energies
Article
Internet-Distributed Hardware-in-the-Loop Simulation
Platform for Plug-In Fuel Cell Hybrid Vehicles
Yi Zhang 1 , Qiang Guo 2 and Jie Song 1, *
Citation: Zhang, Y.; Guo, Q.; Song, J.
Internet-Distributed Hardware-in-
the-Loop Simulation Platform for
Plug-In Fuel Cell Hybrid Vehicles.
Energies 2023, 16, 6755. https://
doi.org/10.3390/en16186755
Academic Editors: Giovanni
Lutzemberger, Ping Liu, Yashan Hu,
Jiangtao Yang and Jin Ye
Received: 4 September 2023
Revised: 18 September 2023
Accepted: 20 September 2023
Published: 21 September 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Energies 2023, 16, 6755. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16186755
1 School of Vehicle Engineering, Chongqing University of Technology, Chongqing 400054, China;
zagyi81@cqut.edu.cn
2 School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Chongqing University of Technology,
Chongqing 400054, China; qiangguo@cqut.edu.cn
* Correspondence: songjie@cqut.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-173-0232-5580
Abstract: In order to simulate a PHEV’s dynamic characteristics with high fidelity and study the
degradation process of a PHEV’s power sources in real-world driving conditions, an Internet-
distributed hardware-in-the-loop (ID-HIL) simulation platform for PHEVs is established. It connects
several geographically distributed hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) subsystems (including an in-loop
vehicle, Cloud server, driving motor, fuel cells, and lithium battery) via the Internet to simulate the
powertrain of a plug-in fuel cell hybrid vehicle (PHEV). In the proposed ID-HIL system, the in-loop
vehicle without a hybrid powertrain can simulate a PHEV’s dynamic characteristics. Meanwhile, the
other in-loop subsystems can work in the same way as if they were on board. Thus, the degradation
process of the power sources, such as the fuel cells and lithium battery, can be studied in real-world
driving conditions. A 21 km on-road driving test proves the ID-HIL’s feasibility and fidelity.
Keywords: hardware-in-the-loop simulation; Internet-distributed simulation; on-road driving test;
power source degradation
1. Introduction
Plug-in hybrid vehicles usually have high-capacity energy storage systems [1], such
as lithium batteries, which can replace much fuel consumption with electric energy from
the power grid [2]. This topology is combined with a fuel cell stack [3], which can improve
energy efficiency and eliminate exhaust emissions [4]. The high cost and short life cycle of
the lithium battery and fuel cells hamper their application in the automotive industry [5].
Related study could greatly benefit if these power source degradation processes [6] could be
observed on a high-fidelity simulation platform [7]. Thus, this research proposes an Internet-
distributed hardware-in-the-loop (ID-HIL) simulation platform to solve this problem.
Specifically, the current studies on power source degradation usually rely on fixed
driving cycles [8], such as NEDC and UDDS, which cannot reflect the diversity of local
driving conditions. For example, the driving conditions of Chongqing are full of mountain-
ous urban driving conditions. Thus, the ID-HIL simulation platform is supposed to test
the power sources on a real-world driving cycle and observe their degradation process in
real-time application.
The existing simulation platform for PHEVs includes three major trends [9]: (1) hard-
ware simulation, (2) software simulation, and (3) hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) simulation.
The hardware simulation usually develops a complete hybrid powertrain, which can
achieve high simulation fidelity but usually has a relatively high price [10]. At the other
extreme, the software simulation’s cost is relatively low but at the cost of simulation fi-
delity [11]. The HIL simulation could be seen as a compromise or a mixture of software
simulation and hardware simulation. Some parts of a HIL system are hardware, while the
others are software simulated [12].
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
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Energies 2023, 16, 6755 2 of 17

ity [11]. The HIL simulation could be seen as a compromise or a mixture of software sim-
ulation and hardware simulation. Some parts of a HIL system are hardware, while the
others are software simulated [12].
The traditionalHIL
The traditional HILsimulation
simulation platform’s
platform’s subsystems
subsystems are are usually
usually deployed
deployed at theat the
same site [13],
same site [13], such
suchasasananexperiment
experiment lab.
lab. This
This arrangement
arrangement cancan simplify
simplify the installation
the installation
process, but
process, butititrequires
requiresmore
more effort for for
effort topology reconfiguration,
topology such assuch
reconfiguration, fromasa setup
from fora setup
serial
for PHEVs
serial PHEVsto a new one for
to a new oneparallel PHEVs.
for parallel Moreover,
PHEVs. it could it
Moreover, not eliminate
could the reli- the
not eliminate
ance on predefined
reliance on predefineddriving cycles,cycles,
driving which which its fidelity
hamperhamper its compared to real-world
fidelity compared driv-
to real-world
ing cycles.
driving cycles.
Thus,
Thus, thethe proposed
proposedID-HIL
ID-HILsimulation
simulation platform
platform employs
employs the the
Internet, including
Internet, including
wired connections and a wireless 5G connection, to connect different
wired connections and a wireless 5G connection, to connect different in-loop subsystemsin-loop subsystems
(including vehicle,
(including vehicle,Cloud
Cloudserver,
server,driving
drivingmotor,
motor,fuel cells,
fuel andand
cells, lithium
lithiumbattery) to work
battery) to work
together and simulate a hybrid power system’s dynamic outputs. Specifically,in-loop
together and simulate a hybrid power system’s dynamic outputs. Specifically, the the in-loop
vehicle, which
vehicle, which has has no
no hybrid
hybrid powertrain,
powertrain,can cansimulate
simulatethe thePHEV’s
PHEV’sdynamic
dynamic characteris-
characteristics.
tics. Meanwhile, other in-loop subsystems, which are not mounted on the vehicle, can
Meanwhile, other in-loop subsystems, which are not mounted on the vehicle, can operate as
operate as if they are on board. Thus, the ID-HIL provides a high-fidelity simulation plat-
if they are on board. Thus, the ID-HIL provides a high-fidelity simulation platform to study
form to study the degradation process of the PHEV’s power sources in real-world driving
the degradation process of the PHEV’s power sources in real-world driving conditions.
conditions.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 introduces the overview and
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 introduces the overview and
network configuration of the ID-HIL system, including the client-side prediction method to
network configuration of the ID-HIL system, including the client-side prediction method
reduce
to reducenetwork
network delay.
delay.Section
Section33introduces
introduceseach
each in-loop subsystem,including
in-loop subsystem, includingthe thebat-
battery
and fuel cell degradation models. Section 4 establishes a 21 km on-road
tery and fuel cell degradation models. Section 4 establishes a 21 km on-road driving test driving test to
validate the feasibility of the ID-HIL system.
to validate the feasibility of the ID-HIL system.

