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Page 5
4.1.1. What Is “Alive”?
Knowledge
What is biology?
Biology is the science of life. Its name is derived from the Greek words «bios» (life) and «logos» (study).
Biologists study the structure, function, growth, origin, evolution and distribution of living organisms.
At least nine «umbrella» fields of biology are generally considered, each of which consisting of multiple subfields.
Biochemistry: the study of the material substances that Evolutionary biology: the study of the origins and
make up living things. changes in the diversity of life over time.
Botany: the study of plants, including agriculture. Genetics: the study of heredity.
Cellular biology: the study of the basic cellular units of Molecular biology: the study of biological molecules.
living things.
Physiology: the study of the functions of organisms and
Ecology: the study of how organisms interact with their their parts.
environment.
Zoology: the study of animals, including animal behavior.
These fields often overlap. For example, it is impossible to study zoology without knowledge about evolution,
4.1.1. What Is “Alive”?
physiology and ecology and you can’t study cellular biology without knowing biochemistry and molecular biology as
well.
Task
Fields of biology
There are many different fields of biology, each with their own distinct subfields. Research some of the different
fields of biology and their corresponding subfields then fill out the table below.
Page 6
4.1. Introduction to Biology
Task
How do you know if something is alive?
At first this question appears to be very easy. However, technological advances make it more and more difficult to
define “alive.”
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Page 7
4.1. Introduction to Biology
Interview
concerns that we as humans are not yet ready to manage. ITU Pictures / Wikimedia, https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophia_(ro-
bot)#/media/Fichier:Sophia_at_the_AI_for_Good_Global_Sum-
mit_2018_(27254369347)_(cropped).jpg , https://creativecom-
mons.org/licenses/by/2.0/
1. Defining identity
Citizenship is granted to a unique identity. Each of These and other technological identity management
us, humans I mean, possesses a unique signature that protocols are all possible, but they do not establish
distinguishes us from any other human. When we get Sophia’s identity – they can only establish hardware
through customs without talking to a human, our identity identity. What then is Sophia’s identity?
is automatically established using an image of our face,
iris and fingerprint. To me, identity is a multidimensional construct. It sits at
the intersection of who we are biologically, cognitively,
What gives Sophia her identity? Her MAC address? A and as defined by every experience, culture, and
barcode, a unique skin mark, an audio mark in her voice, environment we encountered. It’s not clear where Sophia
an electromagnetic signature similar to human brain fits in this description.
waves?
Page 8
4.1. Introduction to Biology
Interview
2. Legal rights
For the purposes of this article, let’s assume that Sophia Sophia walks on wheels and has no skills for self-
the citizen robot is able to vote. But who is making the defence? Today, the artificial intelligence (AI) community
decision on voting day – Sophia or the manufacturer? is still debating what principles should govern the design
Presumably also Sophia the citizen is “liable” to pay and use of AI, let alone what the laws should be.
income taxes because Sophia has a legal identity
independent of its creator, the company. Sophia must also The most recent list proposes twenty-three principles
have the right for equal protection similar to other citizens known as the Asilomar AI Principles. Examples of these
by law. include: Failure Transparency (ascertaining the cause if
an AI system causes harm); Value Alignment (aligning
Consider this hypothetical scenario: a policeman sees the AI system’s goals with human values); and Recursive
Sophia and a woman each being attacked by a person. Self-Improvement (subjecting AI systems with abilities to
That policeman can only protect one of them: who should self-replicate to strict safety and control measures).
it be? Is it right if the policeman chooses Sophia because
3. Social rights
Let’s talk about relationships and reproduction. As a into other robots. These robots would also become
citizen, will Sophia, the humanoid emotional robot, be citizens. With no resource constraints on how many
Task
Do you think robots should be able to get citizenship? Justify your answer.
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Page 9
4.1. Introduction to Biology
Task
Life has no set, accepted definition on which all scientists agree. If you ask a biologist about the characteristics
of life you will get a different answer to that of a chemist or a physicist. Biologists have developed a list of eight
characteristics shared by all living organisms which are:
{ Reproduction
| Response to stimuli
Page 10
4.1. Introduction to Biology
Task
Research a chemist’s and physicist’s definition of life then discuss the different definitions of life.
Look at the following items. Imagine you would have to sort them. Which items would you group together? Justify
your answer.
Freepik
Page 11
4.1. Introduction to Biology
Knowledge
Classifying organisms
There are millions of species on our planet. It would be the previous task. Taxonomy is the science of classifying
difficult if we just tried to describe and name each one organisms using morphological, behavioural, genetic and
individually. Although species can be very different from biochemical observations.
each other, many of them have similar features that
allow us to put them into groups, just like the objects of
Kingdom Kingdom
All living organisms are first placed into three different domains
Phylum then kingdoms. There are six different kingdoms to classify
life on Earth, which are: archaea, bacteria, protista, fungi,
plantae, animalia.
Class
Order
Kingdom archaea Kingdom bacteria Kingdom protista
Family
Genus
Species
Kingdom fungi Kingdom plantae Kingdom animalia
A. Valentini / PPC
Page 12
4.1. Introduction to Biology
Phylum
E. Onn / A. Velentini
Species Genus
A biological species is a group of A genus is a group of closely related species.
organisms that can reproduce with one
another in nature and produce fertile
offspring.
Example of the
KINGDOM:
classification of Animalia
humans:
PHYLUM:
Chordata
CLASS:
Mammalia
ORDER:
Primates
FAMILY:
Hominidae
GENUS:
Homo Adult human
SPECIES: female and male
Homo sapiens
(Homo sapiens)
S. Coté / Freepik
Page 13
4.1. Introduction to Biology
Task
Classify the following organisms.
Horse
Kingdom (Kingdoms)
Phylum (Phyla)
Class (Classes)
Order (Orders)
Family (Families)
Genus (Genera)
4.1.1. What Is “Alive”?
Species
Mango
Kingdom (Kingdoms)
Phylum (Phyla)
Class (Classes)
Order (Orders)
Family (Families)
Genus (Genera)
Species
Western honeybee
Kingdom (Kingdoms)
Phylum (Phyla)
Class (Classes)
Order (Orders)
Family (Families)
Genus (Genera)
Species
Page 14
4.1. Introduction to Biology
Knowledge
Phylogenetic tree
Based on the similarities and differences between Simply put, the phylogenetic tree, often known as a
organisms and species a phylogenetic tree can be “tree of life” is constructed based on the evolutionary
constructed. relationship between different organisms and/or species.
Luca
S. Coté / PPC
descendants A B C D
Task
Read different articles about LUCA, then share your information with the class.
Page 15
4.1. Introduction to Biology
Chapter 2
4.2. Cells
Page 17
4.2.1. The cell theory
Task
What is a cell?
Research and write down a definition of cells.
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4.2.1. The Cell Theory
Task
Types of cells
There are many different types of cells. Research some different types of cells and print out or draw a picture of
them in the following table. Also, for each briefly state their function.
Page 18
4.2. Cells
Task
Continued
Page 19
4.2. Cells
Knowledge
Prokaryotic cells are smaller and have a simpler structure than eukaryotic cells, as they do
not contain membrane-bound organelles. Prokaryotic organisms are always unicellular
and may be either bacteria or archaea. Bacterial and archaeal cells have the same basic
structure, but some of their components are made from different materials.
Bacterial cells
Bacterial cells have a cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and free-floating loops of
DNA. Bacterial cells also have a cell wall made from a polymer called peptidoglycan (AKA
murein). Some bacteria have additional specialized structures, like the capsule (a sticky
layer of carbohydrates that surrounds the cell), or flagella (whip-like structures that allow
the bacterium to move).
Archaeal cells
Bacteria
Archaea are also unicellular prokaryotes, Nucleoid
and they contain many of the same
Pilus
structures that are found in bacteria
cells. However, they typically have a
different composition. For example, the
bacterial cell wall contains peptidoglycan, Pilius, Hamus,
or Cannulae
but the archaeal cell wall does not. The Ribosome
plasma membrane in bacterial cells (and
eukaryotes) is a lipid bilayer, but the Nucleoid
Cell wall and
plasma membrane of archaeal cells is a capsule Archaellum
lipid monolayer. Finally, the cell membrane
in bacteria contains fatty acids, while the cell
membranes of archaea contain a hydrocarbon Cytoplasm
called phytanyl.
Plasma membrane
Cell wall
A. Valentini / PPC
Archaea
Page 20
4.2. Cells
Knowledge
Types of eukaryotic cells
The four types of eukaryotic cells are animal cells, plant cells, fungi cells, and protists.
Plant cells
Plants are made up of plant cells. Plant cells contain many of the organelles
common to all eukaryotes, but they contain additional structures that are
not found in animal cells. For example, plant cells are surrounded by a tough,
cellulose-based structure called the cell wall. They also contain organelles called
chloroplasts, which are the site of photosynthesis and allow plant cells to produce
carbohydrates from carbon dioxide, water, and light energy.
A. Valentini / PPC
Protist cells
Protists are a highly diverse group of organisms, and kingdom protista is comprised
of all eukaryotes that are not animals, plants, or fungi. Protist cells contain all of the
membrane-bound organelles found in animal cells, and some types also contain
chloroplasts. They may also have a cell wall made from cellulose.
