on a simple liquid
design that exploits spatial locality and is capable of processing
real time data. The model is evaluated for EEG seizure detection
with an accuracy of 84.2% and for user identification based on
walking pattern with an accuracy of 98.4%.
I. I NTRODUCTION
Our environment predominantly consists of dynamic signals
which provide information about the state of our surroundings.
These signals include visual stimuli, motion, and audio signals.
By continuously processing all these signals, we are able
to perceive, predict, or identify patterns in the data. Simi-
larly autonomous systems rely on memory of recent states
to process spatio-temporal streams of information and find
correlations in patterns so they can make predictions based
on the dynamic signals. There are a few networks proposed
in literature that process spatio-temporal inputs, such as Long
Short Term Memory and time-delay networks. Typically, these
require a predefined window size appropriate for the task at
hand as well as a linear increase in the network size depending
on the size of the networks memory. Recurrent neural networks
(RNN) remove the need of knowing the appropriate window
size because the network only requires the input at the current
point in time. The recurrent connections give the network a
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1
memory of the past behavior due to previous inputs. How-
ever, training recurrent networks is computationally expensive
using methods such as back-propagation through time. They
also suffer from exploding and vanishing gradients and are
computationally expensive [1]. A class of networks known as
Reservoir Computing (RC) that are proposed in 2002, offer
rapid training capability.
These networks consist of a reservoir, which can be viewed
as a 3D array of recurrently connected neurons. This reservoir
of neurons can create a multi-dimensional dynamic represen-
tation of an input stream. The idea behind RC is that the
reservoir will provide a unique, nonlinear description of each
different input sequence to a higher dimensional space. It will
suffice to only train a classifier to recognize and associate
the different reservoir states with the desired target outputs.
This means the only training needed is on the output layer
itself. Two major forms of RC emerged at the same time
and they were the Echo State Network (ESN) proposed in
[2] and the Liquid State Machine (LSM) proposed in [3].
The major difference between two networks is that the LSM
was designed from a more biological viewpoint, operating on
spiking neurons and spike trains, as well as having dynamic
synaptic strengths. The ESN operates on continuous analog
signals using activation functions such as the sigmoid function
with static reservoir weights. In this work we focus on the
LSM. It has been shown in [4] that Spiking Neurons are at
least as computationally powerful as neurons using threshold
or sigmoidal or other similar activation functions.
Software models of LSM have been implemented in diverse
applications such as facial expression recognition [5], speech
recognition [6], isolated word recognition [7]. In general,
digital hardware realization of LSM offer performance and
energy efficiency ([8], [9], [10], and [11]) due to highly
parallel structures and small form factors. Few hardware
models explore compact hardware on FPGA [12], hardware
efficient neuromorphic dendritically enhanced readout [13],
and real-time speech recognition [14]. These implementations
offer early architectures which are either not hardware efficient
or not capable of dealing with real time inputs. Specific
contribution of this research study is to design a generic
behavioral model of LSM which focuses on a scalable and
hardware efficient approach for processing real time data
without significant performance loss.
The rest of the paper is outlined as follows. Section II
provides an overview of LSM algorithm and process flow

