The Universe &

The Solar System

 Universe
It includes all celestial bodies such as
• Stars
• Planets
• Satellites
• Asteroids
• Meteors
• Comets & also
• Dust and Gases
i.e., All existing matter and space as a whole

• Structure of the Universe is – “Negative Curvature” and “Saddle-Shaped”

• Farthest limit to our viewing is called Cosmic Horizon i.e., 13.7 billion light years
• Science of Studying these celestial objects – Astronomy
• Science of Studying origin & evolution of the Universe - Cosmology
 Big Bang Theory
• Proposed by Georges Lemaitre (in 1927)
• Modern Big Bang Theory – George Gamow
• All matter that forms the Universe was concentrated in primordial atom
• A vast explosion occurred around 15 billion years ago
• Large Hadron Collider (LHC) – European Organisation for Nuclear Research
(France-Swiss border near Geneva) – Discovery of Higgs Boson in 2012
• Heavy-ion collisions at the LHC recreate in laboratory conditions the plasma
of quarks and gluons that is thought to have existed shortly after the Big
Bang
• Based on recent observations of the Cosmological Missions
especially Planck Observation, the age of the Universe is
13.8 billion years
• Visible Matter(4.9%) – Mainly composed of Hydrogen,
Helium and Other elements
• Dark Matter(26.8%) – Cannot be seen visibly or on any
electromagnetic spectrum but can be inferred based on
gravitation, temperature distribution, orbital and rotational
velocities of galaxies, missing masses
• Dark Energy(68.3%) – Form of matter responsible for
accelerated expansion of the universe
Galaxies
• It is collection of stars, dust, gases and dark matter
bound by gravity
• Island Universe – The vast galaxies
• There are billions of galaxies in the universe of different
size, shape and structure. They can be
1. Normal Galaxies – emit lesser radio radiations
2. Radio Galaxies – emit large radio radiations
Galaxies
Based on the shape they can be:
A. Elliptical Galaxies
B. Spiral Galaxies
C. Irregular Galaxies
Others:
• Starburst Galaxies
• Satellite Galaxies
• Nearest Galaxy: Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy (25,000 ly away)
• Nearest major galaxy to the Milky Way: Andromeda
• Our Galaxy: Milky Way, named by Galileo (or Akash Ganga) part of Local Group
• First Galaxy formed after Big Bang: CR -7

Arm – Called Airavath Path

 Stars
• Sun is nearest star to Earth
• Proxima Centauri is nearest star to Our Solar System, followed
by Alpha Centauri and Barnard’s Star
• Brightest star outside solar system - Sirius, also called Alpha
Canis Majoris or the Dog Star
• Red dwarf stars are the most common type of stars in the
Milky Way
• Binary Stars – which occurs in pairs
• Variable Stars – are also called Cepheid Variable Stars and are
those, whose luminosity varies periodically
Life Cycle of A Star
Chandrasekhar Limit:
• Limit of 1.44 times mass of that of Sun that is measured
for the star that has undergone Supernova explosion
• Calculated by Subrahmanyam Chadrasekhar
• Star above mass of Chandrasekhar Limit, will have no
stability and they will collapse under the gravitational
force
• If collapse if stabled after neutron degeneracy, it will
become Neutron Star or else will collapse further to
change into Blackhole
The Solar System
Dominated by the Sun (99.9% of Complete Mass)
Sun is at the Centre
Eight Planets
✓ Mercury ✓ Jupiter
✓ Venus ✓ Saturn
✓ Earth ✓ Uranus
✓ Mars ✓ Neptune
And their Satellites, Dwarf Planets, Asteroids, Meteors
and Comets
 The Sun (Yellow Dwarf Star)
• Age: 5 billion years ago
• Nearest Star from Earth (150 million kms)
• Source of almost all the Energy
• Main Gases: Hydrogen and Helium
• Surface Temperature: 5500 Celsius (5800 K)
• Core Temperature: 1,56,00,000 Celsius (1.57 million K)
• Revolution (Cosmic Year): 224 million years
• Rotation around the axis : 25 days (at Equator) & 36 days (at Poles)
• Missions - Parker Solar Probe, STEREO, Solar Orbiter, SOHO,, Hinode, IRIS, and Wind
• Fraunhofer Lines: Hundreds of dark lines superimposed on white light of the Sun
Layers of Sun
• Photosphere: Glowing surface of the Sun
• Chromosphere: Red Coloured; Lies above the Photosphere
• Corona: Visible only during Eclipse