A. Valentini / PPC
A. Valentini / PPC
Page 21
4.2. Cells
Knowledge
approximately 750 million years after Earth was formed. The first h
a
Mammals
Dinosaurs
cells, called the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) consisted of n
r
Land life
-500
little more than an organic molecule such as RNA (Ribonucleic acid) z
c
Cambrian explosion
inside a lipid membrane. They gave rise to all subsequent life on Multicellular
life
Earth. How life originated and how the first cell came into being are -1 000
A
not stored within a membrane-bound nucleus. -3 000
r
c Photosynthesis
h
e
a
n
-3 500 Earliest oxygen
Single-celled
LHB meteorites
H life
The endosymbiotic theory -4 000 a
d Earliest life
e (-4 100)
a Water
n Earliest water
-4 500 Earliest Earth (-4 540)
Endosymbiosis is a term used to describe two organisms living together Axis scale: million of years
Wikipedia contributors. (2023, November 28). Timeline of
with one inside the other. The word endosymbiont comes from two the evolutionary history of life. In Wikipedia, from https://
Greek root words: endo, meaning within, and symbios meaning, living en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_the_evolu-
tionary_history_of_life&oldid=1187391637
together.
An endosymbiont is a cell which lives inside another cell with mutual benefit. Many different types of eukaryotic
cells are believed to have evolved from these early prokaryotes that were engulfed by phagocytosis. The engulfed
prokaryotic cell remained undigested as it contributed new functionality to the engulfing cell (e.g. photosynthesis).
Over generations, the engulfed cell lost some of its independent utility and became a supplemental organelle. Two cell
organelles (“little organs of the cells”) that are believed to have once been independent, free-living bacterial prokaryotic
cells, which at some point have been engulfed by a eukaryotic cell, are mitochondria and chloroplast.
Aerobic
bacterium
Ancestral Infolding of Endosymbiosis Ancestral
prokaryote plasma membrane eukaryote
A. Valentini / PPC
They resemble, in many ways, primitive single-celled prokaryotes. They have a double membraned structure
and possess their own unique DNA; distinct from the DNA of the cells nucleus. The outer membranes of the
mitochondrion and chloroplast resemble those found in eukaryotic or complex cells, while the inner membranes
resemble those found in prokaryotic or primitive bacterial cells.
Page 22
4.2. Cells
Task
A. Valentini / PPC
Page 23
4.2. Cells
NOTES
4.2. Cells
4.2.1. The Cell Theory
Page 24
4.2. Cells
4.2.2. Cell Structure and Function
A. Valentini / PPC
Page 25
4.2.1. The cell theory
Microscopy
Ocular lens
(Eyepiece)
Body tube
knob
Light source
Fine adjustment
knob
Base
Thomas-Soellner/ iStock.com
Task
Research the functions of the different parts of the light microscope and record them in the following table.
Body tube
Revolving nosepiece
Objectives
Arm
Stage
Stage clips
Diaphragm
Light source
Base
Page 26
4.2. Cells
Knowledge
1. Connect the light microscope to a power source and 7. Adjust the condenser for the maximum amount of
turn it on. light. Since you’re on the low magnification objective,
you may have to decrease the illumination. Use the
2. Move the stage down to the bottom by turning the
diaphragm under the stage to adjust.
coarse adjustment knob.
8. Now slowly rotate the fine adjustment knob until you
3. Turn the revolving nosepiece until the lowest
obtain a clearer image of your specimen.
magnification objective lens is in position.
9. Examine your specimen and create your drawings.
4. Mount your specimen onto the stage.
10. After you’re done viewing with the lowest magnifying
5. Use the stage clips to keep your slide in place. Make
objective, switch to the medium magnifying objective
sure the specimen is positioned in the center, right
1. Place one drop of stain (iodine, methylene blue, or any 3. As soon as the stain has covered the area containing
other stain) on the edge of the coverslip. the specimen, you are finished. The stain does not
need to be under the entire coverslip. If the stain does
2. Place the flat edge of a piece of paper towel on the
not cover as needed, get a new piece of paper towel
opposite side of the coverslip. The paper towel will
and add more stain until it does.
draw the water out from under the coverslip, and the
cohesion of water will draw the stain in. 4. Be sure to wipe off the excess stain with a paper
towel.
Drawing specimens:
Membrane en miniscule
1. Use pencil - you can erase and shade areas viewing field, make sure your drawing reflects that.
For example:
2. All drawings should include clear and proper labels
S. Coté / PPC
(and be large enough to view
details). Drawings should be labeled
with the specimen name and Cell membrane
magnification.
3. Labels should be written on the
outside of the circle. The circle
indicates the viewing field as seen
through the eyepiece, specimens
should be drawn to scale - ie..if Nucleus
Nucleus
your specimen takes up the whole
Ameba (100x) Ameba (400x)
Page 27
4.2. Cells
Advice
Troubleshooting:
Occasionally you may have trouble with working your ocular lens can be removed to clean the inside (ask
microscope. Here are some common problems and your teacher for help).
solutions.
3. I can’t see anything with the high magnification.
1. Image is too dark.
Remember the steps, if you can’t focus the low
Make sure your light is on and possibly adjust the magnification, you won’t be able to focus the high
diaphragm. magnification.
2. There’s a spot in my viewing field, even when I move 4. Only half of my viewing field is lit, it looks like there’s a
the slide the spot stays in the same place. half-moon in there.
Your lens is dirty. Use lens paper, and only lens paper You probably don’t have your objective fully clicked
to carefully clean the objective and ocular lens. The into place.
4.2.2. Cell Structure and Function
Task
Preparing a mount:
Plant cell: The following examples give you two choices
of observing plant cells, either using Elodea or onions.
• Paper towels 2. Add a drop of water onto the Elodea and a coverslip
and observe the mount using a microscope.
• Elodea
• Water
Onion cells
Materials: Method:
• Microscope slides 1. Place a small drop of water on a microscope slide.
• Cover slips 2. Cut the onion into sections. Take a piece from one of
• Pipettes the sections and peel off a small, thin piece of the
onion skin with either tweezers or your fingers.
• Water
3. Place the onion skin onto the drop of water on the
• Onion microscope slide.
• Knife 4. Cover the onion skin with a cover slip.
• Cutting board 5. Stain the onion skin with iodine ( the iodine will bind
• Tweezers to the starch in the cell wall and nucleus of the onion
cells, staining them, and making them easier visible).
• Iodine solution
6. Observe the mount using a microscope.
Page 28
4.2. Cells
Task
Animal cell
Human cheek cells
Materials: Method:
• Microscope slides 1. Take a clean cotton swab and gently scrape the inside
of your mouth.
• Cover slips
2. Smear the cotton swab on the centre of the
• Paper towels or tissue
microscope slide for two to three seconds.
• Methylene blue solution (0.5% to 1% (mix
3. Add a drop of methylene blue solution and place a
approximately one part stock solution with four
coverslip on top. (Concentrated methylene blue is
parts of water))
toxic if ingested. Wear gloves and do NOT allow young
• Pipette children to handle methylene blue solution or have
Fungi cell
Yeast
Materials: Method:
• Microscope slides 1. Dissolve the fresh yeast in the warm water (if you
use dried active yeast the dissolving will take a little
• Cover slips
longer).
• Fresh yeast (alternative dried active yeast)
2. Place a drop of the yeast mixture on the microscope
• Pipette slide.
• Small beaker with warm water 3. Place a coverslip on top.
4. Observe the mount using a microscope.
Extension: Bacteria
Yoghurt bacteria
Materials: Method:
• Microscope slides 1. Take a very small drop of yogurt with the toothpick and
smear it for two to three seconds on the slide.
• Cover slips
2. Place a small drop of methylene blue solution on
• Yogurt with live culture (eg: Actimel, Activia,
a microscope slide (optional). Wear gloves and do
Yakhult)
NOT allow young children to handle methylene blue
• Toothpicks solution.
• Paper towels or tissues 3. Place a coverslip on top. Remove excess solution
• Methylene blue solution (0.5 to 1%) Optional around the coverslip with a paper towel or tissue.
4. Observe the mount using a microscope.
Page 29
4.2. Cells
Task
Microscopy of animal, plant and fungal cells (extension bacteria)
Prepare the mounts as previously described and draw your observations.
Page 30
4.2. Cells
Knowledge
Structure of animal, plant, fungal and bacteria cells
chloroplast
nucleolus
chromosomes
mitochondrion
vacuole cytoplasm
flagela
ribosomes
chromosomes
vacuole
mitochondria
membrane
nucleus
A. Valentini / PPC
Page 31
4.2. Cells
Task
Comparing cells: animal, plant, bacteria and yeast
Chose a different colour for each cell organelle and if the organelle is present in the cell colour it in.
chloroplasts
4.2.2. Cell Structure and Function
cytoplasm
DNA
membranes
mitochondria
nuclei
vacuoles
walls
A. Valentini / PPC
Page 32
4.2. Cells
Task
Research the functions of the following cell organelles
ribosomes
smooth endoplasmic
rough endoplasmic
reticulum
golgi apparatus
lysosomes
mitochondria
chloroplast
cytoskeleton
vacuole
plasma membrane
cell wall
Page 33
4.2. Cells
Task
A. Valentini / PPC
4.2.2. Cell Structure and Function
Page 34
4.2. Cells
Task
Optional: Specialised animal cells
Read the description of the following specialised animal cells and try to match them to the pictures.
......................................... .........................................
......................................... .........................................
Red blood cell Nerve cells
A red blood cell has no nucleus. This lack of nucleus Nerve cells (or neurons) string together like wires to
gives it room to carry more oxygen from the lungs to carry electrical signals very quickly throughout the
other cells all over the body. Unlike most cells that stick body, especially the brain. The messages they carry
together to form large structures, red blood cells must include telling muscles to move and sensing (sight,
flow through blood vessels, so they are round and stay sound, touch, temperature, pain, etc.). Branches at the
separate. ends of nerve cells create complex networks of multiple
neurons connecting to each other.
Squamous cells
The barrier these flat cells form protects the body,
keeping moisture in and germs out. They are the top Intestinal cells
layer of skin and line our insides too, as in the mouth, After the stomach breaks down food, intestinal
blood vessels, lungs, heart, digestive system, and so on. absorptive cells take in nutrients through their
These scale-like cells overlap like shingles / roof tiles. “microvilli.» These tiny finger-like structures increase
the total surface area of the cell membranes, making it
Muscle cells easier to absorb lots of nutrients.