2.
2. Configuration ofthe
Configuration of theID-HIL
ID-HILPlatform
Platform
2.1. Overview and Geographical Distribution of ID-HIL
2.1. Overview and Geographical Distribution of ID-HIL
The left side of Figure 1 shows the simulation object of the proposed ID-HIL platform,
The left side of Figure 1 shows the simulation object of the proposed ID-HIL platform,
namely, a PHEV whose topology structure and model method are in the author’s previous
namely, a PHEV whose topology structure and model method are in the author’s previous
work [14]. Theright
work [14]. The rightside
sideofofFigure
Figure 1 shows
1 shows thethe schematic
schematic diagram
diagram of ID-HIL
of the the ID-HIL system,
system,
which contains five subsystems, including 1 the vehicle-in-the-loop (VIL) subsystem, 2
which contains five subsystems, including ① the vehicle-in-the-loop (VIL) subsystem, ②
the
the Cloud,
Cloud, ③ 3 the motor-in-the-loop (MIL) subsystem, 4 the fuel cell-in-the-loop (FIL)
the motor-in-the-loop (MIL) subsystem, ④ the fuel cell-in-the-loop (FIL)
subsystem,
subsystem, and
and ⑤ 5 the
thebattery-in-the-loop
battery-in-the-loop (BIL)
(BIL) subsystem. Each subsystem
subsystem. Each subsystem refers
refers to
to aa part
of or of
part a function in the
or a function in PHEV.
the PHEV.TheThe
“data couple”
“data method
couple” method[15] is is
[15] applied
appliedtotocouple
couplethem
together with the
them together withhelp of the
the help ofInternet connection.
the Internet connection.

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Schematic
Schematicdiagram
diagramofofID-HIL simulation.
ID-HIL simulation.

Figure 2 shows the geographical distribution of the ID-HIL system. Specifically, the
VIL is located on the road around the Huaxi campus of Chongqing University of Technology.
The Cloud is rented from the IDC room of China Telecom. The MIL is situated in the lab of
Chongqing Baizhuan Technology Co., Ltd. The FIL is inside the test center of Chongqing
Changan Automobile Company. The BIL is at the Qibo Building of Chongqing University
of Technology. More details of their configuration can be found in Table 1. Furthermore, the
right side of Figure 2 illustrates the selected 21 km driving route, a typical urban driving

Energies 2023, 16, 6755
Figure 2 shows the geographical distribution of the ID-HIL system. Specifically, the
VIL is located on the road around the Huaxi campus of Chongqing University of Technol-
ogy. The Cloud is rented from the IDC room of China Telecom. The MIL is situated in the
lab of Chongqing Baizhuan Technology Co. Ltd. The FIL is inside the test center of Chong-
qing Changan Automobile Company. The BIL is at the Qibo Building of Chongqing Uni- 3 of 17
versity of Technology. More details of their configuration can be found in Table 1. Further-
more, the right side of Figure 2 illustrates the selected 21 km driving route, a typical urban
driving situation in which it usually takes 50 min to finish one loop. The driving route is
situationinto
divided in which it usually
16 segments basedtakes 50 min to finish
on geographical one loop. such
characteristics, The driving
as trafficroute
lightsisand
divided
into 16 segments
crossroads. based on geographical characteristics, such as traffic lights and crossroads.

Figure
Figure 2.2.Geographical
Geographicaldistribution
distributionof of
ID-HIL simulation
ID-HIL andand
simulation driving route.
driving route.

Table 1. Configuration of subsystems in ID-HIL.

Table 1. Configuration of subsystems in ID-HIL.
Subsystem Configuration Parameters Location
Subsystem Configuration Parameters
Hongguang MiniEV, Location
Vehicle-in-the-loop sim- Hongguang Road around
Vehicle VehicleHongguang
mass: 0.7 t, MiniEV,
ulation (VIL)
Vehicle-in-the-loop CQUTHongguang
Huaxi Campus
Road around
Vehicle FrontalVehicle m2
area: 2 mass: 0.7 t,
simulation (VIL) CQUT Huaxi Campus
EMS Soft simulation (Cloud) Internet-distributed 2 m2
Frontal area: EMS IDC room of China Telecom
Motor-in-the-loop sim-Asynchronous motor, Chongqing Baizhuan Tech-
Motor IDC room of
EMS Soft simulation
ulation (MIL) (Cloud) Internet-distributed
Rated power: 14 kW EMSnology Co. Ltd.
China Telecom
Fuel cell-in-the-loopPEM, Rated power: 30 kW,Chongqing Changan Auto-
Fuel Cell Motor-in-the-loop Asynchronous
Motor simulation (FIL) Rated voltage: 168 V motor, mobile Chongqing
Company Baizhuan
simulation (MIL) Rated power: 14 kW
Battery-in-the-loop sim-Rated voltage: 3.2 V × 42, Rated Technology Co., Ltd.
Battery CQUT Huaxi Campus
ulation (BIL)
Fuel cell-in-the-loop capacities:
PEM, 50Rated
Ah power: 30 Chongqing Changan
Fuel Cell
simulation (FIL) kW, Rated voltage: 168 V Automobile Company
2.2. Network Configuration of ID-HIL
Battery-in-the-loop Rated voltage: 3.2 V × 42,
Battery CQUT Huaxi Campus
The ID-HILsimulation
system’s(BIL) Rated capacities:
network configuration is shown in50 Figure
Ah 3, where the Cloud is
the control center of this distributed multi-computer system and takes charge of the net-
work control.Configuration
2.2. Network Because of theofrequirement
ID-HIL for on-road driving, the VIL is connected via the
5G wireless connection using a 5G cellphone, which will be illustrated in Section 3.1.
The ID-HIL system’s network configuration is shown in Figure 3, where the Cloud
Meanwhile, the rest of the in-loop subsystems are connected through the wired Internet
is the control
connection for center of this
a reduced distributed
network delay, asmulti-computer
shown in Table 2. system and takes
Since package losscharge
is rare,of the
network
the control. Because
User Datagram Protocolof(UDP)
the requirement forfor
[16] is selected on-road driving, the VIL is connected via
the simplification.
the 5G wireless connection using a 5G cellphone, which will be illustrated in Section 3.1.
Meanwhile, the rest of the in-loop subsystems are connected through the wired Internet
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW
connection for a reduced network delay, as shown in Table 2. Since package loss is4 rare,
of 23 the

User Datagram Protocol (UDP) [16] is selected for the simplification.

① ③ ④
Pfc_req, Pbat_req Fuel, SOHfc, Pfc_avl
Driver Motor Fuel Cell
IOV Pfc_avl, Pbat_avl Pfc_req
θacc, MIL FIL
θbrk Spd, Pmot_req ηmot Internet
② ⑤
Pev_req SOCbat, Fuel, Pbat_req
Onboard ECU EMS Battery
+ Motor SOHfc, SOHbat SOCbat, SOHbat,
Pev_avl
VIL (EV) Cloud Pbat_avl BIL

Figure 3. Network configuration of ID-HIL system.

Figure 3. Network configuration of ID-HIL system.
Table 2. Parameters of ID-HIL network.

Transmission protocol UDP

Packet size 1024 Bytes
Wireless connection (5G) VIL
Wired connection MIL, FIL, BIL
Network delay (Wireless) ~12 ms (including processing delay)
Network delay (Wired) ~10 ms (including processing delay)
Energies 2023, 16, 6755 4 of 17

Table 2. Parameters of ID-HIL network.