Source - NASA
The Planets
• Derived from Greek word Planetai (wanderer)
• Revolve around the Sun
• In elliptical path known as Orbits
• Movement around its axis is called Rotation
• Have no light or heat of their own
Classification
Inner or Terrestrial Outer or Jovian
✓ Mercury ✓ Jupiter
✓ Venus ✓ Saturn
✓ Earth ✓ Uranus
✓ Mars ✓ Neptune
Planets
Definition given by International Astronomical Union (IAU)
On 24 August 2006:
A planet is a celestial object –
i. That is in orbit around the Sun
ii. That has sufficient mass so that it assumes a
hydrostatic equilibrium (i.e. nearly round shape)
iii. That has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit
A Non-Satellite body that fulfils only first two rule is
termed Dwarf Planet
Mercury (Roman God of Speed)
• Nearest and Smallest planet to the Sun
• Cratered surface just like Moon
• Has maximum diurnal range of temperature (Day time :
430 degrees and Night time : -180 degrees)
• No Atmosphere; Mercury's thin atmosphere, or
exosphere, is composed mostly of oxygen (O2), sodium
(Na), hydrogen (H2), helium (He), and potassium (K)
• Revolution: 88 days (Fastest)
• Rotation: 59 days
• No Satellite
• Mariner 10 and MESSENGER; ESA's BepiColombo
Venus (Roman Goddess of Love)
• Earth’s Twin Planet
• Hottest Planet because atmosphere consists mainly CO2
• Brightest Object in the Sky after Sun and Moon due to
Highest albedo (Clouds of Sulfuric Acid - 45 to 70 kms)
• Phosphine, a possible indicator of microbial life, has
been observed in the clouds
• Called Morning or Evening Star
• Rotates from East to West (243 days – Slowest)
• Revolution: 225 days
• No Satellite
Earth
• Shape of the Earth: Geoid
• Called Blue Planet
• Only planet where there is existence of life
• Goldilock Zone: Right distance from the Sun
• Densest Planet
• Atmosphere: Mainly Nitrogen with Oxygen
• Revolution: 365 days
• Rotation: 24 hours
• Satellite: Moon
Mars (Roman God of War)
• Called Red Planet (because iron minerals in the Martian
soil oxidize)
• Dormant Volcanoes. Olympus Mons is highest mountain
• Atmosphere: mostly of carbon dioxide (CO2), argon
(Ar), nitrogen (N2), and a small amount of oxygen and
water vapor
• Revolution: 687 days
• Rotation: 24.6 hours
• Satellite: Phobos & Deimos (Smallest)
Jupiter (King of the Roman Gods)
• Largest Planet of the Solar System (11 Earth can fit it its
Equator)
• Third brightest object in night sky
• Characteristic: Faint Rings and Great Red Spot
• Comet Shoemaker Levy – Broke up in 1994
• Atmosphere: Hydrogen and Helium
• Clouds of Methane and Ammonia in outer regions
• Revolution: 11 years 11 months
• Rotation: 9 hours 56 minutes (Fastest)
• Satellites: 95 (Europa, Callisto & Ganymede {Largest})
Saturn (Roman God of Seed)
• Second largest planet of Solar System
• Least dense among all the planets
• Appears yellowish
• Also surrounded by Rings made up of dust and ice
particles
• Revolution: 29 and half years
• Rotation: 10.7 hours
• Satellites: 63 Confirmed (20 Awaiting Confirmation)
(Titan {Atmosphere like earth})
• Missions: Pioneer 11, Voyager 1 and 2, Cassini-Huygens
Uranus (Greek God of the Sky)
• First planet discovered with help of telescope
• Called Green Planet
• Rotates from East to West with tilted axis(98⁰)
• Surrounded by faint rings
• Uranus is an ice giant. Most of its mass is a hot, dense
fluid of "icy" materials – water, methane and ammonia
• Atmosphere: Hydrogen and Helium
• Revolution: 84 years