The muscles that move your fingers, arms, legs, and so
on are each made of millions of skeletal muscle cells
all bundled together. These long, thin fibers become Bone cells
shorter and thicker when they contract. Most cells have Bone cells deposit hard, calcium-rich material around
just one nucleus. Not these! They have many. themselves. Thin tunnels allow bone cells to stay
connected so that they can receive signals, oxygen, and
Macrophage nutrition.
A macrophage is a kind of white blood cell that crawls
around inside your body hunting for germs. When it
finds some, the macrophage reaches out and grabs it
with a gooey arm called a “pseudopod” (which means
“fake limb”).
Page 35
4.2. Cells
Task
Optional: Specialised plant cells
Read the description of the following specialised plant cells and try to match them to the pictures.
A. Valentini / PPC
......................................... ......................................... ......................................... .........................................
4.2.2. Cell Structure and Function
A. Valentini / PPC
Page 36
4.2. Cells
Knowledge
Cell division
A. Valentini / PPC
Page 37
4.2. Cells
Knowledge
The mitosis cell cycle
4.2. Cells
Before a cell starts dividing, it is in the «interphase.» It
Cell growth
S. Coté / PPC
Inte
e Cell
ready to divide and start the cell cycle. During this time, division
rphase
Metaphase division
Mitosis
cells are gathering nutrients and energy. The parent cell
ase
h ase
Prop
is also making a copy of its DNA to share equally between
io n
Ph
the two daughter cells.
c at
G2
Ph
S
Pre
ase
p li
re
pa
at
The mitosis division process has several steps or phases io
DN
A
nf
4.2.2. Cell Structure and Function
or
of the cell cycle—interphase, prophase, prometaphase, m it oté
Dia gra m : S . C
o sis
metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis—
to successfully make the new diploid cells. When down before mitosis and reassembles in each of the new
a cell divides during mitosis, some organelles are daughter cells. Many of the specifics about what happens
divided between the two daughter cells. For example, to organelles before, during and after cell division are
mitochondria are capable of growing and dividing during currently being researched.
the interphase, so the daughter cells each have enough
mitochondria. The Golgi apparatus, however, breaks
MITOSIS
A. Valentini / PPC
Page 38
4.2. Cells
4.2.3. Single-Celled Organisms
wir0man / iStock.com
Page 39
4.2.1. The cell theory
Knowledge
Examples of unicellular organisms
Single-celled organisms
Single-celled organisms, also known
u All bacteria
as unicellular organisms are organisms E. Coli Streptococcus Halobacteria
consisting of one cell only which performs PHIL / PD via Wikimedia
all vital functions including metabolism, Rocky Mountain Laboratories
/ PD via Wikimedia
https://fr.wikipedia.org/ NASA / PD via Wikimedia
wiki/Streptocoque#/media/ https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/
excretion, and reproduction within this one https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Fichier:Streptococcus_py- Halobacteria#/media/Fi-
Escherichia_coli
cell. Single-celled organisms are neither ogenes.jpg chier:Halobacteria.jpg
plants nor animals, yet they are some of the v All protists
most important life forms on Earth. Single-
Amoeba Euglena Paramecium
celled organisms can either be prokaryotes Petit Rex / CC BY-SA 4.0 via
or eukaryotes. Examples of single-celled Wikimedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Barfooz / CC BY-SA 3.0via
organisms are bacteria, archaea, unicellular Amoeba#/media/File:Amoe-
Wikimedia
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/
ba_proteus_with_many_pseu-
fungi, and unicellular protists. Even though dopodia.jpg
Param%C3%A9cie#/media/
wir0man / iStock.com Fichier:Paramecium.jpg
single-celled organisms are not seen by the
4.2.3. Single-celled organisms
Task
Single-celled organisms are essential for the life and wellbeing of all other creatures on Earth. They can
produce useful substances, decay dead matter, and protect other creatures from some infections.
Research and briefly describe the function of the following single-celled organisms.
Single-celled
Function
organism
Phytoplanktons
Amoebae
Nitrosomonas and
Nitrobacter
Euglena
Page 40
4.2. Cells
Task
Microscopy of pond water or hay infusion. You could also do microscopy of yeast cultures or yogurt
if you have not already done this during the previous section.
Prepare the mounts as previously described and draw your observations.
Materials: Method:
Page 41
4.2. Cells
4. Tissues
2. Molecules
Chapter 3
3. Cells
6. Organisms
7. Community
9. Biosphere
8. Ecosystem
Page 42
4.3. Levels of Organisation in Living Things
4.3.1. Levels of organisation
from chemical elements
to multicellular organisms
S. Coté / PPC
Page 43
4.3.1. Levels of Organisation from Chemical Elements to Multicellular Organisms
Knowledge
4.3.1. Levels of Organisation from Chemical Elements to Multicellular Organisms
Carbon
Freepik
Carbon forms strong covalent bonds (where electrons involved in the metabolism of energy in even the
are shared between two atoms). Carbon can bond with simplest cell structures. Oxygen is not required for all
up to four atoms at the same time. Therefore, many organisms on Earth to survive (some microorganisms
kinds of molecules can be created from carbon. Along thrive in the absence of oxygen) however, oxygen is still
with the other five elements (H, N, O, P, & S) carbon present in those organisms in the form of water and
makes up carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and organic molecules.
lipids. From a molecule like methane (CH4) to complex
molecules like long hydrocarbons (such as those found Phosphorus
in fossil fuels) carbon’s versatility makes it essential to all
life as we know it. Phosphorus can be found in the backbone of the
DNA molecule. Phosphorus has a vital role in energy
Hydrogen metabolism since it makes up a cell’s energy molecules.
These molecules are ATP and ADP, each named for
Hydrogen is a simple element with the ability to form the number of phosphorus atoms attached: adenosine
a single bond with other atoms. Two hydrogen atoms tri-phosphate (ATP, 3 phosphorus atoms) and adenosine
bond with one oxygen atom to form water molecules di-phosphate (ADP, 2 phosphorus atoms).
(H2O). Water forms when two hydrogens bond with
one oxygen. The human body consists of approximately Sulfur
70% of water. Hydrogen can also attach (bond) with
carbon, creating long hydrocarbon chains that make up Sulfur is the heaviest of the basic six elements. Sulfur is
carbohydrates and lipids, as well as to nitrogen to make primarily found in protein molecules, and sulfur to sulfur
up nucleic acids and proteins. bonds are involved in the tertiary structure or shape of
proteins. Protein shapes are very important. They are
important because protein function and specificity are
Nitrogen dependent on their geometry (shape).
Nitrogen bonds well to carbon and hydrogen and is
therefore involved in the assembly of a variety of organic
compounds. In addition to carbon, hydrogen and oxygen,
nitrogen is the main element that makes up proteins
and nucleic acids. Nitrogen is vitally important to DNA
molecules, since the structure of the DNA molecule is
built from protein and nucleic acid molecules.
Oxygen
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4.3.1. Levels of Organisation from Chemical Elements to Multicellular Organisms
Task
Research and briefly describe the functions of the following important elements found in small quantities in
organisms.
Potassium (K)
Sodium (Na)
Chlorine (Cl)
Magnesium (Mg)
Iron (Fe)
Page 45
4.3.1. Levels of Organisation from Chemical Elements to Multicellular Organisms
Knowledge
4.3.1. Levels of Organisation from Chemical Elements to Multicellular Organisms
Molecules
Atoms form chemical bonds with other atoms molecule of ozone (O3). If a molecule forms from
when there is an electrostatic attraction between atoms of two or more different elements, we call
them. This attraction results from the properties and it a compound. A common compound everyone is
characteristics of the atoms’ outermost electrons, familiar with results from the chemical bonding of
which are known as valence electrons. two atoms of hydrogen with one atom of oxygen to
form a molecule of water (H2O). Water is the most
When two or more atoms chemically bond together,
abundant molecule in living organisms. In cells,
they form a molecule. Sometimes the atoms are
water accounts for 70% or more of total mass.
all from the same element. For example, when
three oxygen atoms bond together, they form a
Biological macromolecules
Just as you can be thought of as an assortment of Nucleic acids store and transfer hereditary
atoms or a walking, talking bag of water, you can information, much of which provides instructions for
also be viewed as a collection of four major types of making proteins.
large (macro) biological molecules: carbohydrates
Proteins themselves have perhaps the broadest
(such as sugars), lipids (fats and oils), proteins, and
range of functions: some provide structural support,
nucleic acids (such as DNA and RNA).
but many are like little machines that carry out
That is not to say that these are the only molecules specific jobs in a cell, such as catalyzing metabolic
in your body, but rather, that your most important reactions or receiving and transmitting signals.
large molecules can be divided into these groups.
Together, the four groups of large biological
molecules make up the majority of the dry mass of a A. Valentini / PPC
cell. (Water, a small molecule, makes up the majority
of the wet mass).
Large biological molecules perform a wide range of
jobs in an organism.
Carbohydrates store fuel for future energy needs,
Lipids are key structural components of cell
membranes.
Task
Research the CHNOPS elements that each macromolecule contains.
Lipid
Protein
Nucleic acid
Page 46
4.3.1. Levels of Organisation from Chemical Elements to Multicellular Organisms
Knowledge
Biological
Buildind blocks Functions Examples
macromolecule
Carbohydrates Monosaccharides Provide cells with quick/ Glucose, sucrose, starch,
short-term energy, source cellulose, chitin
(simple sugars) of dietary fiber
Sugar
Tetiana Zhabska / Alamy
Lipids Fatty acids and glycerol Provide cells with long- Fats, phospholipids,
term energy, make up waxes, oils, grease,
biological membranes steriods
Fatty acid
Bacsica/ iStock.com
Proteins Amino acids Provide cell structure, send Keratin (found in hair
chemical signals, speed up and nails), hormones,
chemical reactions, etc enzymes, antibodies
Amino
acid
Dr_Microbe/ iStock.com
Nucleotide
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4.3.1. Levels of Organisation from Chemical Elements to Multicellular Organisms
Task
4.3.1. Levels of Organisation from Chemical Elements to Multicellular Organisms
A colour change from blue to brick red shows the presence of simple sugars.