Fig. 1: A basic structure of LSM consisting of three layers:
input, reservoir and output layer
of training the network. Section III provides an insight in
to the proposed model. Section IV describes in detail the
various network topologies that have been explored in the
implementation of LSM. Section V describes the simulation
framework and the data sets that are used to benchmark
the proposed architecture. Section VI presents the simulation
results for the benchmarks.
II. LSM A LGORITHM
The state of the neuron in the liquid is calculated based on
the current inputs u(t), synaptic strength of these inputs Win
and current state of all the neurons within the liquid (refer to
Fig. 1). Current responses of the neurons within the liquid are
based on preceding perturbations/inputs (u(t’) for t’ 6 t). In
mathematical terms, liquid state is simply the current output of
some function LM that maps input u(t 0 ) on to xM (t) as shown
in (1). All the information from inputs u(t’) from preceding
time points t 0 6 t that are needed to produce target output y(t)
at time t is contained in the current state of liquid [3].
xM (t) = (LM ∗ u)(t) (1)
LSM has a memoryless readout map f M that transforms
the current liquid state xM (t) into the output as shown in (2).
The liquid function LM is task independent; where a read out
map f M in general is chosen in a task dependent manner.
There can be more than one memoryless read out maps, that
extract different features from the current liquid output LM (if
required).
y(t) = f M (xM (t)) (2)
within the liquid each neuron spikes when its threshold
is reached, the number of spikes that have occurred within
a given window (may or may not be sliding) is the output
state of the liquid for each window duration. The training
algorithm calculates and updates the third set of weights
(weights involved in connecting liquid to the output layer
2
and neurons within the output layer) based on the outputs of
neurons in the liquid for each time window.
The training process flow of the LSM model is as follows
1) Initialization
• Each neuron within the liquid is chosen to be either
inhibitory or excitatory at random depending on the
inhibitory to excitatory neurons ratio.
• All the three sets of connections and their respective
synaptic strengths are initialized.
2) A set of inputs u(t) are fed into the input layer.
3) Response of the liquid is calculated based on (1).
4) The responses in the previous time step are fed into the
output layer and are also stored for the next time step
(to calculate liquid response).
5) The response from the liquid is used to train the third
set of weights, using a specific training algorithm and
weight update rule as shown in (2).
6) Repeat steps 2-5 on all of the input training sets.
III. P ROPOSED M ODEL AND D IGITAL D ESIGN OF THE
L IQUID
The proposed behavioral model of LSM is composed of 3
stages (refer Fig. 2) - input/preprocessing layer, liquid, output
layer. All the connections between and within these blocks are
associated with a synaptic strength.
A. Preprocessing
The type of preprocessing performed is application depen-
dent. For the epilepsy detection dataset used in this case, the
proposed design consists of 4 FIR filters. Number of taps
for the filter is a reconfigurable parameter. For EEG signal
preprocessing a low-pass filter is designed to pass frequency
below 3 Hz (delta brain waves) and three band pass filters are
designed to pass frequency ranges 4Hz-8Hz (theta brain wave),
8Hz-13Hz (alpha brain signals) and 13Hz-30Hz (beta brain
signals). For the biometric user identification no preprocessing
is required.
B. Input Layer
The input layer receives the preprocessed data and generates
a spike train. There are a few spike train generator models that
provide binary signals (spike trains). Few of these models are
discussed in detail by Hugo de Gais et al. in [15], along with
a optimized spike train generator.
The input layer of LSM has been implemented and tested
for variations in performance (in terms of accuracy and
hardware complexity), where each neuron follows Bens Spiker
Algorithm (BSA). There are as many neurons in input layer
as there are input channels being fed into the LSM. Outputs
from the preprocessing layer (if any) are directly fed into the
liquid layer of LSM.
Connections from input/preprocessing layer to liquid are
of random connectivity; where as the number of connections
depend on the degree of connectivity for each input channel
from input/preprocessing layer to liquid. In this proposed
model for epilepsy detection there are four input signals to the
 Fig. 2: Proposed behavioral model of the LSM
liquid each from one of the filter for epilepsy detection data
and for input signals in case of bio-metric user identification
using the walking data. The weights connecting from the
input/preprocessing layer to the liquid are chosen to be of unit
value. Degree of connectivity from input/preprocessing layer
to liquid is 40% i.e. each input channel is connected to 40%
of the neurons in the liquid randomly chosen.
C. Liquid Layer
The liquid layer consists of neurons connected by a set of
synapses, depending upon the topology chosen, which can be
a random topology, spatial locality, ring, mesh e.t.c. For the
proposed design two types of topologies are explored - random
topology and connectivity based on spatial locality (spatial
topology) (section IV provides further detail information).
There are two kinds of neurons used within the liquid -
excitatory and inhibitory. All the neurons within the liquid
are modeled as Leaky-Integrate-and-Fire (LIF) neurons.
A scanning window of fixed width is used to scan the
number of spikes that occurred within the time window and are
fed out of the liquid layer, which is fed into the output layer
to predict. In this design approach the duration of window is
chosen to be of 1 second for epileptic seizure detection data
and of 0.25 second for user identification using the walking
data.
Several types of connections between the liquid and output
layer have been explored. The best performance has been
observed when all the neurons from the liquid are connected
to the output layer. The other types of connections that have
been explored are random connectivity, only neurons in the
3
last layer are connected to the output layer and one random
neuron from each layer is connected to the output layer.
D. Output Layer
The output layer is composed of two layer Multi-Layer
Perceptron. The number of neurons in the first and second
layer are chosen to be 4 and 1 respectively; further increase
in the number of neurons doesn’t show any significant perfor-
mance improvement. All the neurons within the output layer
are of logistic-sigmoid activation function and the weights
connecting liquid to output layer and weights within the output
layer are updated based on the gradient descent method.
E. Digital Design of LSM
The proposed digital design architecture of LSM is im-
plemented for reconfigurable platforms (refer to Fig.2). A
fully parallel design approach of network operation is chosen
instead of partially parallel or a sequential approach so as to
process the real-time input data streams, with as minimum
delay and latency as possible. The RAM and ROM blocks
used in this design are chosen to be distributed type rather
than block type for high performance with minimum delay. In
case of block memory the logic is far from the memory leading
to a huge wire delay (long access times) that preclude real time
processing. A distributed memory approach offers memory
access immediately at the next clock cycle and supports real-
time processing.
The liquid layer consists of a parameterized number of
neuron blocks(60 in this case), a RAM block, a ROM block,
and a memory controller to control the flow of data from the
neurons to the different memory blocks. A control unit unit
is used to control the functionality/state of all the neurons
and helps in synchronizing all the neurons states w.r.t each
other. An internal control unit within each neuron determines
the flow of data and the state of neuron independently. ROM
block is used to store the synaptic connection strengths of all
the connections within the liquid and from the input layer to
the liquid. RAM block is used to store the spiking status of the
neurons,output current from the neurons and the spike count
of each neuron. All the variables within the liquid are integers
with a Bernoulli weights drawing either ’0’ or ’1’, and weights
within the liquid are 3 bits long taking a value of 0/4/8/(-2).
Output current from each neuron is 12 bits long, whereas the
input current to the neurons from the input layer is 21 bits
long.
The output layer consists of 4 hidden layers and 1 out- (a) EEG Sample data for Normal Subject
put layer neuron and each neuron has a sigmoid activation
function. The sigmoid activation function is implemented as
a piece-wise-linear model instead of look-up-table resulting
in an hardware efficient model by reducing the memory
requirement.