Transmission protocol UDP

Packet size 1024 Bytes
Wireless connection (5G) VIL
Wired connection MIL, FIL, BIL
Network delay (Wireless) ~12 ms (including processing delay)
Network delay (Wired) ~10 ms (including processing delay)
Loss rate (Wireless) 0%
Loss rate (Wired) 0%

In addition, the Cloud is not the initial node of data flow transmission because the
ID-HIL system aims to simulate a PHEV whose control activity is initiated by the driver’s
inputs. Thus, as shown in Figure 4, the corresponding data flow route is as follows. (1) The
VIL collects the driver’s inputs and calculates the required mechanical driving power for the
vehicle (Pev_req ), which is subsequently sent to the Cloud. (2) The energy management strat-
egy (EMS) on the Cloud arranges the power distribution among different power sources,
including MIL, FIL, and BIL. Thus, the required powers (Pem_req/ Pfc_req/ Pbat_req ) for the cor-
responding power sources (MIL/FIL/BIL) are transmitted. (3) The power sources operate
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 23
as the received requirement and send the detected actual outputs (Pem_avl/ Pfc_avl/ Pbat_avl )
back to the Cloud. (4) The Cloud collects the feedback from the power sources and works
out the available mechanical driving power for the vehicle (Pev_avl ). The VIL will drive the
vehicle according to Pev_avl from the Cloud.

③MIL/④FIL/⑤BIL
Motor/
Fuel Cell/ Load
Battery

(2) (3)
Required Available
power power
②
Cloud
①VIL
(1) (4) Available
Required driving power*
driving
Driver power Motor
Inputs on EV

Figure4.4.Data
Figure Dataflow
flowofofID-HIL
ID-HIL simulation.
simulation.

The
TheID-HIL’s
ID-HIL’s network
network configuration
configurationwillwill
add add
a significant delay delay
a significant to the to
response of the of
the response
driver’s
the driver’s input because the related data have to travel through the following paththe
input because the related data have to travel through the following path before before
onboard
the onboard motor executes
motor it: 1 VIL
executes → 2 Cloud
it: ①VIL  ②Cloud→ 3 MIL/ 4 FIL/ 5 BIL → 2 Cloud
 ③MIL/④FIL/⑤BIL → 1 VIL. 
②Cloud
The
①VIL.added delay
The addedincludes
delayboth the delay
includes bothinthe network
delay intransmission and the execution
network transmission and thedelay
execu-
of the HIL subsystems, which can damage the VIL’s maneuverability. Thus,
tion delay of the HIL subsystems, which can damage the VIL’s maneuverability. Thus, the the client-side
prediction method [17] is introduced to minimize the delay.
client-side prediction method [17] is introduced to minimize the delay.
The basic idea of the client-side prediction [17] shown in Figure 5 is that the client
The basic idea of the client-side prediction [17] shown in Figure 5 is that the client
(VIL) locally reacts to the driver’s input (the required driving power Pev_req ) before the
(VIL) locally reacts to the driver’s input (the required driving power Pev_req) before the
server (Cloud) has acknowledged with an updated state (the available driving power
server (Cloud) has acknowledged with an updated state (the available driving power
Pev_avl ). So, instead of only sending Pev_avl to the Cloud and waiting for Pev_avl in return,
P
theev_avl
VIL ). So,
also,instead of only
in parallel with sending Pev_avl to
this, predicts the Cloud
Pev_avl andand
= Pev_req waiting
givesfor Pev_avl in
dynamic return, the
feedback
VIL also, in parallel
immediately. Since allwith this, predicts
messages Pev_avl
transmitted = Pev_req
in the ID-HILandsystem
gives dynamic feedback the
have a timestamp, imme-
diately. Since all messages transmitted
detailed procedures shown in Figure 5 are as follows: in the ID-HIL system have a timestamp, the de-
tailed procedures shown in Figure 5 are as follows:
(1) At the time t0, the VIL sends Pev_req(t0) to the Cloud and meanwhile sets the onboard
motor’s driving power Pev(t0) = Pev_req(t0); (2) at the time t1, the Cloud receives Pev_req(t0) and
commands each HIL subsystem according to the result of the EMS; (3) at the time t2, the
Cloud collects the feedback from each HIL subsystem and sends Pev_avl(t0) back to VIL; and
(4) at the time t3, the VIL receives Pev_avl(t0), and, based on its timestamp t0, the following
action is executed:
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o
Energies 2023, 16, 6755 5 of 17

VIL Cloud
(client) Time (server)
(1) t0

Excute Pev_req(t0) at t0
t1 (2)

t2 (3)

t3
(4)

Figure5.5.Example
Figure Example of the
of the client-side
client-side prediction.
prediction.

(1) At the
And time
then, t0 , the the
because sends Pev_req
VIL driver’s (t0 )(θtoaccthe
input andCloud
θbrk) and meanwhile
is treated sets the
as “local data” in t
onboard motor’s driving power Pev (t0 ) = Pev_req (t0 ); (2) at the time t1 , the Cloud receives
design, there is neither a network delay nor disconnection, which may result in the los
Pev_req (t0 ) and commands each HIL subsystem according to the result of the EMS; (3) at
the time t2of
control theCloud
, the vehicle.
collectsThethe drawback
feedback from of this
each modification
HIL subsystem is andthat,sends
if the available
Pev_avl (t0 ) driv
power
back does
to VIL; not
and (4)meet
at thethe time requirement (usually
t3 , the VIL receives Pev_avlPev_avl
(t0 ),<and,
Pev_req
based), the
onerror to adjust the dr
its timestamp
ting power
0 , the followingwillaction
not beisavailable
executed: until it finishes the whole data transmission loop, as sho
in Figures 4 and ( 5. This situation could be avoided by careful vehicle matching, name
Pev (t3 ) = Pev_req
never letting thesetrequirement (t3 ), the power sources’
outrun if Error (t0capability.
)=0 In this (1)
research,
set P ( t ) = P ( t ) − Error
unsatisfactory situation rarely happened during the on-road experiment.
ev 3 ev_req 3 ( t 0 ) , if Error ( t 0 ) 6 = 0
As shown in Figure 6, an on-road driving test is carried out to exhibit the influe
where Error(t0 ) = Pev_req (t0 ) − Pev_avl (t0 ), Pev_req is the required driving power, Pev_avl is
of client-side
the available driving prediction
power, onandthe
t0 , VIL’s dynamic
t1 , t2 , and performance.
t3 are the At 3 s, as can
timestamps. Moreover, t1 −be seen in Fig
t0 and
t3 − t2 contain only transmission delay (5~10 ms with 5G networks), while t2 − t1 includes the co
6, P ev_req steps up from 4 kW to 6 kW, while P ev follows it closely, which means
mand
both theistransmission
executed locally
delay andwithout delay based
the execution delay ofonthe theHIL
client-side
(20~100 ms prediction.
dependingAnd on then,
the type of HIL).
cause an error in client-side prediction rarely happens, Pev_avl is deliberately set to 50%
And
Pev_req then, because
(constant the driver’s
at 6 kW) after 7 input
s, as seen(θ acc and θ brk ) is6,
in Figure treated
to incuras “local data”At
an error. inthe
thistime, Pe
design, there is neither a network delay nor disconnection, which may result in the loss of
drops from 6 kW to 3 kW. After 0.3 s, the actual driving power of the VIL (Pev) follow
control of the vehicle. The drawback of this modification is that, if the available driving
3 kW,does
power which notismeet
the the
timerequirement
when Pev_avl (t0) returns
(usually Pev_avlto<the VIL), because
Pev_req the error the execution
to adjust the delay
− t1 ) is set to 300 ms in the Cloud. And then, the VIL’s velocity
driving power will not be available until it finishes the whole data transmission loop, as begins to drop according
In regular
shown use, this
in Figures 4 andincident could becould
5. This situation avoided by carefully
be avoided choosing
by careful Tmot_MAX
vehicle and Pmot_MA
matching,
namely,
that thenever letting theisrequirement
requirement within theoutrun HIL’s the power sources’
capability. Exceptcapability. In this
for the error research, Pev_req a
condition,
the unsatisfactory
Pev_avl behave likesituation rarely happened during the on-road experiment.
“local data”.
As shown in Figure 6, an on-road driving test is carried out to exhibit the influence of
client-side prediction on the VIL’s dynamic performance. At 3 s, as can be seen in Figure 6,
Pev_req steps up from 4 kW to 6 kW, while Pev follows it closely, which means the command
is executed locally without delay based on the client-side prediction. And then, because an
error in client-side prediction rarely happens, Pev_avl is deliberately set to 50% of Pev_req
(constant at 6 kW) after 7 s, as seen in Figure 6, to incur an error. At the time, Pev_avl drops
from 6 kW to 3 kW. After 0.3 s, the actual driving power of the VIL (Pev ) follows to 3 kW,
which is the time when Pev_avl (t0 ) returns to the VIL because the execution delay (t2 − t1 )
is set to 300 ms in the Cloud. And then, the VIL’s velocity begins to drop accordingly. In
regular use, this incident could be avoided by carefully choosing Tmot_MAX and Pmot_MAX
so that the requirement is within the HIL’s capability. Except for the error condition, Pev_req
and Pev_avl behave like “local data”.
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 23