1. Solid food - Add a few drops of the iodine solution (orange) to a chunk of food on a spotting tile.
2. Liquid food – Add a few drops of iodine solution to the food sample in a boiling tube.
A colour change in the iodine from orange to blue / black indicates the presence of starch.
2. Add equal amounts of sodium hydroxide and copper sulfate (Biuret test) to the sample.
A colour change in the test solution from blue to lilac indicates the presence of protein.
1. Add ethanol to a small amount of the food sample with some water.
The formation of a cloudy precipitate in the tube indicates the presence of fat / oil.
Page 48
4.3.1. Levels of Organisation from Chemical Elements to Multicellular Organisms
Task
Equipment list (List all the equipment that you have used during the experiment. Make sure you list every
piece of equipment that you have used.)
Page 49
4.3.1. Levels of Organisation from Chemical Elements to Multicellular Organisms
Task
4.3.1. Levels of Organisation from Chemical Elements to Multicellular Organisms
Risk assessment (Identify all the equipment, chemicals or procedures which could pose a risk to you and describe
what you do to prevent any accidents.)
Page 50
4.3.1. Levels of Organisation from Chemical Elements to Multicellular Organisms
Task
Results (Results should be presented in the easiest way to read as possible. For example: tables, drawings,
sentences or graphs)
Page 51
4.3.1. Levels of Organisation from Chemical Elements to Multicellular Organisms
Task
4.3.1. Levels of Organisation from Chemical Elements to Multicellular Organisms
Conclusion (Write here what happened and what you found out in a scientific way. Include the SCIENCE
here! Comment on if this is what you expected.)
Evaluation (Write here how your experiment went. Did it go well or not and why? Also comment on what you
would change the next time if you were to do the experiment again to make it better. )
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4.3.1. Levels of Organisation from Chemical Elements to Multicellular Organisms
Knowledge
In the previous section we learned how elements, when chemically combining together form
molecules. Now we will take a look at the following levels of how living things are organised from
smallest to largest.
Atoms
Atoms are the basic units of matter and the building blocks of all Electron
things. Atoms are made up of three particles: protons, neutrons
and electrons. Nucleus
Proton
Protons and neutrons are heavier then electrons and reside in
the centre of an atom, which is called the nucleus. Electrons are
extremely lightweight and exist in a cloud orbiting the nucleus.
Neutron
Freepik
Molecules
Freepik
Macromolecules
iStock.com / Dr_Microbe
Organelles
Cells
The cell (from Latin cella, meaning "small room") is the basic
structural, functional, and biological unit of all known living organisms.
A cell is the smallest unit of life that can replicate independently, and
cells are often called the "building blocks of life".
Christogra4/ iStock.com
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4.3.1. Levels of Organisation from Chemical Elements to Multicellular Organisms
Knowledge
4.3.1. Levels of Organisation from Chemical Elements to Multicellular Organisms
Tissues
Animal cells and plant cells can form tissues, like muscle tissue. A living tissue is made from a group of cells with a
similar structure and function, which all work together to do a particular job. Here are some examples of tissues:
- muscle
- root hair tissue (for plants to take up water and minerals from the soil)
An organ is made from a group of different tissues, which all work together to
do a particular job. Here are some examples of organs:
- heart - brain
- lung - leaf
- stomach - root
An organ system is made from a group of different organs, which all work
together to do a particular job. Here are some examples of organ systems:
Organism
Freepik
- Human
- Animal
- Plant
A. Valentini / PPC
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4.3.1. Levels of Organisation from Chemical Elements to Multicellular Organisms
Systematic study of the Systematic study of the Systematic study of the Systematic study of the
structure and behaviour structure and behaviour structure and behaviour structure and behaviour
Example:
of the physical and natural of the physical and natural of the physical and natural of the physical and natural
world through observation, world through observation, world through observation, world through observation,
experimentation, and the experimentation, and the experimentation, and the experimentation, and the
testing of theories against testing of theories against testing of theories against testing of theories against
the evidence obtained. the evidence obtained. the evidence obtained. the evidence obtained.
Levels of organisation in living things
Task
Freepik
Science Science Science Science
correct vertical order onto the next page as shown in this example.
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4.3.1. Levels of Organisation from Chemical Elements to Multicellular Organisms
4.3.1. Levels of Organisation from Chemical Elements to Multicellular Organisms
Task
4.3.1. Levels of Organisation from Chemical Elements to Multicellular Organisms
in Living Things
still shows the of life. They are subunit, usually respond to same type of
characteristics of surrounded by a within a cell, that stimuli, is capable cell. They are
that element. They membrane or a has a specific of reproduction, grouped together
are used to build wall. Some may function. growth and to perform
molecules. Non- be specialised for development, and a particular
living particular jobs. maintenance of function
homeostasis as
a stable whole. It
is made of organ
systems working
together Composed of
A group much larger
These are made of A group of of organs numbers of
atoms. They have different which works atoms than
different chemical tissues which together ordinary
and physical performs to perform molecules.
properties from the a specific a certain
atoms which make function. function. Freepik
Organ System
Level
Molecular Level Atomic Level
Tissue Level Cell organelle Freepik A. Valentini / PPC
Freepik Level
A. Valentini / PPC
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4.3.1. Levels of Organisation from Chemical Elements to Multicellular Organisms
4.3.2. Reproduction in Multicellular
Organisms
Page 57
4.3.2. Reproduction in Multicellular Organisms
Knowledge
xxx
Reproduction in multicellular organisms Sexual reproduction
Some species are capable of both sexual and asexual reproduction. The simplest organisms have no sex
organs, so asexual reproduction is a necessity. Other species, such as corals, may reproduce either sexually
or asexually, depending on conditions. Though it occurs infrequently, some species surprise scientists
by adapting to asexual reproduction, sometimes where the species or even an individual organism had
reproduced sexually in the past. This is most common in species in captivity and in those where no males are
present to further the species but is also in evidence in sharks and snakes in the wild where the populations
included both male and females of the species.
Sea anemone
SR/ iStock.com
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4.3.2. Reproduction in Multicellular Organisms
Task
Research the advantages and disadvantages of both sexual and asexual reproduction. Record your
findings in the table below
Advantages Disadvantages
Asexual reproduction
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4.3.2. Reproduction in Multicellular Organisms
Knowledge
xxx
Types of asexual reproduction
There are many different types of asexual reproduction. Four major types are:
TarikVision / iStock.com
1) Binary fission
4.3.2. Reproduction in Multicellular Organisms
Single parent cell doubles its DNA, then divides into two
cells. Usually occurs in bacteria.
2) Budding
Small growth on surface of parent breaks off, resulting
in the formation of two individuals. Occurs in yeast and
some animals like the hydra.
tail regrows
new head
4) Parthenogenesis
An embryo develops from an unfertilized cell. Occurs in
invertebrates, as well as in some fish, amphibians, and
reptiles.
S. Coté / PPC
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4.3.2. Reproduction in Multicellular Organisms
Task
Another type of asexual reproduction is vegetative propagation
New plants can be produced from vegetative structures such as the roots, stems, and leaves
of some plants. The process can be natural or artificial.
Research a method of vegetative propagation of plants and experiment with it. For example
take a cutting, then care for your plant. Complete the table below.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Are there any risk(s) involved when doing the experiment? If so how will an accident be prevented?
Page 61
4.3.2. Reproduction in Multicellular Organisms
Knowledge
xxx
Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction is the process in which new organisms are created, by combining the genetic
information from two individuals of different sexes. The genetic information is carried on chromosomes
within the nucleus of specialized sex cells called gametes. In males, these gametes are called sperm and in
females the gametes are called eggs.
Father
in a fusion process known as fertilization, to create a zygote, 2n
n
which is the precursor to an embryo offspring, taking half
of its DNA from each of its parents. In humans, a zygote
contains 46 chromosomes: 23 from its mother and 23 from
its father. The combination of these chromosomes produces Fertilization
an offspring that is similar to both its mother and father but Mother 2n 2n
is not identical to either. 2n
Freepik et S. Coté/PPC
Meiosis
Meiosis is a type of cell division that reduces the Meiosis begins following one round of DNA replication
number of chromosomes in the parent cell by half in cells in the male or female reproductive organs.
and produces four gamete cells. This process is
required to produce egg and sperm cells for sexual
reproduction. During reproduction, when the sperm The process is split into meiosis I and meiosis II, and
and egg unite to form a single cell, the number of both meiotic divisions have multiple phases. Meiosis I
chromosomes is restored in the offspring. is a type of cell division unique to gamete cells, while
meiosis II is similar to mitosis (You will learn more
about mitosis in Year S5).
Meiosis begins with a parent cell that is diploid,
meaning it has two copies of each chromosome. The
parent cell undergoes one round of DNA replication
followed by two separate cycles of nuclear division.
A. Valentini / PPC
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4.3.2. Reproduction in Multicellular Organisms
Task
Research the role of insects in flowering plant reproduction as well as the crisis in bee
population.
Page 63
4.3.2. Reproduction in Multicellular Organisms
Chapter 4
4.4. Communication
Page 65
4.4.1. Chemical Communication
Knowledge
The endocrinesystem
The endocrine system is a network of glands and organs in the body that produces hormones.
Hormones are chemicals that coordinate different functions in your body by carrying signals through your blood
to your organs, muscles and other tissues. These signals tell your body what to do and when to do it. Your body
makes over 50 hormones, and many of them interact with each other.
