B K Reddy sir --Rau’s IAS

BASICS OF NATIONAL INCOME

Economic Territory: Geographical territory administered by a government
within which persons, goods and capital circulate freely. Includes:
 Political frontiers including territorial waters & air space.
 Embassies, consulates, military bases, etc. located abroad. (Excluding those
located within the political frontiers).
 Ships, aircrafts etc., operated by residents between two or more countries.
For ex., Air India’s services between different countries
 Fishing vessels, oil & natural gas rigs and floating platforms operated by
residents of the country in the international waters or engaged in extraction
in areas where the country has exclusive rights of operation.
NORMAL RESIDENTS’ VS INDIAN CITIZENS
 Normal Resident: Person who ordinarily resides in a country and whose
center of economic interest also lies in that country. Include both nationals
(such as Indians living in India) and foreigners (non-nationals living in India).
 Citizens: Include Indian nationals living within India as well as outside India.
GDP VS GNP
 Resident: Economic concept; Person or an institution whose center of
economic interest lies in the economic territory of the country in which he
lives.
 Citizens: Legal Concept
 GDP calculation: All Residents (Includes foreign Residents within India &
excludes Indian Citizens outside India.)
 GNP Calculation: All the citizens (Includes all Indian Citizens both inside
as well as outside India)
SCOPE OF GOODS COVERED
 Covers all Final Goods; does not cover Intermediate Goods since it leads to
double accounting.
 Does not include sale of secondhand Goods; but services offered on such
sales considered.
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 Includes even those Goods that are not marketed but produced for self-
consumption.
 Includes even those Goods that remain unsold; considered as addition to
Inventories/ Investment.
SCOPE OF SERVICES COVERED
 Covers all services which are produced within the Country.
 Does not include non-marketable services such as household chores, care for
elderly etc.
 Exception: Imputed rent of building that is owned and occupied by owners
themselves.
TRANSFER PAYMENTS
 National Income should consider only the factor incomes i.e., income earned
through the provision of factors of production. Hence, transfer payments i.e.,
old age pensions, education grants, unemployment benefits, gifts not
included in the GDP Calculation.
 Similarly, remittances also not accounted.
PRODUCTION Vs PRODUCT TAXES
 Production Taxes: Taxes paid on land, labour, assets such as Land revenue,
stamp duty, Registration fee, Professional tax. Not taxed on per unit of
product.
 Product Taxes: Taxes paid on per unit of product such as GST, Excise Duty,
Customs duty etc.
PRODUCTION Vs PRODUCT SUBSIDIES
 Production Subsidies: Subsidies to the entire enterprise and not specific to
product. Examples include Subsidies to Railways, Farmers, Small scale
Industries etc.
 Product Subsidies: Product specific subsidies such as Food, LPG, Kerosene,
Fertilisers etc.

FACTOR COST VS BASIC PRICE VS MARKET PRICE

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GDP is calculated by considering 3 different prices
Factor Cost: Cost of factors of Production such as land, Labour & Capital
Basic Price (Price expected to be received by Producer): Factor Cost +
Production Taxes- Production Subsidies
Market Price (Price expected to be paid by consumer): Basic Price+
Product Taxes- Product Subsidies.
GDP at Market price= GDP at Basic price + Product Taxes- Product
Subsidies
Or
GDP at Market Price= GDP at Factor Cost + Production Taxes+ Product
Taxes – (Production Subsidies + Product Subsidies)
Or
GDP at Market price = GDP at Factor Cost + Indirect Taxes – Subsidies