Energies 2023, 16, 6755 6 of 17

50
50

Velocity
(km/h)
45
45

40
40
35
35 3
80008 ×10

60006
Pev

Power
Pev_req
(W) 40004
Pev_avl
Delay
20002
t0 t3
00 55 10
10 15
15
Time (s)
Figure6.6.Driving
Figure Drivingtest
test result
result of of
thethe client-side
client-side prediction.
prediction.

3.3.In-Loop
In-LoopSubsystems
Subsystemsofof thetheID-HIL
ID-HIL Platform
Platform
3.1. Vehicle-in-the-Loop Subsystem (VIL)
3.1. Vehicle-in-the-Loop Subsystem (VIL)
The main component of the VIL subsystem shown in Figure 7 is a pure electric vehicle
The main component of the VIL subsystem shown in Figure 7 is a pure electric vehicle
(Hongguang MiniEV), whose parameters are listed in Table 3. The control center of the
(Hongguang MiniEV), whose parameters are listed in Table 3. The control center of the
VIL is a laptop PC, which collects the driver’s inputs, including the acceleration and brake
pedalispositions
VIL a laptop(θPC, and
acc
whichθ brkcollects the driver’s
) via a CAN-USB inputs,
module, toincluding
calculate thetherequired
acceleration and brake
mechanical
pedal positions (θ acc and θbrk) via a CAN-USB module, to calculate the required mechani-
driving power as follows:
cal driving power as follows:
Pev_req = ωmot × min( Tmot_MAX, Pmot_MAX /ωmot ) × θacc (2)
Pev_req   mot  min(Tmot_M AX, Pmot_M AX  mot )   acc (2)
where Tmot_MAX (90 Nm) and Pmot_MAX (14 kW) are the parameters of the driving motor in
where Tmot_MAX (90 Nm) and Pmot_MAX (14 kW) are the parameters of the driving motor in
the MIL. As mentioned in Section 2.2, the Pev_req will be executed by the VIL in parallel
the MIL. As mentioned in Section 2.2, the Pev_req will be executed by the VIL in parallel
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 23
with the operations along the data flow route, as shown in Figure 4, so that the delay in the
with the operations along the data flow route, as shown in Figure 4, so that the delay in
ID-HIL system’s effects on the vehicle’s dynamics is limited. Moreover, the 5G cellphone
the ID-HIL
depicted system’s
in Figure effects aon
7 provides 5Gthe vehicleʹs
wireless dynamics
connection is limited.
to the Moreover,
Cloud, and the GPS the 5G cell-
module
phonethe
detects depicted in Figure 7 provides
VIL’s geographical position. a 5G wireless connection to the Cloud, and the GPS
module detects the VIL’s geographical position.

Figure7.7.Configuration
Figure ConfigurationofofVIL
VIL(EV).
(EV).

Table3.3.Parameters
Table ParametersofofVIL
VIL(EV).
(EV).

Subsystem
Subsystem Parameter
Parameter
Vehicle model
Vehicle model
Hongguang MiniEV
Hongguang MiniEV
Frontal
Frontal area
area 22mm22
Vehicle
Vehicle mass
mass 700kg
700 kg
Cargo mass
Cargo mass 150 kg
150 kg
Driving motor
Driving motor PMSM
PMSM
Rated power 15 kW
Rated power
Peak power 15kW
30 kW
Peak power
Motor–wheel gear ratio 30 kW
Fixed, 14.4
Motor–wheel
Wheel diametergear ratio Fixed,
0.508 m 14.4
Wheel diameter 0.508 m

3.2. Cloud-in-the-Loop Subsystem (Cloud)

The components of the cloud server in China Telecom are as follows: CPU: Xeon, four
cores; 2.13 GHz; Memory: 8 GB RAM; bandwidth: 5 Mb. There are two functions of the
Cloud: communication control and energy management. The former has been discussed
in Section 2.2. For the latter, the simple rule-based charge-depleting and charge-sustaining
 Energies 2023, 16, 6755 7 of 17

3.2. Cloud-in-the-Loop Subsystem (Cloud)

The components of the cloud server in China Telecom are as follows: CPU: Xeon, four
cores; 2.13 GHz; Memory: 8 GB RAM; bandwidth: 5 Mb. There are two functions of the
Cloud: communication control and energy management. The former has been discussed in
Section 2.2. For the latter, the simple rule-based charge-depleting and charge-sustaining
(CDCS) function is borrowed from the author’s previous study [18].

3.3. Motor-in-the-Loop Subsystems (MIL)

The MIL subsystem shown in Figure 8 contains a motor testing platform. It carries
out requirements, including power and speed (Pem_req , ω em_req ), from the Cloud and
returns the instantaneous value of motor efficiency (η em_avl ) to the Cloud. Hem_avl will be 9 of 23
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW
used in the EMS to calculate the required charging power from the fuel cells (Pfc_req ) and
the required battery power (Pbat_req ). The control logic of MIL is illustrated in Figure 9.
Furthermore, the control logic of MIL, FIL, and BIL are almost the same, where the HIL
tries to fulfill the Cloud’s requirement and feeds back the HIL’s real-time conditions.

Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 23

Figure8.8.Configuration
Figure Configurationof of MIL.
MIL.

MIL
Transmission
module

Actuating
device

Motor Controlled
Cloud Load

Monitor
module

Transmission
module

Figure9.9.MIL’s
Figure MIL’scontrol logic.
control logic.