Several glands make hormones, including the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, the pineal gland, the thyroid
gland, the parathyroid glands, the adrenal glands, the islets of Langerhans (in the pancreas), the ovaries and
the testes. Each gland makes one or more hormones. Hormones are important for almost all of the cells in the
body to work. They influence metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, reproduction, sleep, mood
and many other functions. Some hormones influence almost all cells in the body. Others only influence a small
number of cells in specific a organ (target organ).
4.4.1. Chemical Communication
Hypothalamus
Some glands ‘talk to’ other glands, telling
them to release particular hormones.
For example, the pituitary gland releases Pineal gland
hormones that tell the thyroid gland, the
adrenal glands, the ovaries and the testes to Pituitary gland
release hormones.
Thyroid gland
A. Valentini / PPC
Page 66
4.4.1. Chemical Communication
Knowledge
Task
Fill in the table:
Follicle-stimulating
Luteinizing
hormone (LH)
Thyroid gland Thyroxine
Calcitonin
Parathyroid Parathyroid
gland
hormone (PTH)
Adrenaline
Islets of Insulin
Langerhans
Glucagon
Ovaries Estrogens
Progesterone
Testes Testosterone
Page 67
4.4.1. Chemical Communication
Knowledge
Growth in plants and wnimals
Human Growth
Auxin
Hormone (HGH)
Cell elongation
Bone
Pituitary gland
Elongated cells
Skeletal muscle
Adipose tissue
A. Valentini / PPC
MedicalStocks / Alamy Stock Vector / 2A6EPJJ
Frepik / S. Coté / PPC
Plants use a variety of hormones to control their
growth and development. A family of hormones
called auxins, which promote growth, are The pituitary gland produces growth
commonly found in plants. For example, auxins hormone (also referred to as human
play a part in phototropism, an occurrence that growth hormone or HGH). The growth
involves plants bending or moving towards the hormone influences our height, bone
light. The shoot tip is responsible for directional length and muscle growth. Growth
movement by the plant in response to sunlight, hormone levels increase during
as this is the area where auxins can be found. childhood and peak during puberty.
When the sun is overhead, auxin is distributed
evenly in the shoot tip. When sunlight hits on a
side, auxin moves to the shaded area, inducing
cell elongation.
Page 68
4.4.1. Chemical Communication
Task
S. Coté / PPC
Experiment with plant hormones
Age faster with apples
Equipment needed:
- one ripe apple
- two green bananas and/or two green tomatoes
Method:
1. Place a ripe apple together with a green tomato in a bowl.
2. For comparison, put the other tomato in the second bowl.
3. Place both bowls at a large distance from each other but in similar conditions and wait a few days.
(If you do not have green tomatoes, you can also use green bananas.)
Results:
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Conclusion:
(Research the scientific reason for your results)
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Page 69
4.4.1. Chemical Communication
Task
Equipment needed:
Method:
1. Cut two 10 cm sections off a stem just below the root node. (The
root nodes are the small brown nodes on the golden pothos’ stems).
Try to find a 10 cm section of stem that is healthy and has at least 3
leaves on it.
2. Remove all leaves off the bottom 5 cm of the stem of both cuttings.
3. Dip the stem of one of the cuttings in the rooting hormone powder.
4. Label two 250 ml beakers; one “with rooting hormone” and the
other one with “control”.
A. Valentini / PPC
Results:
Describe any differences you have noticed after a few weeks between both of your plants.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Page 70
4.4.1. Chemical Communication
Task
Read the following article from the newspaper StarTwo on Wednesday 17th June 2009 and then research
bisphenol A. Record your findings on the next page.
The full article from StarTwo on Wed 17th June 2009 : the hearts of women, permanently damage the DNA
of mice, and appear to be pouring into the human
Hormone Experts are worried by a chemical called
body from a variety of unknown sources. BPA, used
bisphenol A, which some politicians want taken out
to stiffen plastic bottles, line cans and make smooth
of products and which consumers are increasingly
Page 71
4.4.1. Chemical Communication
The effects of Bisphenol A:
4.4.1. Chemical Communication
Page 72
4.4.1. Chemical Communication
4.4.2. Nervous System
Page 73
4.4.2. Nervous system
Knowledge
xxx
Evolution of the nervous system
Brains, centralized nervous systems and nets Diffuse nerve nets Nets and ‘brain’
S. Coté / PPC PPC, F. Garcia
6 7 8
Brachiopoda
Mollusca
Annelida
Arthropoda
Ptizpulida
Nematoda
Phoronida
Neurons
Echinodermata
Xenoturbellida
Hernichordata
Scyphozoa
Hydrozoa
Anthozoa
Muscles
Chordata
Cubozoa
Nerve nets Nerve nets Mesoderm
Ecdysozoa Lophotrochozoa
Nerve
4.4.2. Nervous System
Page 74
4.4.2. Nervous System
Task
Knowledge
Types of neurons
Task
Research the anatomy (structure) and the function of the different types of neurons.
Motor neuron
Interneuron
Page 75
4.4.2. Nervous System
Knowledge
Electrical signal
Nucleus
Nucleus
4.4.2. Nervous System
Messages, in the form of electrical impulses, When neurons communicate, an electrical impulse
constantly travel back and forth between the brain triggers the release of neurotransmitters from the
and other parts of the body. Neurons are responsible axon into the synapse. The neurotransmitters cross
for carrying these messages. There are about 100 the synapse and bind to special molecules on the
billion neurons in the human brain. other side, called receptors. Receptors are located
on the dendrites. Receptors receive and process the
A neuron has three main parts: the cell body,
message.
dendrites and axons. The cell body directs all activities
of the neuron. Dendrites extend out from the cell What’s particularly interesting about
body and receive messages from other nerve cells. neurotransmission is that each neurotransmitter
An axon is a long single fiber that transmits messages can bind only to a very specific matching receptor.
from the cell body to the dendrites of other neurons A neurotransmitter binds to a receptor in much the
or to other body tissues, such as muscles. same way a key fits into a lock. After transmission
has occurred, the neurotransmitter is either broken
A protective covering called the myelin sheath, covers
down by an enzyme (a chemical that speeds up
most neurons. Myelin insulates the axon and helps
some of the body’s processes) or is reabsorbed
nerve signals travel faster and farther.
into the neuron that released it. The reabsorbed
Messages travel along a single neuron as electrical neurotransmitters can be reused at a later time.
impulses, but messages between neurons travel
differently. The transfer of information from
neuron to neuron takes place through the release
of chemical substances into the space between
the axon and the dendrites. These chemicals are
called neurotransmitters, and the process is called
neurotransmission. The space between the axon and
the dendrites is called the synapse.
Page 76
4.4.2. Nervous System
Knowledge
The Synapse
1. Electrical impulse
2. Axon of the pre-synaptic neuron
3. Mitochondria
4. Vesicle
5. Neurotransmitter
6. Synaptic gap / synaptic cleft
7. Receptor
8. Post-synaptic neuron
9. Post-synaptic membrane
2
10. Synaptic knobs 11
61 5
7
81 9
A. Valentini / PPC
Task
Explain how messages are passed on from neuron to neuron by completing the following text. Make sure
that you identify each of the parts labeled 1 – 10 in the diagram.
Where two neurons meet there is a small gap called a synapse. An electrical impulse (1) cannot
directly cross the gap so a different mechanism has to be used.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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4.4.2. Nervous System
xxx
Knowledge
Reflex arc
Remember, there are three main types of neuron: sensory neuron, motor neuron and interneuron.
These different types of neurons work together in a reflex action. A reflex action is an automatic (involuntary) and
rapid response to a stimulus, which minimizes any damage to the body from potentially harmful conditions, such as
touching something hot. Reflex actions are therefore essential to the survival of many organisms.
A reflex action follows a general sequence of stimulus – receptor – sensory neurons – interneurons – motor
neurons – effector - response and does not involve the conscious part of the brain. This is why the response is so
fast.
Spinal cord
The nerve pathway followed by a reflex action is
2. Afferent or (in cross section)
called a reflex arc. For example, a simple reflex arc
sensory neuron
happens if we accidentally touch something hot.
change in temperature).
3. Integration 2. Sensory neuron sends electrical impulses to a
Interneuron centrer relay neuron, which is located in the spinal cord of
4. Efferent or
the central nervous system (CNS).
motor neuron
3. Interneurons connect sensory neurons to motor
1. Receptor neurons.
4. Motor neuron sends electrical impulses to an
effector.
5. Effector produces a response (muscle contracts
to move hand away).
Organisms are able to modify a reflex action and
overcome it, but this uses the brain and has to be
learnt. For example, keeping hold of a hot object
requires a nerve impulse to be sent to the motor
A. Valentini / PPC
Stimulus neuron of the reflex arc to interfere with the
normal reflex action to drop the object.
Task
Research different reflexes and briefly explain their purpose, or what they are protecting us from.
Page 78
4.4.2. Nervous System
Task
Test your reaction time
The reaction time is the time taken for a person to respond to a S. Coté / PPC
stimulus.
Equipment:
- 30 cm ruler
- Partner
Method:
1. One person holds the ruler with the arm stretched out. The
fingers should be on the highest measurement.
2. The other person hovers with their slightly open thumb and
index finger over the 0 at the bottom of the ruler.
Results:
Conclusion:
Explain in detail how this works, or what happens.
Test 1
Test 2 _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Test 3 _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Average _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Page 79
4.4.2. Nervous System
xxx
Task
(Analyse, describe and draw the nervous system of an insect of your choice)
4.4.2. Nervous System
(You can create a table to compare them, write about it or produce a well labelled drawing.)
Page 80
4.4.2. Nervous System
Task
Create a table in order to compare and contrast the endocrine and the nervous system.
Types of message
Speed of transmission
Length of effect
Effectors
Page 81
4.4.2. Nervous System
Knowledge
xxx
What is a drug?