METHODS FOR GDP CALCULATION

EXPENDITURE METHOD
GDP = PFCE+ GFCE + GCF + (X-M)
Private Final Consumption Expenditure (PFCE): Expenditure incurred by
the households on Goods and Services (only Marketable services).
What it includes?
o Expenditure incurred by Residents within India.
o Expenditure incurred by Residents outside India (Say, Tourism, Education
accounted as Imports)
o Expenditure incurred by non-residents within Economic territory of India
considered as Exports
Government Final Consumption Expenditure Compensation of employees
(wages and salaries + pensions) + Net purchase of goods and services +
Consumption of fixed capital (CFC). Note: Excludes the transfer payment.
Gross Capital Formation (GCF)
Calculated as Gross Fixed Capital Formation (GFCF) + Changes in Stocks +
Net acquisition of valuables.
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Gross Fixed Capital Formation (GFCF) comprises of
 Construction and Maintenance of fixed assets such Infrastructure such as
Dwellings, Roads, Railways etc.
 Machinery and Equipment (3) Intellectual Property Rights such as R&D,
Software etc.
 Cultivated biological resources - Increment in Livestock and Plantation.
Exports (X) & Imports (M): Imports need to be subtracted since National
Income should consider Goods & Services produced within Economic
territory.
GDP BY INCOME METHOD
Compensation of employees (CE): Total remuneration in cash or in-kind
payable by employers to employees for the work done. Direct social transfers
such as payments for sickness, educational grants and pensions are also
imputed to compensation of employees.
Operating Surplus (OS): Operating surplus for Organised sector: Retained
Earnings + Dividend + Interest on Capital
Mixed Income (MI): Mixed Income for Unorganised/ Household sector:
Difficult to differentiate between Employment income (Wages) & Profits
(Operating Surplus)
Consumption of Fixed Assets: Rent on land, Buildings and other structures
GVA at Basic Prices = (CE+ OS/MI+ CFA) + Production Taxes – Production
Subsidies
GDP = GVA at Basic Prices + Product Taxes – Product Subsidies
GDP BY PRODUCTION METHOD
Gross Value Added (GVA) = Value of Output- Value of Intermediate
Consumption.
GDP at Market Price = GDP at basic Price + Product Taxes – Product Subsidies

NOMINAL GDP VS REAL GDP

Nominal GDP: Refers to GDP at current market prices i.e., the GDP is
calculated as per the market prices for the year for which the GDP is calculated.

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Real GDP: Refers to GDP at base year prices i.e., GDP is calculated as per
market prices in the base year. Thus, the Real GDP negates the inflation in
goods and services.
In case of high rate of inflation, nominal GDP would be quite higher than
real GDP. However, in case of deflation, real GDP would be higher than
nominal GDP.

GDP VS GNP
GNP = GDP + Income earned by Indians outside India – Income earned by
Foreigners within India
GNP = GDP + Net Factor Income from abroad (NFIA).

CHANGES IN GDP ESTIMATION

 Change in the base year from 2004-05 to 2011-12.
 Change in the GDP estimation from the GDP at Factor Cost to GDP at Market
Prices
 Change in the database for capturing economic activity from RBI's database
to the MCA-21 database of the Ministry of Corporate Affairs. This database
is used for two purposes:
o Estimate the production of goods and services in the organized sector based
upon the tax returns
o Extrapolate the production of goods and services in the unorganized sector
based upon the organized sector activity.

DRIVERS OF INDIAN ECONOMY

According to Expenditure method, GDP is calculated as C+G+I+ (X-M) where
C denotes Private final consumption expenditure (PFCE), G denotes
Government Final consumption Expenditure (GFCE), I denotes Investment, X
denotes Exports and M denotes Imports. PFCE accounts for highest
contribution followed by Investment.

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TRENDS IN GDP GROWTH RATES

FIGURE: TREND IN INDIA’S REAL GDP GROWTH

ECONOMIC RECESSION IN INDIA

 India has recently faced economic recession for the first time in the last 41 years since

1979-80
 Recession is defined as a fall in the overall economic activity for two consecutive
quarters (six months) accompanied by a decline in income, sales and employment.
 In independent India’s history, 5 such years of negative GDP growth were registered.
They saw contraction of -1.2% (FY58), -3.66% (FY66), -0.32% (FY73), -5.2% (FY80)
and present financial year (2020-21).

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TRENDS IN GROSS DOMESTIC SAVINGS

Trends in Gross Domestic Savings

Sector 2010-11 2015-16 2019-20

Household 24% 18% 20%

Private Corporate 10% 12% 10.5%

Sector

Public 3% 1% 1%

Total (1+2+3) 37% 31% 31.5%

IMPORTANT OBSERVATIONS
 Gross Domestic Savings is contributed by Household sector, Private
Corporate and Public Sector.
 Decline in Gross Domestic Savings in the last decade from 37% to 31.5%.
 Household Sector contributes for the largest share of Savings in India.
 The Household Savings is categorized into:
a) Net Financial Savings
b)Physical Savings
Note: Physical Savings of household sector account for the larger share in
comparison to Net Financial Savings)

PURCHASING POWER PARITY (PPP)

Economic size of countries can be compared either in terms of Nominal GDP
or Purchasing Power Parity (PPP).