IV. S PATIAL TOPOLOGY

In spatial topology the probability of the connections are
established based on the type of neurons (inhibitory or excita-
tory) between which the connection is being established. The
distance between the neurons and the degree of connectivity
chosen; from neuron ’a’ to neuron ’b’ can be mathematically (b) EEG Sample Data for seizure
2
defined as C ∗ e−(D(a,b)/λ ) , where ’D’ is the function that
Fig. 3: Time series EEG signal samples for (a) Normal case
computes the distance between the neurons, ’λ ’ is a parameter
(dataset A) and (b) Seizure case (dataset E).
that is used to control the degree of connectivity, ’C’ is a
constant (Used to signify excitatory and inhibitory signals)
whose value is 0.3(EE), 0.2(EI), 0.4(IE), 0.1(II) as proposed
in [3].

   
−4t −4t
Rn+1 = Rn (1 − un+1 )exp + 1 − exp (3)
τrec τrec

    
−4t −4t
un+1 = un exp +U 1 − un exp (4)
τ f acil τ f acil
(a) Scheme of the locations of surface electrodes according to the
The synaptic strengths of these connections are based upon international 10-20 system which is used to collect EEG signals for
the model proposed by Markram, et al. in [16] and presented set A.
by Maass et al. and can be mathematically formulated as in (3),
(4) (for a detail description please refer [[16]]) . Considering
the hardware design complexity this has been optimized such
that the synaptic strengths of the connections within the liquid
are fixed and use a binary numeral system (of type 2n ).