A drug is any substance (with the exception of food and water) which, when taken into the body, alters the
body’s function either physically and/or psychologically. Some drugs may be legal in certain countries while
others are illegal.
Psychoactive drugs affect the central nervous system and alter a person's mood, thinking and behaviour.
Psychoactive drugs may be divided into four categories: depressants, stimulants, hallucinogens and 'other'.
Depressants: Drugs that decrease alertness by slowing down the activity of the central nervous system (e.g.
heroin, alcohol and analgesics).
Stimulants: Drugs that increase the body's state of arousal by increasing the activity of the brain (e.g. caffeine,
nicotine and amphetamines).
4.4.2. Nervous System
Hallucinogens: Drugs that alter perception and can cause hallucinations, such as seeing or hearing something
that is not there (e.g. LSD and 'magic mushrooms').
Other: Some drugs fall into the ‘other’ category, as they may have properties of more than one of the above
categories (e.g. cannabis has depressive, hallucinogenic and some stimulant properties).
Page 82
4.4.2. Nervous System
Task
Research three different drugs and for each one explain, how they effect the human body and especially the
nervous system.
Page 83
4.4.2. Nervous System
xxx
Task
Groupwork: Imagine you are an employee at the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control
(ECDC) and your task is to produce an information video for school children on drugs in order to prevent
teenage drug use. Your target audience is 11 to 14 year-olds. The length of the video should be between 2 min
and 5 min. Use the space below to plan your video.
https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en
4.4.2. Nervous System
ECDC / CC BY 4.0
Page 84
4.4.2. Nervous System
Notes
Page 85
4.4.2. Nervous System
Chapter 5
4.5. Transport
S. Coté / PPC
Page 87
4.5.1. Absorption and Uptake
Knowledge
During year 1 you learned that all living organisms need Types of nutrition
water and energy to grow and reproduce, maintain
their structures, and respond to their environments.
The different organisms have different means to AUTOTROPHS HETEROTROPHS
absorb/uptake the materials and energy needed. There (autos : self ; trophos : feed) Obtain energy through intake &
are two categories autotrophs and heterotrophs. digestion of organic substances
Autotrophs are known as producers because they Use simple inorganic substances (animal / plant tissue)
are able to make their own food from raw materials and either light energy
and energy. Heterotrophs are known as consumers (photosynthesis) or chemical
energy (chemosynthesis) to
because they consume producers or other consumers. synthesise food.
Task
4.5.1. Absorption and Uptake
Research some organisms that are autotrophs and some that are heterotrophs.
Autotroph organisms
(light energy)
Autotroph organisms
(chemical energy)
Heterotroph organisms
S. Coté / PPC
Page 88
4.5.1. Absorption and Uptake
Task
The digestive system
Label the organs of the digestive
system :
Organ Function
Teeth and tongue Mechanically break down food into smaller pieces.
Salivary gland Produces salivary to lubricate the food, chemical digestion through enzymes.
Epiglottis Seals off the windpipe during eating in order to not accidentally inhale food.
Oesophagus Muscular tube connecting the throat to the stomach.
Stomach Secretes acid and enzymes that digest food, the acid also kills bacteria and the
stomach is churning the food to enhance digestion.
Liver Produces bile which is needed for the digestion and absorption of fat.
Pancreas Secretes digestive juices.
Gall bladder Stores bile.
Small intestine Nutrients are being absorbed into the blood stream.
Large intestine Water is being absorbed into the blood stream.
Rectum Stores faeces until it is released.
Anus Controls the expulsion of faeces.
Appendix Unknown. One theory is that it acts as a storage house for good bacteria.
Page 89
4.5.1. Absorption and Uptake
Knowledge
Bile production in liver
Liver and pancreas
Food does not travel through the liver or pancreas, but
they are important parts of the digestive system.
After the stomach, food travels to the small intestine.
The enzymes in the small intestine work best in Bile stored in
alkaline conditions, but the food is acidic after being gall bladder
Hepatic duct
in the stomach. The liver produces a substance called
bile which neutralises the acid to provide the alkaline
conditions needed in the small intestine. Digestive enzymes
produced in pancreas
The pancreas produces important digestive enzymes.
Pancreatic duct
4.5.1. Absorption and Uptake
Enzymes
Enzymes are special proteins that can break down large molecules into small molecules.
Different types of enzymes can break down different nutrients:
A faire moi
même sur
- lipase enzymes break down fats into fatty acids and
glycerol.
illustrator, rond
en 3D
S. Coté / PPC
Page 90
4.5.1. Absorption and Uptake
Knowledge
Once the large food molecules are broken down into smaller ones they can be absorbed in the small intestine. This
means that they pass through the wall of the small intestine and into our bloodstream. Once in the bloodstream,
the digested food molecules are carried around the body to where they are needed. Only small, soluble substances
can pass across the wall of the small intestine. Large insoluble substances cannot pass through.
Sabrina, tell me if I’m removing content from the names of the various elements.
Task
Describe the way the villus and microvilli look:
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Why do you think the villi and microvilli look this way (think about their function):
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4.5.1. Absorption and Uptake
Knowledge
Once the small intestine has absorbed most of the nutrients from the food, the circulatory system passes them
on to other parts of the body to store or use. Glucose for example needs to be transported to the cells in order
to be turned into energy through a process called cellular respiration. Cellular respiration is a series of chemical
reactions that break down glucose to produce ATP (energy). There are two types of cellular respiration – aerobic
respiration (with oxygen) and anaerobic respiration (without). Most aerobic respiration takes place in the cells’
mitochondria while anaerobic respiration takes place within the cells’ cytoplasm. Aerobic respiration releases a lot
more ATP energy than anaerobic respiration.
Task
+( )
4.5.1. Absorption and Uptake
+ +
+( )
Now compare and contrast aerobic respiration and anaerobic cellular respiration :
Page 92
4.5.1. Absorption and Uptake
Knowledge
Now we will take a closer look at the absorption and
uptake of plants.
Most plants are autotrophs, they produce their own
food through a process call photosynthesis. During
photosynthesis light energy is converted into chemical
energy.
During photosynthesis, plants produce glucose from
simple inorganic molecules, carbon dioxide and water
with the help of light energy. The light energy required
is absorbed by a green pigment called chlorophyll in
the leaves. Chlorophyll is located in chloroplasts in plant
cells, particularly the palisade and spongy mesophyll
cells (see leaf diagram on the next page).
Oxygen is also produced by the plant during this
process, therefore photosynthesis is largely responsible
Task
With the help of the above text, create the chemical word equation for photosynthesis :
Sunlight
+ +
What do you think? Where do the substances needed for photosynthesis come from and how do they get into the
plant?
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4.5.1. Absorption and Uptake
Knowledge
Diffusion
Task
Drop some ink or food colouring in a glass of water in order to observe diffusion. Describe what happened:
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Fill a beaker with water, add food colouring and celery (it works best
when some leaves are on the celery). Leave it for a few days then cut the
stem and observe what has happened. Describe what happened:
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Page 94
4.5.1. Absorption and Uptake
Knowledge
A. Vallentini / PPC
Osmosis
Task
The text needs to be changed. We don’t have
Gummy bear osmosis experiment 1 the rights.
Gummy bears have a selectively permeable coating which will allow water molecules to diffuse across, but
inhibiting other larger molecules. In this osmosis experiment the water molecules move into the bear, thus
enlarging it.
Material: Method:
- Gummy bears 1) Take 2 gummy bears that are the same colour and similar size and record their
mass.
- Two beakers
2) Put one gummy bear in each beaker. Fill one beaker with water so that the bear
- Water
is submerged, but measure the amount of water you use as this information will
- Paper towels be useful later on. The other cup remains dry (no water). This is your control bear
- Balance which will prove the bear does not enlarge without water!
3) Leave both bears overnight and then compare gummy bears by looking at them
and weighing both bears and record the results.
4) Calculate the mass gained by the enlarged bear by subtracting the weight before
from the mass after. Check the weight of the control bear as well, as this may have
changed too.
Results:
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4.5.1. Absorption and Uptake
Task
Osmosis experiment 2, modelling a cell
Material: Method:
- 600 ml Beaker 1. Fill the beaker with 500 ml of water.
- Visking tube 2. Add some iodine solution to the water.
- Pipette 3. Cut two pieces of string each approx. 20
cm long.
- Starch solution
4. Cut an approx. 30 cm piece of Visking tube
- String
and soak it in water.
- Scissors S. Humphries / PPC
5. Tie one end of the Visking tube with the string.
- Pencil
6. Fill the Visking tube with the starch solution using the pipette.
- Iodine solution
7. Tie the other end of the Visking tube with the string and rinse
4.5.1. Absorption and Uptake
Results:
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Conclusion:
Explain what happened in a scientific way. Make sure you explain what each part of the experiment
represented.
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4.5.1. Absorption and Uptake
Task
Now you learnt that most plants produce their own food (glucose)
during photosynthesis. But what about cellular respiration? Do you think
cellular respiration takes place in plants? Justify your answer.
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A. Vallentini / PPC
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Some plants are parasitic plants. Most parasitic plants are those which lack chlorophyll in them and depend on
others for their nutrition.
Groupwork: Research a parasitic plant and introduce your researched plant to the class. Use the space below for
your research notes.
Note: Parasitic plants are different from carnivorous plants like the Venus flytrap, which catch insects for
protein but still make their own sugars using sunlight and are thus still green. Parasitic plants steal all or nearly
all their food directly from other plants.
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4.5.1. Absorption and Uptake
NOTES
4.5.1. Absorption and Uptake
Page 98
4.5.1. Absorption and Uptake
4.5.2. Transport Within the
Organism
iStock.com / Thomas-Soellner
Page 99
4.5.2. Transport Within the Organism
Knowledge
xxx
Transportation in living organisms is the movement of food, water, and oxygen to different parts of their body. The
closed circulatory system is responsible for transportation in all mammals, fish, birds, reptiles, and amphibians.