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Comparison using Nominal GDP: Countries globally measure their GDP size
in terms of their own currencies. This makes cross country comparison
difficult. Hence, to compare GDP size of countries, we need a common
currency. Hence, GDP size of countries are converted into dollars using
average exchange rates as shown below.
TOP 5 COUNTRIES IN TERMS OF NOMINAL GDP
Rank Country Size of GDP in Exchange Size of GDP in
terms of own Rate terms of Dollars
Currency (Approximate
(Approximate values)
values)
1. USA $21 trillion N/A $ 21 trillion
2. China 92 trillion Yuan $1 = 7 Yuan $ 13 trillion
3. Japan 553 trillion Yen $ 1 = 107 Yen $5 trillion
4. $ 1 = 0.90
Germany 3.5 trillion Euros $4 trillion
Euro
5. India 204 lakh crores $ 1= 70 Rs $2.9 trillion
COMPARISON USING PPP
TOP 5 COUNTRIES IN TERMS OF GDP PPP
Rank Country Size of GDP in Purchasing GDP Size in terms
terms of own Power of PPP (US$)
Currency Parity Rates (Approximate
(Approximate (As Published values)
values) by World
Bank in 2018)
1 China 92 trillion Yuan $ 1 = 4.23 Yuan $21.74 trillion
2 USA $ 21 trillion N/A $21 trillion

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3 India 204 lakh crores $ 1 = Rs 21 $9.7 trillion

Note: the PPP rates in the table above are as per World Bank's data in 2018.

CHIEF ECONOMIC ADVISOR (CEA)

Government has appointed Dr V. Anantha Nageswaran as the Chief Economic
Advisor recently.
ABOUT CHIEF ECONOMIC ADVISOR
 Heads the Economic Division of Department of Economic Affairs in
Ministry of Finance. Equivalent to rank of Secretary to Government of India.
 Mainly advisory role to advice Government on important economic policies.
 Cadre controlling authority of the Indian Economic Service (IES) and deals
with Examination, Recruitment, Training of IES officers.
 Most important role is to prepare the Economic Survey, which is presented
one day before the presentation of the Union Budget.

PM-ECONOMIC ADVISORY COUNCIL

 A non-constitutional, non-statutory & independent body constituted to give
economic advice to Prime Minister.
 Chaired by a Chairperson and consists of several eminent economists as
members.
 Presently, it is headed by Dr. Bibek Debroy
Role and functions:
o Analyze & advice any issue referred to it by Prime Minister
o Addressing issues of macroeconomic importance and presenting views to
the Prime Minister.
o Submitting periodic reports to Prime Minister on macroeconomic
developments & issues with implications for economic policy.
Note: NITI Aayog acts a Nodal agency for the administrative, planning and
budgeting for PMEAC.

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WEALTH REDISTRIBUTION COUNCIL

Recently, Japan has launched Wealth Redistribution Council to tackle wealth
disparities and redistribute wealth to households.

CORNWALL CONSENSUS
A report released recently by the G7 Economic Resilience Panel has called for
a radically different relationship between the public and private sectors to
counter the problems caused due to Covid-19 and strengthen the resilience and
innovation of economies.
Main Points:
1. Against Washington Consensus which focused more on reduced role of
State and higher role of private sector. Instead, it calls for greater partnership
between Government and Private sector.
2. Accelerate reform of global economic governance to promote the
common good
3. Accelerate investment in the SDGs, promote digital inclusion, eliminate
tax evasion, and facilitate full access for developing countries to global
markets.