• Rotation: 17 hours
• Satellites: 27 (Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel etc.)
Neptune (Roman God of the Sea)
• Contains blemish called Great Dark Spot
• Has a system of faint rings
• Appears Bluish because of Methane
• Only planet found by Mathematical Prediction, made by
Urbain Le Verrier, Johann Galle
• Revolution: 165 years
• Rotation: 15.7 days
• Satellite: 14 (Triton, Nereid, etc)
• Because of dwarf planet Pluto’s elliptical orbit, Pluto is
sometimes closer to the Sun (and us) than Neptune is
Dwarf Planets
The celestial objects which follow the first two of the rules
given by IAU in 2006 are called Dwarf Planets
Five Dwarf Planets
• Pluto (Roman God of the Underworld)
• MakeMake (Polynesian Creator God)
• Haumea (Hawaiian Fertility Goddess)
• Ceres (Roman Goddess of Harvest)
• Eris (Greek Goddess of Discord and Strife)
Asteroids, Comets & Meteors
Asteroids: Heavenly objects found between Mars
and Jupiter e.g., Ceres, Vesta, Psyche, etc.
Asteroid 99942 Apophis is a near-Earth asteroid
more than 1000 feet (over 300 meters) in size that
will harmlessly pass close to Earth on April 13, 2029
Largest asteroid: Ceres
Comets: Revolves around the Sun in elongated
elliptical orbits
Become visible only when comes closer to the Sun
Meteors: Heavenly objects when enters atmosphere
of Earth, due to friction glows and burns
KEPLER’S LAW OF PLANETARY MOTION:
1. Law of Orbits – Every planets around the Sun revolve around in an elliptical orbit and Sun is
located at one foci of the ellipse
2. Law of Area – The line joining the planets and the Sun swept equal area in equal interval of
time, i.e. the areal velocity of the planets around the Sun is constant.
3. Law of Periods – The square of the time period of the planets revolving around the Sun is
directly proportional to the cube of semi major axis of the elliptical orbit of the planet
Latitude & Longitude
Latitudes
Latitude: Angular distance of a point on the earth surface,
measured in degrees from the center of the earth
 Latitudes
• Latitudes are parallel lines to the Equator
• Also called as Parallels of Latitudes
• The distance between 1⁰ latitude remains same (about 111km)
• Total – 181
• Important Latitudes:
Degree Latitude
0⁰ Equator
23½⁰ North Tropic of Cancer
23½⁰ South Tropic of Capricorn
66½⁰ North Arctic Circle
66½⁰ South Antarctic Circle
Longitudes
Longitude: Angular distance, measured in degrees along
the equator east or west of the prime meridian connect
north and south pole both passing through equator
 Longitudes
• Prime Meridian at 0⁰ is known as Greenwich Line and
passes through Greenwich Observatory, near London
• There are 180 longitudes on both sides of Prime
Meridian totaling into 360 longitudes
• At the equator the distance between two longitudes is
about 111 km but it goes on decreasing towards poles
• Since sun rises in East and sets in West, so time is ahead
in Eastern Hemisphere and behind in Western
Hemisphere
 Local Time & Standard Time
• Local Time: Calculated by the position of the Sun
• When Sun is overhead at a place, it is taken as the local
time for 12 noon
• Standard Time: In order to avoid the confusion caused
by difference in local times of different places in a
country, an imaginary line in multiple of 7½ degrees is
taken as the Standard Time of the country.
• India has Indian Standard Time(IST) located at 82½⁰ E
longitude which passes through Mirzapur, Uttar
Pradesh