V. S IMULATION M ETHODOLOGY (b) Scheme of intracranial electrodes implanted for presurgical eval-
uation of epilepsy patients which is used to collect EEG signals for
MATLAB is used as a simulation platform to build the set E.
behavioral model of the proposed network. An exhaustive
parameter sweep of several parameters were done on the this Fig. 4: Electrode placements for EEG Data Acquisition [17].
behavioral model and the results are analyzed to build an
hardware behavioral model.

4
A. Epilepsy
The EEG dataset used is presented in [17] and obtained
from [18]. Signals in this dataset were recorded using the
same 128-channel amplifier system. A 12 bit analog-to-digital
converter is used to sample the signals at a rate of 173.61.
The dataset consists of 500 single-channel EEG segments. The
dataset is divided into five sets A-E, each set contains 100
EEG segments of 23.6 seconds each. These segments were (a) Acceleration in X-direction for two individuals.
selected and cut form multi-channel EEG records after visual
inspection for artifacts. Set A and E of this dataset are used
in this work. Set A contains EEG recordings of five healthy
volunteers in a relaxed state. Surface electrodes as shown in
Fig. 4a are used to collect the data in this set. The signals
were collected from all these electrodes where each segment
contains data of one electrode. Set E contains seizure activity
segments taken from five epilepsy patients during presurgical
(b) Acceleration in Y-direction for two individuals.
evaluation. Depth electrodes implanted symmetrically into the
hippocampal formations of the brain were used to collect the
data as shown in Fig. 4b show EEG signal samples of normal
and seizure cases respectively. Fig. 3a and Fig. 3b show EEG
signal samples of normal and seizure cases respectively.
B. Biometric User Identification using walk data
Biometrics are biological features of an individual that offer
unique descriptors. These are used in applications such as (c) Acceleration in Z-direction for two individuals.
user identification and security. One such example is user
Fig. 5: Accelerometer Recordings in XYZ Coordinates
identification based on their walking pattern ([19],[18]). In this
dataset, the walking pattern of 22 individuals was measured
using an android smart phone in a chest shirt pocket. The smart
phone used androids accelerometer at the highest sampling
frequency to record the motion of the individual which was
33 samples per second. Each person was required to walk
along an identified path but no restrictions on how they walked
were placed. The acceleration in the x, y, and z directions was
recorded for each individual until the path was completed.
From this dataset we used trained the network to differentiate
between two people. A sample of the accelerometers measure-
ments in each direction in shown in Fig. 5.
VI. R ESULTS AND A NALYSIS
A. Epileptic Seizure Detection
The proposed LSM model is trained and tested using a total
of 200 EEG signals (140 for training 20 for validation and
40 for testing). The input EEG signal is passed through a Fig. 6: Cross-Entropy vs Epochs - for epilepsy detection data.
preprocessing block with four filters each extracting a spe-
cific features. The four output signals from the preprocessing
block are connected to 40% of the neurons within the liquid confusion matrix obtained as a result of predictions form LSM;
randomly with each connection having a weight (or synaptic confusion matrix for training, validation and testing are shown
strength) of either zero or one. All the neurons outputs are which each having an accuracy of 85.5%, 84.3%, and 84.2%
connected to the output layer which is trained to detect respectively. The overall accuracy of 85.1% is observed over
epileptic seizure. 50 iterations.
Fig. 6 shows the performance of the liquid in terms of
cross-entropy of the output layer over epochs. It can be B. Biometric user Identification
observed that there is a gradual decrease in cross entropy as The three output signals from the sensor (accelerator) are
the number of epochs increases which indicates the decrease connected to 40% of the neurons within the liquid randomly
in error (or increase in prediction accuracy). Fig. 7 shows the with each connection having a weight (or synaptic strength)