Some invertebrates, like earthworms, octopuses, and squids, also have a closed circulatory system. The main parts
of the circulatory system are blood, blood vessels, and the heart. Blood is pumped through different types of blood
vessels by the heart.
Blood
Blood consists of: plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Blood has many different functions,
including transporting oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients and hormones around the body.
4.5.2. Transport Within the Organism
Plasma
Plasma is the liquid component of blood. It is a mixture of water, sugar, fat, protein, and salts. The main job of the
plasma is to transport blood cells throughout the body along with nutrients, waste products, antibodies, clotting
proteins, chemical messengers such as hormones, and proteins that help maintain the body’s fluid balance.
Platelet
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4.5.2. Transport Within the Organism
Knowledge
Blood vessels
Blood vessels are tubes that carry blood throughout the
Artery
body. They form a closed loop, like a circuit, that begins
and ends at the heart. There are three main types of blood
vessels called arteries, capillaries and veins.
Arteries: These strong, muscular blood vessels usually
carry oxygen-rich blood from the heart to the body. (There
is an exception from the heart to the lungs. That artery
carries deoxygenated blood.)
Capillaries: These tiny blood vessels have thin walls.
Task
Identify one special feature of the arteries, of the capillaries and of the veins and explain why they are
important:
Arteries
Capillaries
Veins
Page 101
4.5.2. Transport Within the Organism
Knowledge
The heart Superior vena
cava
The heart is a fist-sized organ that
pumps blood throughout the body. It
is the primary organ of the circulatory
system.
Aorta
Pulmonary
artery
Pulmonary
Left vein
4.5.2. Transport Within the Organism
Atrium
Right Atrium Mitral
valve
Pulmonary Aortic
valve valve
Left
Triscuspid ventricle
valve Right
ventricle
Task
Explain how blood flows through an organism with a closed circulatory system. Make sure you name all the correct
blood vessels and all of the parts of the heart. Start with the following.
Deoxygenated blood from all over the body arrives at the right atrium through the superior and inferior venae cavae...
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4.5.2. Transport Within the Organism
Knowledge
Plants have primarily two types of tissues that help transport water, minerals, and nutrients. Those tissues
are the xylem and phloem. Xylem and phloem are both transport vessels that combine to form a vascular
bundle in higher order plants. The vascular bundle functions to connect tissues in the roots, stem and leaves
as well as providing structural support.
Xylem
Mature xylem consists of elongated dead cells, arranged end to end to form continuous vessels (tubes).
Xylem does not contain any cytoplasm and is impermeable (fluids are unable to pass through) to water. The
outer wall of the xylem is quite tough containing a woody material call lignin. Xylem is responsible for the
transportation of water and mineral salts from the roots to different parts of a plant.
Any applied chemicals to the plant, such as pesticides, also move through the plant by translocation.
Page 103
4.5.2. Transport Within the Organism
Knowledge
Ostia
In contrast to a closed circulatory system, (openings in heart)
Dorsal blood vessel
4.5. Transport
arthropods (including insects, crustaceans, and
most mollusks) have an open circulatory system.
In an open circulatory system, the blood is not
enclosed in the blood vessels, but is pumped into a Hearts
cavity called a hemocoel.
The blood is called hemolymph because it mixes
with the interstitial fluid. As the heart beats and
the animal moves, the hemolymph circulates
around the organs within the body cavity,
reentering the heart through openings called ostia
4.5.2. Transport Within the Organism
Task
Comparing the differences of transportation methods in plants, certain animals and insects. Complete the
following table:
Transport system Closed circulatory system Xylem and phloem Open circulatory system
Composition of the
transport system
Substances
transported
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4.5.2. Transport Within the Organism
4.5.3. Waste Disposal
Aboussoir Maoulida / PPC
Page 105
4.5.3. Waste Disposal
Task
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S. Coté / PPC
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4.5.3. Waste Disposal
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S. Coté / PPC
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S. Coté / PPC
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Page 106
4.5.3. Waste Disposal
Knowledge
Human excretion
Excretion is a process in which metabolic waste is eliminated from an organism. In vertebrates this is primarily
carried out by the lungs, kidneys, and skin. The excretory system consists of organs which remove these
metabolic wastes and toxins from the body. In humans, this includes the removal of urea from the bloodstream
and other wastes produced by the body. The removal of urea happens in the kidneys, which is the primary
excretory organ in humans, while solid wastes are expelled from the large intestine.
Medulla
Each nephron snakes between the outer cortex of the
Renal artery kidney and the inner medulla, with different activities
occurring at each site. Consequently, the composition
of blood entering the kidney (via the renal artery)
differs to that exiting the kidney (via the renal vein).
Renal vein
Renal pelvis
Cortex
Ureter
A. Valentini / PPC
Blood in the renal vein (i.e. after the kidney) contains: Structural organisation of the kidney’s
- Less urea (large amounts of urea is removed via the
nephrons to form urine).
- Less water and solutes / ions (amount removed will Cortex
depend on the hydration status of the individual).
- Less glucose and oxygen (not eliminated, but used
by the kidney to generate energy and fuel metabolic
reactions).
Medulla
- More carbon dioxide (produced by the kidney as a
by-product of metabolic reactions). A. Valentini / PPC
Kidney Nephrons
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4.5.3. Waste Disposal
Task
iStock.com / BENCHAMAT1234
Urinalysis
Materials needed:
The teacher or lab assistants need to prepare five urine
- The five different urine samples labelled A - E samples for each group prior to the experiment. Urine
- White paper can be imitated by using herbal tea bags. Leave one urine
4.5.3. Waste Disposal
Method:
1. Hold a white piece of paper behind each urine sample and look at it. Make a statement about its colour and
transparency in the results table below.
2. Open the urine samples and dip a piece of universal indicator paper in each sample.
3. Put the universal indicator paper on a paper towel and record your results in the results table.
4. Insert a fresh urine analysis stick into each urine sample and for each record the presence or absence of glucose
and protein.
5. Then match the patients (following page) to the urine samples using the description of the medical conditions of
each patient.
Results:
Page 108
4.5.3. Waste Disposal
Task
Patient 1
Was recently diagnosed with diabetes and was Patient 2
admitted to the ward in order to regulate his blood Was admitted to the ward with kidney failure.
sugar. Having sugar in your urine is usually a sign Kidney failure can result in a pH higher than 8.
of very high blood sugar levels which is typical for
a diabetic person.
Patient 3
Freepik
Patient 4 Patient 5
An 11 years old boy who was admitted An elderly patient who has Alzheimer’s.
with the fever that has lasted for over It is summer and the patient hasn’t drink
three days now. Such a severe fever can much water therefore she is severely
cause a short-term presence of protein dehydrated.
in urine.
Page 109
4.5.3. Waste Disposal
Knowledge
Lungs Skin
A major product that must be excreted The skin is a secondary excretory organ since
from all animals is carbon dioxide. Carbon sweat glands in the dermis can remove salts
dioxide is created in the cells, as they undergo and some excess water. The skin also has
aerobic respiration. This waste product is sebaceous glands that can secrete waxy lipids.
removed from the cells and transferred to the
bloodstream. When the blood reaches the
lungs it is exchanged for oxygen and released
into the atmosphere.
4.5.3. Waste Disposal
Page 110
4.5.3. Waste Disposal
Knowledge
Plant excretion
The gaseous waste produced when a plant cell respires is carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide oozes
through its stomata and is simultaneously used as the reactant for photosynthesis. Similarly, some of
the oxygen produced by photosynthesis is utilized for cellular respiration.
Palissade chlorophyll
Plants also excrete nitrogenous compounds that
are produced in protein metabolic reactions.
Palissade mesophyll Some metabolic reactions also produce organic
“waste”, of different forms. These include gums,
Lower epidermis various oils, latex, resins and a multitude of
Water Stoma crucial products that we borrow from plants.
These substances are found on barks, stems and
Photosynthetic CO2 O2 Water vapor colourful leaves.
products
A. Valentini / PPC
Plants can also store the waste in organs that are destined to fall off (like autumn leaves) or die off (like the
leaves and stalk of a bluebell which is dying back in the summer, leaving the bulb underground).
Some plants will actively secrete waste compounds (allelochemicals) into the soil, occasionally using them as
chemical weapons against other competing plants e.g. conifers and some palms such as cohune.
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4.5.3. Waste Disposal
Task
Plant excretion
Materials needed:
- Elodea cutting
- Test tube
- Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda)
- Beaker with water
- Lamp
- Filter funnel
Method:
1. Fill the beaker with enough water to completely submerge the filter funnel.
2. In order to improve results add a little sodium bicarbonate to the water.
4.5.3. Waste Disposal
3. Cut one elodea stem at an angle and use your fingers to crush the end of the stem.
4. Insert the elodea into the beaker and place the filter funnel on top of it.
5. Completely fill the test tube with water.
6. Using your finger close off the top of the test tube and insert it into the beaker upside down.
7. Gently remove your finger from the opening of the test tube and manoeuvre the test tube whilst staying under
water on top of the filter funnel.
8. Switch on the lamp and observe any bubbles given off.
9. This experiment might need to run over the duration of a few days.
10. Once enough oxygen has collected in the test tube you can remove the test tube gently (you will have to cover
the opening with your finger as soon as all of the water has come out).
11. Test the gas with a glowing match or splint. If it relights this is proof that oxygen is the gas in the test tube.
Insects have a circulating fluid system called hemolymph. Within this fluid the excretory system (Malpighian
tubules) which connects to the digestive system of the animal is submerged within this fluid.
Malpighian tubules are slender tubes normally found at the junction between the midgut and hindgut. Each
tubule consists of a single layer of cells. The number of tubules varies between species although most occur
in multiples of two. Tubules are usually bathed in hemolymph.