As
Asshown
showninin Figure
Figure10,10,
thethe
ID-HIL system
ID-HIL contains
system two driving
contains motors.
two driving One (on
motors. the (on the
One
left) is on the MIL, while the other (on the right) is mounted on the VIL. Specifically, the left-
left) is on the MIL, while the other (on the right) is mounted on the VIL. Specifically, the
hand one is for the simulation object (PHEV), whose efficiency affects the EMS’s behaviors.
left-hand
The one isone
right-hand foristhe simulation
supposed object (PHEV),
to emulate whose
the left-hand efficiency
one’s kinetic affects the EMS’s be-
characteristics,
haviors. The right-hand one is supposed to emulate the left-hand one’s
namely, output torque (or power). Thus, they could be different in the configuration shown kinetic character-
istics,
in Tablenamely,
4, whereoutput torque (or
the left-hand onepower). Thus, they could
is an asynchronous motorbe different
while in the configuration
the right-hand one
shown
is in Tablemagnet
a permanent 4, where the left-hand
synchronous oneBut
motor. is an asynchronous
there is one rule formotor
themwhile the right-hand
to follow: the
one is a(the
outputs permanent magnetpower
available driving synchronous
depicted motor.
in FigureBut there
4) of is one rule
the left-hand forshould
motor them to be follow:
strictly followed
the outputs byavailable
(the those of the right-hand
driving model.
power depicted in Figure 4) of the left-hand motor
should be strictly followed by those of the right-hand model.
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 23

Energies 2023, 16, 6755 8 of 17

(a) (b)
Figure 10. Driving
Figure motors in
10. Driving ID-HIL.
motors (a) Driving
in ID-HIL. motor onmotor
(a) Driving MIL; on
(b)MIL;
Driving motor onmotor
(b) Driving VIL. on VIL.

Table 4.Table
Parameters of driving
4. Parameters motors in
of driving ID-HIL.
motors in ID-HIL.
Parameter Name
Parameter Name
Motor on MILMotor on MIL
Motor on VILMotor on VIL
Motor type Induction Permanent magnet synchronous
Motor type Induction Permanent magnet synchronous
Phase Number
Phase Number 3 3 3 3
Pole pairs
Pole pairs 2 2 4 4
Cooling Cooling
methodmethod Air cooling Air cooling Air cooling Air cooling
Rated power
Rated power 14 kW 14 kW 15 kW 15 kW
Peak power 28 kW 30 kW
Peak power 28 kW 30 kW
Rated torque 25 Nm 25 Nm
Rated torque
Peak torque 25 Nm 85 Nm 25 Nm 90 Nm
Peak torque 85 Nm 90 Nm
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 23
In conclusion, as shown in Figure 11, the motor on the MIL refers to the driving motor
In conclusion, as shown in Figure 11, the motor on the MIL refers to the driving motor
on the simulation object (PHEV), which is responsible for calculating the energy efficiency
on the simulation object (PHEV), which is responsible for calculating the energy efficiency
for energy management. In contrast, the motor is mounted on the in-loop vehicle (VIL),
for energy management. In contrast, the motor is mounted on the in-loop vehicle (VIL),
which is used to fulfill the simulation object PHEV’s kinetic requirement.
which is used to fulfill the simulation object PHEV’s kinetic requirement.

Figure 11.Relation
Figure11. Relationbetween
betweenthe
themotors
motorsonon
MIL and
MIL VIL.
and VIL.

3.4. Fuel Cell-in-the-Loop Subsystems (FIL)

3.4. Fuel Cell-in-the-Loop Subsystems (FIL)
The FIL shown in Figure 12 consists of a 30 kW PEM (proton exchange membrane) fuel
The FIL shown in Figure 12 consists of a 30 kW PEM (proton exchange membrane) fuel
cell test bench. The FIL’s parameters are listed in Table 5. Specifically, there are 240 signal
cell test bench. The FIL’s parameters are listed in Table 5. Specifically, there are 240 signal
fuel cells in this stack. Each cell’s open-circuit voltage is 1.23 V. In the national standard
fuel cells
GB/T in this stack.
38914-2020 [19],Each cell’s open-circuit
the current voltage isvoltage
when the terminal 1.23 V. ofIn the national
a signal fuelstandard GB/T
cell equals
0.70 V (stack: 0.7 × 240 = 168 V) with a constant load straight after the stack is at the V
38914-2020 [19], the current when the terminal voltage of a signal fuel cell equals 0.70
(stack: 0.7 of
beginning × 240
life =(BOL)
168 V)is with a constant
defined load straight
as the reference after
current (Irefthe stack
). In is at the
the same way,beginning
the idle of
life (BOL)
current is definedtoas0.85
corresponds theV.reference current (Iref). In the same way, the idle current corre-
sponds to 0.85 V.
 Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 23

Energies 2023, 16, 6755 9 of 17

Figure 12.
Figure 12. 30
30 kW
kWPEM
PEMfuel
fuelcell
celltest
testbench
benchforfor
FIL.
FIL.

Table 5. Parameters of the PEM fuel cell stack.

Table 5. Parameters of the PEM fuel cell stack.
Name Parameter
Name Parameter
Type of fuel cell Proton exchange membrane
Type of fuel
Number cellcells
of fuel 240 Proton exchange membrane
Number of
Reference fuel cells
current 107 A240
Reference current 107 A
Reference voltage (BOL) 168 V (0.7 × 240 V)
Reference voltage (BOL) 168 V (0.7 × 240 V)
Open-circuit
Open-circuit voltage
voltage 295.2 295.2
V V
Idle
Idlecurrent
current 10.2 A10.2 A
Rated
Ratedpower
power 30 kW30 kW
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 23
The stack’s fuel consumption rate is presented in Figure 13, which is evaluated under
The stack’s fuel consumption rate is presented in Figure 13, which is evaluated under
constant power conditions with an environment temperature of 20 °C. The stack’s highest
constant power conditions with an environment temperature of 20 ◦ C. The stack’s highest
efficiency operation point is around the reference working condition.
efficiency operation point is around the reference working condition.

0.5 90

85
0.4
80
H2 (g/kWh)

75
H2 (g/kWh)

0.3
(g/s)
(g/s)

70
H2H2

0.2 65

60
0.1
55

0 50
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Pfc (kW)
Power (kW)

Figure 13.
Figure 13. Fuel
Fuelconsumption
consumptionofof
fuel cells.
fuel cells.

In
In the
theID-HIL
ID-HILsystem,
system, thethe CloudCloud sends the required
sends the required power (Pfc_req)(Ptofc_req
power the )FIL
to and ex- and
the FIL
pects thethe
expects available power
available (Pfc_avl(P
power ),fc_avl
instantaneous fuel consumption
), instantaneous (Fuel), and
fuel consumption stack’s
(Fuel), SOH
and stack’s
(SOH ) from the FIL. The FIL physically measures P and Fuel,
SOH (SOHfc ) from the FIL. The FIL physically measures Pfc_avl and Fuel, but the variation
fc fc_avl but the variation of the
stack’s
of SOH (ΔSOH
the stack’s ) is too slight
SOH fc(∆SOH to be physically measured within a short-term driving
fc ) is too slight to be physically measured within a short-term
test. Thus, an aging model of
driving test. Thus, an aging model of the fuel cell stack
the fueliscell
needed.stack is needed.
According to [20], when fuel cells age,
According to [20], when fuel cells age, the stack’s the stack’s terminal voltage
terminal under
voltage the constant
under the constant
current working condition at I ref, in other words, the reference voltage (Vref), will drop
current working condition at Iref , in other words, the reference voltage (V ref ), will drop
linearly. Furthermore, GB/T 38914-2020 [19] defines that when Vref drops 20% from its BOL
linearly. Furthermore, GB/T 38914-2020 [19] defines that when V ref drops 20% from its
level, the stack is at its end of life (EOL). Thus, the fuel cell SOH (SOHfc) is defined as
BOL level, the stack is at its end of life (EOL). Thus, the fuel cell SOH (SOHfc ) is defined
follows:
as follows:
VVBOL
BOL V−ref Vref × 100%
SOH SOH fc = 11−   100% (3)
(3)
fc 0.2×
0.2 V VBOL BOL
where V BOL is the reference voltage when the stack is at BOL, and V ref is the fuel cell’s
where VBOL is the reference voltage when the stack is at BOL, and Vref is the fuel cell’s
reference voltage at present.
reference voltage at present.
The quantitative experiment method to evaluate the fuel cell degradation process is
The quantitative experiment method to evaluate the fuel cell degradation process is
also defined in GB/T 38914-2020 [19] as follows. First, the effect of start–stop working
also defined in GB/T 38914-2020 [19] as follows. First, the effect of start–stop working con-
conditions on SOHfc [21] should be evaluated. Second, the degradation rates under different
ditions on SOHfc [21] should be evaluated. Second, the degradation rates under different
constant power conditions are measured using repetitive experiments. Finally, a curve
constant power conditions are measured using repetitive experiments. Finally, a curve
map of the fuel cell degradation rate ΔSOHfc under different output power is obtained, as
shown in Figure 14. The details of the repeated experiments for ΔSOHfc can be found in
Section S1 of the Supplementary Materials. The fuel cell degradation model depicted in
Figure 14 could be used as an optimal object in energy management.
Energies 2023, 16, 6755 10 of 17