5

Fig. 7: Confusion matrix based on the predictions made by
the LSM for epileptic seizure detection.
Fig. 8: Cross-Entropy vs Epochs - for bio-metric user identi-
fication data.
of either zero or one. All the neurons outputs are connected to
the output layer which is trained for user identification. Fig. 8
shows the network learning over time as the error decreases.
The final performance is shown by the confusion matrix in
Fig. 9 with an overall accuracy of 98.4%.
C. Kernel Quality of the Liquid
The performance of the liquid not only depends upon the
number of neurons but also on various other factors like
- pseudo-randomly generated weights and neuron type (in-
hibitory or excitatory). These factors effect the overall perfor-
mance of the system. As the goal of LSM is to have the liquid
independent of application, arises the need of generic metrics
that evaluate the performance of the liquid. Several metrics
have been proposed in the literature [20], [21], [22] compared
the ability of reservoir metrics to measure the performance
of several reservoir topologies. The reservoir metrics used in
their study are: class separation, kernel quality, and Lyapunov’s
exponent. Results show that kernel quality and Lyapunov’s
6
Fig. 9: Confusion matrix based on the predictions made by
the LSM for bio-metric user identification data.
exponent strongly correlate with reservoir performance. Kernel
quality is a measure of the linear separability of the reservoir
[20]. In this metric analysis, the reservoir response of all the
set of inputs is used. The rank of the result matrix indicates the
kernel quality of the liquid. The rank of the matrix determines
the correlation between neurons within the liquid. If the rank
of the matrix equals the number of neurons within the liquid
then it indicates all the neurons generate unique response form
each other. For the proposed behavioral model a kernel quality
of 59 (i.e rank of matrix is 59) is observed for a liquid with 60
neurons; which indicates a minute co-relation between neurons
within the liquid.
D. Separation Property of the Liquid
The separation property describes how unique the state of
the liquid is for different input classes. This has a direct impact
on the performance of the readout layers performance. An
ideal liquid should have a high inter-class variance with low
intra-class variance. This will enhance the performance of the
readout layer. In order to evaluate the liquid (5) is used as
given in [23] which is an expanded version of the work from
[24] .
Cd (t)
Sepx (t) = (5)
Cv (t) + 1
In (5), the inter-class distance is represented by Cd and
determined by using 96), while the intra-class distance is rep-
resented by Cv and determined using (7). Where N represents
the total number of classes, k represents the number of samples
of that class, and µ (Om (t)) represents the mean state of class
m.
The separation property of the reservoir was found to
be 0.1028 and 0.2945 for the seizure detection and user
identification tasks respectively. From these results we were
able to see that the intra-class variance was significantly larger
than the inter-class distance.
N N
||µ (Om (t)) − µ (On (t)) ||
Cd (t) = ∑∑ (6)
m=1 n=1 N2

Fig. 10: Lyapunov Exponent for reservoir performance on
different tasks.
1 N ∑ki=1 ||µ (Om (t)) − xi (t)||
CV (t) = ∑ (7)
N m=1 K Networks. d-side publications:, 2006, pp. 623–628.
E. Lyapunov Exponent of the Liquid
In [20] it was shown that networks like the LSM have
the greatest computational capability when operating on the
edge of chaos. The Lyapunov exponent provides a method to
determine if the networks is stable or chaotic. If the number is
positive, the system is behaving chaotically and if it is negative
the network is stable. This means ideally a network should
have a Lyapunov exponent value of 0 which would represent
operation at the edge of chaos. The Lyapunov exponent is
calculated using (8) as explained in [25].
! 302–305.
N ||x j (t) − x jˆ(t)||
λ (t) = k ∑ ln (8)
n=1 ||u j (t) − u jˆ(t)||
u j (t) and its nearest neighbor in the input space u jˆ(t)
represent the initial inputs to the liquid. x j and x jˆ are the
respective reservoir states of the two input vectors. K is a
scalar that can be chosen based on the data. The proposed
network had a Lyapunov Exponent of 2.1154 and 1.9654 for
user identification and seizure detection respectively as shown
in Fig. 10. These values were determined by setting k equal to
1. The positive values indicate the reservoir is slightly chaotic
which agrees with the high intra-class variance.
VII. C ONCLUSIONS
In this research a reconfigurable digital model of the LSM
which processes real-time data is proposed. Exploiting the
spatial locality in the liquid, a hardware friendly topology is
presented. A digital behavioral model of the LSM shows an an
average accuracy of 85 % for epileptic seizure detection and
98% for user identification. The performance of the liquid is
assessed using the kernel quality, the separation property, and
the Lyapunov exponent.
7
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