Midgut Hindgut
The Malpighian tubules branch off from the Haemolymph::
Haemolymph
intestinal tract and actively uptake nitrogenous Salt, uric acid, water
Into Tubules
wastes (as uric acid) and water from the
hemolymph. The tubules then pass these
materials into the gut to combine with the
Excretion::
Excretion
digested food products. Some solutes, water Uric acid and faeces
and salts are reabsorbed into the hemolymph Out
at the hindgut, whereas uric acid and
undigested food are excreted via the anus. Haemolymph:
Haemolymph:
Malpighian tubules Salt and water
Task
Grasshopper dissection
The Malpighian tubules can easily be seen in grasshoppers and dissected out. For this you need to make
sure that the grasshopper is submerged in water throughout the dissection in order to remove the intestinal
tract with the Malpighian tubules easily. If you use previously boiled water there won’t be any air bubbles in
the way.
Materials needed: Method:
- Lab coat 1. Examine the outside of your grasshopper.
- Gloves 2. Cut off all of the legs and wings with the scissors so that
- Googles you are left with the grasshopper body only.
- Dissecting pan 3. Using your scissors cut from the bottom of the
grasshopper towards the head along the back. Make
- Tweezers sure that you are staying right under the edge of the
- Dissecting scissors exoskeleton.
- Pins 4. Open the grasshopper along your cut and pin each side on
the dissecting pan using the dissecting pins.
- Water (enough to cover the grasshopper)
5. Pour the water over the grasshopper until it is fully
- Grasshopper
submerged.
- Magnifying glass (optional)
6. Locate the Malpighian tubules.
7. Using tweezers gently remove the Malpighian tubules and
examine them.
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4.5.3. Waste Disposal
Chapter 6
4.6. Control
iStock.com / iLexx
Page 115
4.6.1. Control of the Self
https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/terms-and-conditions
Knowledge
It’s not possible to keep this article. The site prohibits it. You
What is cancer? need to rewrite it
All cancers begin in cells. Our bodies are made up of billions of cells. Cancer starts with changes in one cell or a
small group of cells.
Usually, we have just the right number of each type of cell. This is because cells produce signals to control how
much and how often the cells divide. If any of these signals are faulty or missing, cells might start to grow and
multiply too much and form a lump called a tumour.
Normal Cancer
A primary tumour is where the
cancer starts. Some types of
cancer, called leukaemia, start Large, variably shaped
from blood cells. They don't nuclei
form solid tumours. The cancer
cells build up in the blood and
sometimes the bone marrow. Many dividing cells;
4.6.1. Control of the Self
A. Valentini / PPC
Page 116
4.6.1. Control of the Self
https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/what-is-cancer/how-cancer-star
Knowledge
It’s not possible to keep this article. There are no
Gene changes within cells (mutations) authorisations :(
Genes make sure that cells grow and make copies (reproduce) in an orderly and controlled way, and are
needed to keep the body healthy.
Sometimes a change happens in the genes when a cell divides. This is a mutation. It means that a gene has
been damaged or lost or copied too many times.
Mutations can happen by chance when a cell is dividing. Some mutations mean that the cell no longer
understands its instructions. It can start to grow out of control. There have to be about six different mutations
before a normal cell turns into a cancer cell.
Mutations can happen by chance when a cell is dividing. They can also be caused by the processes of life
inside the cell, or by things coming from outside the body, such as the chemicals in tobacco smoke. Some
people can inherit faults in genes that make them more likely to develop a cancer.
Some genes get damaged every day and cells are very good at repairing them. But over time, the damage
may build up, and once cells start growing too quickly, they are more likely to pick up further mutations and
less likely to be able to repair the damaged genes.
A Wright’s stained
Cancer may occur anywhere in the body. In women, bone marrow
breast cancer is one of the most common. In men, it’s aspirate smear from
prostate cancer. Lung cancer and colorectal cancer a person with B-cell
affect both men and women in high numbers. Among acute lymphoblastic
children (ages 0 to 14 years), the most common types leukemia.
of cancer are leukemia. Leukemia is a group of blood
cancers that usually begin in the bone marrow and
result in high numbers of abnormal blood cells.
Page 117
4.6.1. Control of the Self
Knowledge
The birth and death of cells
In cells that are actively growing and dividing, such as misaligned. The many factors that regulate the cell cycle
4.6.1. Control of the Self
those in an embryo, the cycle is completed frequently play an important role in the aging process, because
as cells divide over and over during the embryo growth as cells age their capacity to replicate diminishes to
and development. In adults the need for growth and the point that they are no longer able to divide. As
development has passed, and most cells remain in the this occurs, the ability to replace damaged or lost
G0 phase during which they perform their specialized cells dwindles and ultimately results in a decline in
functions, but they no longer replicate (e.g., nerve and tissue strength and cellular and organ function that is
muscle cells). Nevertheless, even in fully developed characteristic of aging.
adults, certain cells retain the ability to replicate and
give rise to new daughter cells to replace cells that are
damaged or lost due to wear and tear. Regulation of the Aging and p53
cell cycle is of critical importance to the aging process.
Replication should only occur when there is a need for Protein 53 (p53) is a tumor suppressor protein that is
growth and development (in embryos and the young) encoded by the TP53 gene. The p53 protein has been
or when there is a need to replace damaged or lost extensively studied because the gene that encodes it
cells. Thus, the cycle is influenced by growth factors and has been found to be mutated in approximately half
by proto-oncogenes (Mutations in a proto-oncogene of all human cancers. Stopping cell growth at the G1
may cause it to become an oncogene, which can cause checkpoint is mediated by p53 which is rapidly activated
the growth of cancer cells) that favour replication and in response to damaged DNA. Following the stopping
by anti-oncogenes that produce proteins that inhibit of cell division, p53 will also induce either cell death
replication. These various factors interact to regulate through apoptosis or permanent loss of the ability of
the cell cycle in cells that have retained the capacity to a cell to proliferate (senescence). The accumulation of
divide. senescent cells contributes to aging because it leads
to reduced tissue renewal and repair. Several studies
In addition, there are cellular processes that constitute conducted in both mice and humans on mutant p53
checkpoints that prevent the cell cycle from proceeding genes have supported the notion that increased cancer
if errors have occurred. The first checkpoint occurs protection by mutant p53 can also lead to a shortened
during the G1 phase which provides an opportunity for life span.
cellular processes to repair damaged DNA before the
cell enters the S phase when replication occurs. This
prevents the daughter cells from inheriting damaged
DNA, which would result in mutations. There are also
other checkpoints in S and G2 phases that check for
damaged DNA and failure of DNA replication. The
final cell cycle checkpoint occurs at the end of mitosis
and checks for any chromosomes that have been
Page 118
4.6.1. Control of the Self
Knowledge
Apoptosis
Apoptosis, also known as programmed cell death, is a regulated process that takes place throughout life and
serves to eliminate unnecessary or damaged cells. Apoptosis takes place during embryonic development
as a means of reshaping tissues during normal growth and development, and it provides a mechanism for
eliminating worn out or damaged cells throughout life. Age-related diseases such as Alzheimer disease and
Parkinson's disease have been linked to an increase in apoptosis where cells that might otherwise continue
to support proper tissue functioning are eliminated. There are many pathways and proteins that regulate
apoptosis, such as p53, that are able to sense cells that are damaged or no longer needed. The image below
illustrates a cell undergoing apoptosis.
Pre-Apoptotic Cell Early Apoptotic Cell Late Apoptotic Cell
Apoptotic
bodies
Once molecular signals trigger apoptosis, catabolic (Catabolism is the break down of complex molecules)
processes are initiated in the cell. Various enzymes begin to break down cellular components and fragment
nuclear DNA. The chromatin condenses, the cell begins to shrink and irregular bulges in the plasma
membrane known as blebs form. The cell eventually breaks into several smaller pieces known as apoptotic
bodies containing the cell components and the nucleus. The apoptotic bodies are then taken up by
macrophages and removed.
Autophagy
Autophagy is another mechanism by which cell death can occur. Like apoptosis, it is a highly regulated process that
plays a normal role in cell growth, development and homeostasis. Autophagy allows a starving cell to reallocate
nutrients from unnecessary processes to more essential ones, and it also plays an important housekeeping role by
removing misfolded or aggregated proteins, clearing away damaged
Lysosomal hydrolase
organelles, such as mitochondria Lysosome
and endoplasmic reticulum, as VESICLE
well as eliminating intracellular ELONGATION Autolysosome
pathogens. In addition, autophagy
degrades proteins to enable their
replacement and also degrades
damaged proteins that are no
longer functional. Isolation
membrane Autophagosome
VESICLE DOCKING & VESICLE BREAKDOWN &
NUCLEATION FUSION DEGRADATION
A. Valentini / PPC
Summary of Autophagy
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4.6.1. Control of the Self
Task
Most cancers occur randomly, however certain factors and behaviours make human cancer more likely.
Research those factors and explain how you might prevent them and then present them.
4.6.1. Control of the Self
Page 120
4.6.1. Control of the Self
Task
Optional: Create posters which make students aware of cancer causing factors and behaviours and display
them around school.
Page 121
4.6.1. Control of the Self
Task
Optional: Research different cancer treatments and explain how they work.
4.6.1. Control of the Self
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4.6.1. Control of the Self
Task
Optional: Plan and organise a charity event in your school and donate the money to a cancer organisation.
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Task
Optional: Research sources of help and support for those affected by cancer, both local and national.
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4.6.1. Control of the Self
4.6.1. Control of the Self
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4.6.1. Control of the Self
4.6.1. Control of the Self
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4.6.1. Control of the Self
4.6.1. Control of the Self
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4.6.1. Control of the Self
4.6.1. Control of the Self
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4.6.1. Control of the Self