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A framework for development of real-world motorcycle driving cycle in India

Article in Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part D Journal of Automobile Engineering · December 2020
DOI: 10.1177/0954407020977533

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Review Article

Proc IMechE Part D:

J Automobile Engineering
1–19
A framework for development Ó IMechE 2020
Article reuse guidelines:
of real-world motorcycle driving sagepub.com/journals-permissions
DOI: 10.1177/0954407020977533

cycle in India journals.sagepub.com/home/pid

Masilamani Sithananthan1,2,3 and Ravindra Kumar1,3

Abstract
This paper proposed a framework for development of real-world driving cycle in India after a thorough review and com-
parison of motorcycle driving cycles used in different countries. A limited state-of-the art work for the development of
driving cycles for motorcycles is available. The motorcycle driving cycles developed by different countries differ from
each other in terms of their driving cycle characteristics, emission factors, and fuel economy. This paper reviewed the
parameters of real-world driving cycles of motorcycles and compares the same with legislative cycles concerning their
characteristics and emissions. The parameters of real-world driving cycles and Indian legislative cycle (IDC) deviate signif-
icantly from other legislative cycles in the range of –97% to + 1172% and –74% to 284% respectively. The emission fac-
tors of the legislative cycle do not match with the realistic emissions measured by real-world driving cycles. This is due
to the reason that the legislative cycles do not represent the current traffic scenario and hence need to be revised. A
framework is proposed to develop a real-world driving cycle in India.

Keywords
Motorcycles, real-world driving cycles, legislative driving cycles, engine emissions, driving cycle construction