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INDIA'S PERFORMANCE ON SDGS

INDIA'S PROGRESS ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS (SDGs)
The year 2020 marks the fifth anniversary of adoption of 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development. India's progress on 17 SDGs is quite critical since India accounts for 1/6 of the
global population. In order to track India's progress on meeting SDGs, the NITI Aayog had
unveiled SDG India Index in 2018.
INDIA’S PERFORMANCE ON SDG INDIA INDEX
 India’s composite score has improved from 57 in 2018 to 60 in 2019, thereby showing

noticeable progress.
 All three states that were in the ‘Aspirant’ category (with score/s in the range of 0–49)—Uttar

Pradesh, Bihar and Assam—have graduated to the ‘Performer’ category (50–64). Thus,
presently, there are no states in the Aspirant category.
 Top Performing States: Kerala, HP, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Tamil Nadu.

 Bottom ranked States: Bihar, Jharkhand, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and UP.

 Top Performing UTs: Chandigarh, Puducherry, Dadra and Nagar Haveli.

SDG NEXUS: A NEW PARADIGM APPROACH

There are linkages among the various SDGs and have strong impacts on reinforcement of policies.
In this regard, the ‘nexus’ approach employs the principles of integrating management and
governance across sectors and scales. This demands greater co-ordination across institutions at
local, national and international levels.

EXAMPLES OF NEXUS IN SELECT SECTORS

Education and Electricity Nexus: It has been observed that basic infrastructure like electricity,
separate toilets for girls and boys in schools create a healthy and positive environment at schools.
It is observed that with electricity, the schools’ access to modern methods and techniques of
teaching helps holistic development of students and increase their attraction towards learning.
Globally it is observed that schools with electricity outperform the non-electrified schools in terms
of staff-retention, drop-outs and other educational indicators. It is observed that States with lower
literacy rates have low electricity rates at the schools and vice-versa.
Health and Energy Nexus: There is a positive relationship between the electricity consumption
and fall in the Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) in the country. Many of the health improvement

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schemes- providing paediatric care, new-born emergency services, and successful vaccination
rely heavily on the availability of electricity at the health centres.

IMPORTANT INDEXES

LATEST REPORT
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INDIA’S RANK
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HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX (HDI)

PREPARED BY

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United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)

INDICATORS
A composite index measuring average achievement in three basic dimensions of human
development— (1) a long and healthy life, (2) knowledge and (3) a decent standard of living.

HUMAN CAPITAL INDEX (HCI)

PREPARED BY
The World Bank
INDICATORS
The HCI is based on three components:
 Survival (measured by Under 5 mortality rates)
 Expected years of Quality adjusted School which combines information on the quality and
quantity of education.
o Quality is measured by major international student achievement testing programs such as
Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), by OECD
Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), by International
Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement.
o Quantity is measured by the number of years of school that a child can expect to obtain by
age 18.
 Health environment using two proxies
o Adult survival rates
o Rate of stunting for children under age 5.

 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HDI AND HCI

 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX  HUMAN CAPITAL INDEX
(HDI)
Measured by UNDP Measured by World Bank
 It is a summary measure of average  It measures the amount of human capital that a
achievement in key dimensions of child born today can expect to attain by age
human development: a long and healthy 18.

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life, being knowledgeable and have a  Thus, it is more of a potential or future level of
decent standard of living. Human Development expected from investment
 Thus, it measures the present level of in Education and Health.
Human Development
 3 Parameters:  3 Parameters:
 Life Expectancy Index: Measured by  Survival-: Measured by under 5 mortality.
Life Expectancy at birth  Expected years of Quality-adjusted school:
 Education Index: Measured by Expected Measured by both Quantity and Quality of
Years of Schooling and Mean Years of Education
Schooling  Health environment: Measured by Adult
 Standard of Living: Measured by Per Survival Rate and Rate of stunting of Children
Capita Income under the age 5

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GLOBAL HUMAN CAPITAL INDEX

PREPARED BY
World Economic Forum
WHAT DOES IT MEASURE?
This index measures countries’ ability to nurture, develop and deploy talent for
economic growth.
INDICATORS
It is based on four key areas of human capital development; Capacity
(determined by past investment in formal education), Deployment (accumulation
of skills through work), Development (reskilling and continued upskilling of
existing workers) and Know-how (specialised skills)

GLOBAL MULTIDIMENSIONAL POVERTY INDEX (MPI)

PREPARED BY
UNDP and the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI)

DIMENSIONS AND INDICATORS

 Standard of living - Cooking Fuel, Sanitation, Drinking Water, Electricity,
Housing, Assets
 Education – Years of schooling, School attendance
 Health – Nutrition, Child mortality


SDG INDIA INDEX

 The NITI Aayog
 The index has been developed in collaboration with the Ministry of Statistics
& Programme Implementation (MoSPI), Global Green Growth Institute and
United Nations in India.
 The aim is to instill competition among States to improve their performance
across social indices as the States’ progress will determine India’s progress
towards achieving the set goals by 2030. Using the index, States will be
monitored on a real-time basis.
WHAT DOES IT MEASURE?