map of the fuel cell degradation rate ∆SOHfc under different output power is obtained,
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 23
as
shown in Figure 14. The details of the repeated experiments for ∆SOHfc can be found in
Section S1 of the Supplementary Materials. The fuel cell degradation model depicted in
Figure 14 could be used as an optimal object in energy management.
-3
× 10 −3
1.8

1.6

1.4
(%/h)
fc (%/h)

1.2
SOH

1
ΔSOH

0.8

0.6

0.4
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Pfc (kW)
Power (kW)

Figure 14.
Figure ∆SOHfcfcunder
14. ΔSOH underdifferent working
different conditions.
working conditions.

3.5.
3.5. Battery-in-the-Loop Subsystems(BIL)
Battery-in-the-Loop Subsystems (BIL)
The
The BIL illustrated
illustratedininFigure
Figure1515has
has only
only one
one battery
battery cell,cell,
whosewhose parameters
parameters are listed
are listed
in
inTable
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW Table 6. In
In contrast,
contrast,the
thebattery
batterypack
packinin
thethe ID-HIL
ID-HIL system
system (Table
(Table 1) consists
1) consists of 42of 42
of battery
battery
16 23
cells. Thus,the
cells. Thus, thepaper
paper assumes
assumes thatthat the battery
the battery cells
cells in in a battery
a battery pack arepack are equalized
equalized in both in
SOC SOC
both and SOH. Thus, the
and SOH. BIL’s
Thus, theoutput
BIL’s power
outputispower
one-fifty-sixth of the whole
is one-fifty-sixth of pack’s output
the whole pack’s
power [22].
output power [22].

Figure 15.
Figure 15. Battery
Batterytest
testbench
benchfor
forBIL.
BIL.

Table 6. Parameters of the battery cell.

Table 6. Parameters of the battery cell.
Name Parameter
Name Parameter
Battery type LiFePO4
Battery
Max type rate
discharge 10 LiFePO
C 4
Max discharge
Number rate cells
of battery 42 10 C
Number of battery cells 42
Rated voltage 3.2 V
Rated voltage 3.2 V
Rated
Ratedcapacity
capacity 50 50
AhAh
Ohmic
Ohmicresistance
resistance (BOL)
(BOL) 1.21 mΩ
1.21 mΩ

In the ID-HIL system, the Cloud sends the required power (Pbat_req) to the BIL, which
In the
executes theID-HIL
command system, the Cloud
and returns sends
relevant the required
variables to the power (Pbat_req ) to
Cloud, including thethe BIL, which
available
executes
power (Pbat_avl), battery SOC (SOCbat), and SOH (SOHbat). Specifically, Pbat_avl and SOCbatavailable
the command and returns relevant variables to the Cloud, including the are
power
measured(Pbat_avl ), battery
by physical SOC (SOC
sensors. bat ),FIL,
Like the andΔSOH
SOH bat
(SOH
is too ). Specifically,
batsmall Pbat_avldetected
to be physically and SOCbat
are measured
within by physicalThe
a short experiment. sensors. Like
battery’s the FIL, ∆SOH
degradation model bat is too
should besmall to be physically
developed.
detected withinto
According a [23],
shortthe
experiment.
decay processTheofbattery’s degradation
the battery has a linearmodel should
relation to the be developed.
variation
of the battery’s ohmic resistance. The battery’s end of life (EOL) is defined as occurring when
the battery’s capacity decreases to 80% of the beginning-of-life (BOL) level. At the same time,
the battery’s ohmic resistance will be doubled. Thus, SOHbat is defined as follows:
REOL  Rohm
SOH bat   100% (4)
Energies 2023, 16, 6755 11 of 17

According to [23], the decay process of the battery has a linear relation to the variation
of the battery’s ohmic resistance. The battery’s end of life (EOL) is defined as occurring
when the battery’s capacity decreases to 80% of the beginning-of-life (BOL) level. At
the same time, the battery’s ohmic resistance will be doubled. Thus, SOHbat is defined
as follows:
R − Rohm
SOHbat = EOL × 100% (4)
RBOL
where the EOL criteria for the battery are defined as follows:

REOL = 2 × RBOL
(5)
CEOL = 0.8 × CBOL

where Rohm is the ohmic resistance of the battery at present, RBOL /REOL is the ohmic
resistance at the beginning/end of life (1.21 mΩ/2.42 mΩ), and CBOL /CEOL is the capacity
at the beginning/end of life (50 Ah/40 Ah).
The battery’s polarization resistance drops to nearly 0 after the battery is held still for
a short period (≥10 min) without any charging or discharging activities, which means that
the internal resistance (Rin ) equals the ohmic resistance (Rohm ) at this time. Since Rin can
be directly measured by the battery tester shown in Figure 15, SOHbat in Equation (4) is
also obtained.
Because both the output power (Pbat ) and SOCbat of the battery can affect its ∆SOHbat [24],
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEWthe model of battery SOH shown in Figure 16 is a 2-D contour map with Pbat 17 onofthe
23 y-axis
and SOCbat on the x-axis. The repetitive degradation experiments for ∆SOHbat are similar
to those for ∆SOHfc , where a series of different working conditions (Pbat and SOCbat )
areconducted
are conducted to to obtain
obtain the the corresponding
corresponding ∆Rincalculate
ΔRin and ΔSOHbat∆SOH
and calculate bat with Equation
with Equation (4).
(4).repeating
By By repeating the degradation
the degradation experiment
experiment under different
under different working working
conditionsconditions
(Pbat and (Pbat
andbatSOC
SOC ), the of
), thebatmodel model
ΔSOH ofbat∆SOH bat is established,
is established, as shown inas Figure
shown16. in The
Figure 16. of
details Thethedetails
repeated degradation
of the repeated experimentexperiment
degradation for ΔSOHbat are ∆SOHbat in
for presented Section
are S2 of the
presented in Supplemen-
Section S2 of the
tary Materials.
Supplementary Materials.

ΔSOHbat (−/kWh)
Pbat (W)

SOCbat (−)
Figure
Figure16. ∆SOH
16.ΔSOH bat under different
bat under working
different conditions.
working conditions.