Date received: 30 July 2020; accepted: 29 October 2020

Introduction Exhaust emissions from motorcycles as the largest

Asian countries represent 80% of world motorcycle
sales with China and India being the market leaders in
2018 to 2019. India and China produced 7 million and
18 million motorcycles respectively with the motorcycle
market share of 81% and 64% in their country.1
Overall the auto industry in India is the 4th largest in
the world for passenger cars, commercial vehicles,
whereas in the case of two/three wheelers India is in the
second position after China, with sales are increasing
9.5% year-on-year (2018–2019). Vehicular traffic in
India comprises of two-wheelers by ;81%, passenger
vehicles 13%, and commercial vehicles 3% by volume.
While in two-wheelers, scooters occupy 33% in the
urban sectors and motorcycles occupy 63% across
India. The two-wheeler segment was growing at a rate
of 14.8% in the year 2018, whereas the motorcycle’s
growth rate was 13.7% in the same year (2018–2019).
The entry-level size of two wheelers is in the range of
75 to 110 cc and middle-size entry start with 110 to
250 cc engine motorcycles. They accounted for 49% of
overall two-wheeler sales in rural areas in the year
20182 and also more than 61% of gasoline of the trans-
port sector in India is consumed by two-wheelers.3
gasoline consumer also contribute to air pollution in
developing countries which leads to premature deaths
worldwide (Organization W.H. 2016; Shabazi et al.
2019).4,5 The Indian transport sector contributes signifi-
cantly for air pollutions resulting in 1.4 million deaths
from air pollution in 2013.6 The emission factors of CO
and HC from motorcycles are five times higher com-
pared to light-duty vehicles in Honai,7 similarly, the
source apportionment study conducted in Delhi city of
India revealed that the CO emissions of two-wheelers
were 14.6% higher than the passenger cars.8 The emis-
sion levels of motorcycles exceed the emission levels of
modern light passenger cars, though the emission per-
formance improved over a period of time.9 Motorcycles
are an economical and convenient mode of private
1
Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi, India
2
Indian Oil Corporation Limited, R&D Center, Faridabad, India
3
Academcy of Scientific and Innovative Research, Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research, New Delhi, India
Corresponding author:
Masilamani Sithananthan, Indian Oil Corporation Limited, R&D Center,
Sector-13, Faridabad, Haryana 121006, India.
Email: sithananthanm@indianoil.in
2 Proc IMechE Part D: J Automobile Engineering 00(0)
transport in the developing countries and also create
traffic problems contributing significantly to the local
air pollution due to their larger share of the traffic
fleet.10 The emission contribution of total transport sec-
tor was estimated to be 73% and 36% of total CO and
NOx emissions in the capital city of Delhi on per day
basis, the emissions contribution from two-wheelers
was estimated to be 42.9% and 8.0% for CO and NOx
emissions respectively. CO emissions of the two-wheeler
were 5.4% higher than the passenger cars during the
year 2016.8
Many researchers have been developing the driving
cycles for cars,11–15 heavy-duty vehicles16,17 and light-
duty vehicles.18 Hence, to understand realistic emis-
sions from the exhaust of two-wheelers, there is a need
to understand the emissions and fuel consumption per-
formance under city-specific driving cycles that can
provide a realistic representation of the current traffic
pattern, however, very little literature available on the
investigation of motorcycle driving cycles and their
parameters10,19 (Kumar et al. 2012)20 under Indian
driving conditions.
This paper presents a detailed review of the motor-
cycle driving cycles used in different countries. Methods
include review of the existing practices of route selec-
tion, data collection, driving cycle construction meth-
ods, and comparison of driving characteristics of real-
world driving cycles with legislative cycles. Analyzed
the effect of acceleration, deceleration, idle, and cruise
on vehicular regulated emissions. The parameters of
real-world driving cycles show significant deviation
from the legislative driving cycles with the range of –
97% to + 1172%. Also the driving parameters of the
Indian legislative cycle (IDC) deviate from other legisla-
tive cycles such as ECE, WMTC Part-1 cycle, Japanese
10-15 mode, and FTP-75 with the range of –74% to
279%. The emission factors of the legislative cycle do
not match with the realistic emissions measured by real-
world driving cycles due to change in traffic patterns. A
framework is proposed to develop a new real-world
driving cycle in India considering home to work trips
from rural to city centers for route selection, on-board
measurement for data collection and micro-trip
approach for driving cycle construction. The new real-
world driving cycle will support legislative authorities,
policy makers in India to estimate realistic emissions
factors of two-wheelers and can certify the vehicles for
on-road use. The nomenclature is as follows.
Review of motorcycle driving cycles
Driving cycle is a representative speed-time profile to
develop emission inventories and certifications of vehi-
cles by the legislators for the on-road movement of
vehicles. Development of driving cycles comprises three
major steps such as route selection, data collection,
adopting suitable methodology to synthesize data to
construct a driving cycle. Table 1 shows the driving
cycles developed by the countries. Table 2 summarizes
the parameters of driving cycles developed in different
countries.
Route selection
Route selection is one of the most critical tasks for the
data collection process. Driving cycles must represent
the driving pattern of the entire city or a country for the
vehicle for which it is developed in a particular geo-
graphic location. Many researchers selected the routes
primarily based on the vehicle population and classifi-
cations, road classification (urban, rural, and highway),
and traffic density.28 Few of them classified the trips on
the routes into a home to work and work to home trips
for the route selection, assuming the urban population
normally commutes for work and commercial pur-
poses.19 In many cases, the routes were selected based
on traffic data available with local transport depart-
ments and land-use patterns of the routes13,14,29 (Sun
et al. 2017).30 Arun et al.,23 Seedam et al.,31 and Adak
et al.24 (Nesamani et al. 2011)17 reported that selected
routes should represent the entire road patterns in the
city, like divided, undivided and different lane config-
urations to characterize city-specific drive patterns,
depending upon the people moving in the city. Adak
et al.24 selected the routes for just representing the dense
commercial areas covering banks and city center, and
part of the less dense areas and highway areas.13,14,24
Irrespective of different methods adapted to select
routes, the route selection should represent the current
traffic scenario in the city of a particular country for
which the driving cycle is developed. In India, majority
of the population move out from the home to work
resulting peak traffic conditions during morning hours
7:00 am to 10:00 am and evening hours 5:00 pm to
7:00 pm, hence route selection based on home to work
trip is more appropriate to develop a database for the
real-world driving cycle in the Indian scenario.
Data collection
Three typical data collection methods widely used for
the development of driving cycles that is, chase car, on-
board measurement methods, or a combination of
both23,26 (Khumla et al. 2010).32 In the chase car
method, the test vehicle is equipped with instruments
and a trained driver which is allowed to follow the ran-
domly selected target vehicle driving over the selected
route. In the chase car method, the driving pattern of
the target vehicle is reflected by the test vehicle. The
chase car method is very difficult to implement as the
traffic pattern is heterogeneous and lane discipline is
poor in Asian countries, but the data collected by this
method is very realistic in nature. In on-board measure-
ment method, the test vehicle is instrumented to collect
speed-time profiles over a pre-defined route.11,33 In this
method, speed-time profiles are collected directly and
Table 1. Development methods for motorcycle driving cycles. .