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Progress made by India’s States and Union Territories (UTs) towards

implementation of the 2030 SDG targets.
INDICATORS
 The index comprises a composite score for each State and Union Territory
based on their aggregate performance across 13 of the 17 SDGs.
 The score, ranging between 0 and 100, denotes the average performance of the
State/UT towards achieving the 13 SDGs and their respective targets.

ECONOMIC FREEDOM INDEX

PREPARED BY
The Heritage Foundation has released its Index of Economic Freedom report
WHAT DOES IT MEASURE?
Economic Freedom
 Economic freedom is the fundamental right of every human to control his or
her own labour and property.
 In an economically free society, individuals are free to work, produce,
consume, and invest in any way they please.
 In economically free societies, governments allow labour, capital, and goods to
move freely, and refrain from coercion or constraint of liberty beyond the extent
necessary to protect and maintain liberty itself.
INDICATORS
Economic freedom is measured based on 12 quantitative and qualitative
factors, grouped into four broad categories of economic freedom:
1. Rule of Law (property rights, government integrity, judicial effectiveness).
2. Government Size (government spending, tax burden, fiscal health).
3. Regulatory Efficiency (business freedom, labour freedom, monetary
freedom).
4. Open Markets (trade freedom, investment freedom, and financial freedom).

INCLUSIVE WEALTH INDEX (IWI)

PREPARED BY
Inclusive wealth index, as part of the Inclusive Wealth Report has been released
by the UN Environment and partners.
WHAT DOES IT MEASURE
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 It is a tool assessing a nation’s ability to look after its wealth in a way that is
sustainable and safeguards its future generations.
 While GDP measures the size of a country’s economy, inclusive wealth index
focuses on stocks of manufactured, human and natural capital.
 Provides important insights into long-term economic growth and human well-
being.
 The Index measures the wealth of nations through a comprehensive analysis of
a country’s productive base and the country’s wealth in terms of progress, well-
being and long-term sustainability.
INDICATORS
A countries’ natural, manufactured, human and social capital.

GLOBAL COMPETITIVE INDEX 4.0

PREPARED BY
World Economic Forum
WHAT DOES IT MEASURE
It is a composite indicator that assesses a set of factors that determine an
economy's level of productivity widely considered as the most important
determinant of long-term growth.
INDICATORS
 98 indicators, organized into 12 ‘pillars’ or drivers of productivity, to determine
how close the economy is to the ideal state or ‘frontier’ of competitiveness.
 It emphasizes the role of human capital, innovation, resilience and agility, as
not only drivers but also defining features of economic success in the 4IR.

GLOBAL ENERGY TRANSITION INDEX

PREPARED BY
World Economic Forum (WEF)
WHAT DOES IT MEASURE
How well countries are able to balance energy security and access with
environmental sustainability and affordability.
INDICATORS
At its core are two equally weighted system performance index and transition
readiness Index.
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System Performance Score: This measures three imperatives of the energy

system (Energy Triangle)
 Economic development and growth
 Environmental sustainability
 Security and Access
Transition Readiness Score: This six enabling dimensions for Energy
Transition
 Capital and Investment
 Regulation and political commitment
 Institutions and governance
 Infrastructure and innovative business environment
 Human capital and consumer participation
 Energy system structure

DAMOCLES INDEX
PREPARED BY
Nomura
WHAT DOES IT MEASURE
The Damocles index summarises macroeconomic and financial variables into a
single measure to assess an economy’s vulnerability to a currency crisis.
INDICATORS
 It is based on eight key indicators which help strike a balance between false
signals and real crisis signals to assess the risk of an exchange rate crisis up to
12 months in advance.
 A score above 100 suggests a country is vulnerable to an exchange rate crisis
in the next 12 months, while a reading above 150 signals that a crisis could
erupt at any time.

GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX

THE GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX (GHI) IS A TOOL THAT MEASURES
AND TRACKS HUNGER GLOBALLY AS WELL AS BY REGION AND
BY COUNTRY,

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PREPARED BY EUROPEAN NGOS OF CONCERN WORLDWIDE AND

WELTHUNGERHILFE

WHAT DOES IT MEASURE?

Describes state of hunger situation on regional, national and global level
INDICATORS
(a) Undernourished population (b) Child wasting (c) Infant Mortality rate (d)
Child stunting

GLOBAL FINANCIAL STABILITY REPORT

PREPARED BY
International Monetary Fund
WHAT DOES IT MEASURE?
Assess the stability of global financial markets and emerging market financing

GLOBAL ECONOMIC PROSPECTS REPORT

PREPARED BY
World Bank
WHAT DOES IT MEASURE?
This report examines global economic prospects with a special focus on emerging
market and developing economies.

GLOBAL INNOVATION INDEX

PREPARED BY
Cornell University, INSEAD and World Intellectual Property Organization
WHAT DOES IT MEASURE?
It provides detailed metrics about the innovation performance of countries based
on 81 indicators.

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LOGISTICS PERFORMANCE INDEX

PREPARED BY
World Bank
WHAT DOES IT MEASURE?
It provides feedback on the logistics friendliness of the countries. It is an
interactive benchmarking tool created to help countries to identify the challenges
and opportunities they face in their performance on trade logistics.
INDICATORS
Customs, infrastructure, international shipments, logistics quality and
competence, tracking and tracing, and timeliness

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS INDEX

PREPARED BY
Sustainable Development Solutions Network and Bertelsmann Stiftung
WHAT DOES IT MEASURE?
It assesses the performance of countries towards achieving the ambitious
Sustainable Development Goals.

CORRUPTION PERCEPTION INDEX

PREPARED BY
Transparency International
WHAT DOES IT MEASURE?
It ranks countries on a scale of 0 (highly corrupt) to 100 (very clean) based on
their perceived levels of corruption in the public sector

GLOBAL CYBER SECURITY INDEX

PREPARED BY
UN telecommunications agency International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
WHAT DOES IT MEASURE?
It measures the commitment of nations across the world cyber security
INDICATORS
Legal, technical and organizational institutions, educational and research
capabilities, cooperation in information sharing networks

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INCLUSIVE DEVELOPMENT INDEX

PREPARED BY
World Economic Forum
WHAT DOES IT MEASURE?
It is an annual assessment of 103 countries’ economic performance that measures
how countries perform on eleven dimensions of economic progress in addition to
GDP.
INDICATORS
It has 3 pillars; growth and development; inclusion and; intergenerational equity
– sustainable stewardship of natural and financial resources.

LIVEABILITY INDEX
PREPARED BY
Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs
WHAT DOES IT MEASURE?
Liveability index is tool that aims to measure quality of life in 99 smart cities,
capital cities and those with a population of over one million. It will be funded by
World Bank.
INDICATORS
It will assess cities on comprehensive set of 79 parameters. These parameters
include local governance, education, employment, social infrastructure, health,
safety, physical infrastructure such as housing, availability of open spaces,
security, land use, energy, availability of water, solid waste management etc.

GLOBAL MANUFACTURING INDEX

PREPARED BY
World Economic Forum
WHAT DOES IT MEASURE?
It measures how well positioned 100 countries will shape and benefit from
changing nature of production through adoption of emerging technology.

ICT (INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY)

DEVELOPMENT INDEX

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PREPARED BY
 The index is published by the United Nations International
Telecommunication Union based on internationally agreed information and
communication technologies (ICT) indicators.
WHAT DOES IT MEASURE?
 It is a valuable tool for benchmarking the most important indicators for
measuring the information society. This can also be used to measure digital
divide.
INDICATORS
 It uses 11 indicators classified into three heads of:
 ICT Access (0.40 weightage)
 ICT Usage (0.40 weightage)
 ICT Skills (0.20 weightag

TRENDS

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