4.4.Experiment
Experiment and
and Analysis
Analysis
4.1.Experiment
4.1. Experiment Arrangement
Arrangement
AA2121 kmkm on-road
on-road driving
driving experiment
experiment is set
is set up up to evaluate
to evaluate the proposed
the proposed ID-HIL sim-ID-HIL
ulation platform. The test driving route is illustrated in Figure 2, whose parameters are are
simulation platform. The test driving route is illustrated in Figure 2, whose parameters
listedininTable
listed Table7. 7. Specifically,
Specifically, thethe experiment
experiment takestakes
placeplace in a typical
in a typical eveningevening rush hour,
rush hour,
which includes both congestion and smooth driving conditions. The driving routesroutes
which includes both congestion and smooth driving conditions. The driving are are
dividedinto
divided into1616 segments,
segments, which
which willwill be indicated
be indicated in experiment
in the the experiment result.
result.

Table 7. Parameters of experiment arrangement.

Parameter Unit Value

Departure time - 17:30
Driving distance km 21
Predefined SOCinit - 0.4
Route segment num - 16
Energies 2023, 16, 6755 12 of 17

Table 7. Parameters of experiment arrangement.

Parameter Unit Value

Departure time - 17:30
Driving distance km 21
Predefined SOCinit - 0.4
Route segment num - 16
EMS mode - Rule-based CDCS
Fuel (H2 ) cost RMB/kg 40
Fuel cell stack cost RMB/kW 2000
Battery cost RMB/kWh 1000

The rule-based CDCS energy management strategy [18] is selected to run the PHEV
so that the charging activities and power source degradation can be observed. The pseudo-
code of the rule-based CDCS strategy is shown in Table 8, where Pfc∗ = 20.25 kW is the
predefined optimal charging power (the fuel cells’ most efficient working conditions, as
shown in Figure 13), and Tmin is the predefined shortest charging duration.

Table 8. Pseudo-code of the rule-based CDCS energy management strategy.

(1) Repeat until VIL reaches the destination

(2) If SOC ≤ 0.305 And Not in charging Then
(3) Charging with Pfc∗ = 20.25 kW
(4) End If
(5) If in charging And current charging time > Tmin Then
(6) If SOC > 0.31 Then
(7) Stop charging
(8) Else
(9) Keep charging
(10) End If
(11) End If
(12) End Repeat

Table 9 lists the on-road driving experiment results’ data sources and meanings,
where the in-loop subsystems collect the responses of the corresponding power sources.
Specifically, the vehicle speed Spd is collected by the CAN-USB module, as shown in
Figure 7. The motor power Pmot , torque Tmot , and speed ω mot are measured by the torque
sensor and dynamometer, as shown in Figure 8. The fuel cell and battery parameters are
monitored by their electronic loads, as shown in Figures 12 and 15, respectively, except for
their SOH indicators. SOHfc and SOHbat are calculated by their degradation models, as
shown in Figures 14 and 16, respectively.

Table 9. Parameters of experiment result.

Parameter Unit Meaning Data Source

Spd km/h Vehicle speed VIL
Pmot kW Motor power MIL
Tmot Nm Motor torque MIL
ω mot rpm Motor speed MIL
Pfc kW Fuel cell power FIL
Fuel g H2 consumption FIL
SOHfc - Fuel cell SOH FIL
Pbat kW Battery power BIL
SOHbat - Battery SOH BIL
SOCbat - Battery SOC BIL
Energies 2023, 16, 6755 13 of 17

4.2. 10 s Acceleration Experiment

A 10 s acceleration experiment is carried out to demonstrate the accuracy of the ID-
HIL’s dynamic simulation performance. Figure 17 shows that when the driver pushes the
acceleration pedal to 100% after the beginning point, the available motor torque slightly
lags behind the required one by less than 50 ms. This fast response performance of the
ID-HIL system should be ascribed to the client-side prediction method in Section 2.2. As
a result, the difference between the available motor power and the requirements is tiny.
The corresponding error rate is also illustrated in the last line of Figure 17, where the
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW
average error rate between Pmot_req and Pmot_avl is 3.94%, which can indicate19the
of 23
ID-HIL
simulation’s accuracy.

50
(−) (kW) (rpm) (Nm) (%) (km/h)
Spd

0
100
Error Pmot ωmot Tmot θacc

50
0
100
50 T-----------
mot_req T-----------
mot_avl
0
4000
2000
0
20
0 P
-----------
mot_req P
-----------
mot_avl
-20
0.5

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (s)
Figure
Figure17.
17.Result
Resultofof
1010
s acceleration experiment.
s acceleration experiment.

4.3.On-Road
4.3. On-RoadExperiment
Experiment Result
Result andand Analysis
Analysis
Theexperiment
The experiment data
data collected
collected by the
by the in-loop
in-loop subsystems
subsystems are illustrated
are illustrated in Figure
in Figure 18, 18,
where the minimal charging time
where the minimal charging time Tmin min T is set to 20 s. On the one hand, the
is set to 20 s. On the one hand, the vehicle (VIL), vehicle (VIL),
whichdoes
which doesnotnothave
have a hybrid
a hybrid powertrain,
powertrain, cancan simulate
simulate the dynamic
the dynamic characteristics
characteristics of a of a
plug-in
plug-infuel
fuelcell hybrid
cell hybridvehicle. On the
vehicle. Onother
the hand,
other the subsystems,
hand, such as MIL,
the subsystems, suchFIL,
as and
MIL, FIL,
BIL,
andwhich are notare
BIL, which mounted on the vehicle,
not mounted can operate
on the vehicle, can as if theyas
operate are
if on board.
they Thus,
are on the Thus,
board.
data in Figure
the data
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 are
in Figure 18synchronized in theintime
are synchronized domain,
the time facilitating
domain, futurefuture
facilitating study study
of
20 the of the
of 23
subsystem
subsystemdynamic
dynamiccharacteristics. ForFor
characteristics. example,
example, thethe
fuelfuel
cellcell
startup operation
startup results
operation in in a
results
asharp
sharpplunge
plungeofofSOHSOHfc because
because the
the fuel
fuel cell
cell aging
aging model
model hashas considered
considered thethe startup’s
startup’s effect
fc
effect onfuel
on the the cell
fuel degradation
cell degradation process.
process.

100
(kW) (Nm) (kW) (km/h)
Spd

50
0
20
Tmot Pmot

0
-20
100
(rpm)

5000
ωmot

50
0
−50 0
30 100
Fuel

20 50
SOCbat Pbat SOHfc Pfc

(g)

10
0 0

0.82300
0.82295
0.82290
SOHbat

0.8910
(kW)

20
0 0.8908
−20

0.4
0.3
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time (s)
Figure 18.
18. Experiment
Experimentresult
resultofofthe
theon-road
on-roaddriving testtest
driving forfor
ID-HIL (Tmin(T= 20 s).
ID-HIL
Figure min = 20 s).

The ID-HIL system enables the researchers to evaluate the power source degradation
speed under different arrangements, such as different energy management. A compara-
tive test is set up to demonstrate this capability. Because the driving conditions can influ-
ence the result, the driving conditions and related information in Figure 18 are recorded
and applied to the following experiments in Figure 19. Apart from this, the other arrange-
 Energies 2023, 16, 6755 14 of 17

The ID-HIL system enables the researchers to evaluate the power source degradation
speed under different arrangements, such as different energy management. A comparative
test is set up to demonstrate this capability. Because the driving conditions can influence
the result, the driving conditions and related information in Figure 18 are recorded and
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 23
applied to the following experiments in Figure 19. Apart from this, the other arrangements
are the same as in Section 4.1, except that the minimal charging time Tmin is set to 30 s. As
shown in Figure 18, the longer charging time reduces the charging frequency, which cuts
down the fuel cell degradation caused by the startup operation.

100
(kW) (Nm) (kW) (km/h)
Spd

50
0
20
Tmot Pmot

0
-20
100

(rpm)
5000

ωmot
50
0
−50 0
30 100

Fuel
20 50
SOCbat Pbat SOHfc Pfc

(g)
10
0 0

0.82300
0.82295
0.82290

SOHbat
0.8910
(kW)

20
0 0.8908
−20

0.4
0.3
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time (s)
Figure
Figure19.
19.Experiment
Experiment result
result of the comparative
of the comparativetest
testfor
forID-HIL
ID-HIL(T(Tmin = 30 sec).
min = 30 sec).

Table10
Table 10 shows
shows the statistical
statistical results
resultsofofthe
theon-road
on-roaddriving drivingexperiment
experiment and compara-
and compar-
tive experiment.
ative Comparing∆SOH
experiment. Comparing with∆SOH
ΔSOHfcfcwith ΔSOH fc_start,, a
fc_start a significant
significantpart
partofofthe
thefuel
fuelcell
cell
degradation is caused by the startup operation. Moreover, because of
degradation is caused by the startup operation. Moreover, because of the limited charging the limited charging
frequency in
frequency in Figure
Figure 19,
19, the corresponding∆SOH
the corresponding ΔSOH fc_start is
fc_start is reduced,
reduced,which
whichalso
alsooptimizes
optimizes thethe
overall cost of the PHEV. Thus, the future study of energy management
overall cost of the PHEV. Thus, the future study of energy management can focus on how can focus on how
totolimit
limitthe
thestart–stop
start–stop working
working conditions
conditionsof ofthe
thefuel
fuelcells.
cells.Apart
Apartfrom
fromthis
thispoint,
point,the
thetraffic
traffic
flow’s influence on the PHEV’s driving activity can also be studied because the proposed
flow’s influence on the PHEV’s driving activity can also be studied because the proposed
ID-HIL with an in-loop vehicle can be tested on different driving conditions.
ID-HIL with an in-loop vehicle can be tested on different driving conditions.
Table 10. Statistical results of the on-road driving experiment and comparative experiment.
Table 10. Statistical results of the on-road driving experiment and comparative experiment.
Parameter Name Results for Figure 18 Results for Figure 19
Parameter Name Results for Figure 18 Results for Figure 19
Min
Min charging time
charging time TTmin (s)
min (s)
2020 30
30
Actual SOCinit 0.4 0.4
Actual
ActualSOCSOCinit 0.4
0.3084 0.4
0.3076
end
Actual
Fuel HSOC2 (g)end 0.3084
60.5 0.3076
59.9
Fuel
Fuel HH 2 cost (RMB)
2 (g) 2.42
60.5 2.39
59.9
∆SOHfc 8.593 × 10−5 6.488 × 10−5
Fuel H2 cost (RMB) 2.42 2.39
∆SOHfc_start 6.237 × 10−5 4.158 × 10−5
ΔSOH
∆SOH fc 8.593 × 10−5 6.488 × 10−5
fc cost (RMB) 2.58 1.95
∆SOH
ΔSOH fc_start
bat 6.237
2.950 −4−5
× ×1010 −4−5
4.158××1010
2.978
∆SOH
ΔSOH cost
fc bat cost (RMB)
(RMB) 1.98
2.58 2.00
1.95
Overall cost (RMB) 6.98 6.34
ΔSOHbat 2.950 × 10−4 2.978 × 10 −4

ΔSOHbat cost (RMB) 1.98 2.00

Overall cost (RMB) 6.98 6.34

5. Conclusions
This paper proposes a novel Internet-distributed hardware-in-the-loop (ID-HIL) sim-
ulation platform, which couples different subsystems together to simulate a PHEV power-
train. Thus, the in-loop vehicle without a hybrid powertrain can imitate the PHEV’s dy-
namic outputs. Meanwhile, the geographically distributed other subsystems can work as
Energies 2023, 16, 6755 15 of 17

5. Conclusions
This paper proposes a novel Internet-distributed hardware-in-the-loop (ID-HIL) sim-
ulation platform, which couples different subsystems together to simulate a PHEV pow-
ertrain. Thus, the in-loop vehicle without a hybrid powertrain can imitate the PHEV’s
dynamic outputs. Meanwhile, the geographically distributed other subsystems can work
as if they are on board. Based on the proposed ID-HIL, the power source degradation
process could be tested in real-world driving conditions, and the in-loop HIL subsystem
could evaluate the energy management’s impact on the power source degradation.
A 21 km on-road driving experiment tested the proposed ID-HIL system, enabling the
following conclusions to be drawn:
(1) The ID-HIL system can simulate the PHEV’s dynamic characteristics with high fidelity;
(2) The client-side prediction method can effectively reduce the ID-HIL system’s network
delay, supporting enough maneuverability for on-road driving;
(3) The EMS can seriously affect the degradation process of the onboard power sources.
For example, the frequent start–stop operation of the fuel cells can essentially decrease
their life cycle.
In future studies, the authors will combine the proposed ID-HIL system and the EMS
so that the EMS can optimize energy consumption and minimize power source degradation
at the same time.

Supplementary Materials: The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://
www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/en16186755/s1, Figure S1: Load profile of durability experiment;
Figure S2. Data sample of durability experiment; Figure S3. Open-circuit voltage and internal resistance.
Author Contributions: Methodology, Y.Z. and J.S.; Software, Y.Z.; Validation, Q.G.; Resources, Q.G.
and J.S.; Writing—original draft, Y.Z.; Writing—review & editing, Q.G.; Funding acquisition, J.S. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work is supported by the youth project of the science and technology research program
of Chongqing Education Commission of China (No. KJQN202001105 and KJQN202001141).
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to the funder’s requirement.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
Acronyms
BOL/EOL Beginning/End of life
CDCS Charge-depleting and charge-sustaining
EMS Energy management strategy
HEV Hybrid electrical vehicle
HIL Hardware-in-the-loop
ID-HIL Internet-distributed HIL
IOV Internet of vehicle
NEDC New European Driving Cycle
PHEV Plug-in HEV
PMSM Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor
UDDS Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule
UDP User Datagram Protocol
VIL/MIL/FIL/BIL Vehicle/Motor/Fuel cell/Battery-in-the-loop
Symbols
Fuel Fuel cell’s fuel (H2 ) consumption (g)
Pbat_req /Pbat_avl Required/available power for the in-loop battery pack (kW)
Pev_req /Pev_avl Required/available power for the in-loop vehicle (kW)
Energies 2023, 16, 6755 16 of 17

Pfc_req /Pfc_avl Required/available power for the in-loop fuel cell stack (kW)
Pmot_req /Pmot_avl Required/available power for the in-loop motor (kW)
SOCbat Battery’s state of charge (%)
SOHfc /SOHbat Fuel cell/battery’s state of health (%)
Spd Vehicle speed (km/h)
Tmot /ω mot Motor’s output torque/speed (Nm/rpm)
η mot Motor’s energy efficiency (%)
θ acc /θ brk Position of acceleration/brake pedal (%)

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