Driving cycle Country of interest Requirement Type Route selection Data collection Cycle construction

IDC, ARAI 1985 India Legislative cycle Polygonal Based on local traffic and road On board measurement Polygonal type with constant speed
infrastructure in Pune and acceleration
ECE Europe Legislative cycle Polygonal In-use driving behavior in Europe On board measurement Statistical approach
10-15 mode Japanese Legislative cycle Polygonal
Sithananthan and Kumar

WMTC, Urban (2004) Worldwide harmonized Legislative cycle Transient In-use driving behavior On board measurement Statistical approach using chi-square
(US, Europe, Japan China) of various cities method
FTP 75 (Kruse et al. 1973)21 US Legislative cycle Transient Home to work trips On board measurement Selecting the best fit trip data
representing the overall survey data
FHB, center Switzerland Non-legislative Transient Inner city driving, Instrumented vehicle Statistical approach
periphery and urban
driving models
EDMC22 UK Non-legislative Transient Home to work trips Advanced GPS techniques TRAFIX method-Micro trip
approach
CACD, Urban Europe Non-legislative Transient Real world driving behavior On board measurement Statistical approach
Chennai23 Southern India Non-legislative Transient City arterial road network On board measurement Random selection of micro trips
from the pool of micro trips
Delhi, DMDC19 Northern India Non-legislative Transient Home to work trips Advanced GPS method Micro trip approach -Filtering cycle
drive method by calculating using
absolute relative error of the 12
parameters
Dhanbad24 Jharkhand, India Non-legislative Transient Based on local traffic, On board measurement Micro-Trip approach with random
commercial area selection of micro trips from the
and highway intersections. pool of micro trips segments
Khon Kaen, KMDC Thailand Non-legislative Transient Local traffic and road On board measurement Micro trip approach
(Khumla et al. 2010)32 type during week
days and week ends
KHM26 Southern Taiwan Non-legislative Transient Based on four routes Chase car method with Random selection of micro trip to
covering downtown instrumented vehicle match overall statistics
and rural areas
Hanoi, CEMDC7 Vietnam Non-legislative Transient Based on local city driving pattern On board measurement Random selection of micro trips
from the speed acceleration
distribution
TMDC27 Taipei Non-legislative Transient Based on local city driving pattern Chase car method Statistic and repetitive approach
3
4 Proc IMechE Part D: J Automobile Engineering 00(0)

14.98
20.61
34.35
41.60

46.82
46.87
31.40
32.30
1.28
2.59
Max are very accurate. Both of these methods represent rea-
listic data. Limitations and advantages of different data

15.40
21.70

18.50
18.50
collection methods were discussed by Galgamuwa
1.01
1.95

0.42
0.46

1.03
6.98
Min

et al.13,14 The appropriate method for developing driv-

ing cycle for India is on-board measurement method
7.478125
Average

compared to chase car method, because in chase car

11.30
24.03
29.72

33.68
32.62
17.29
16.23
0.69 method there is a possibility of missing the target vehi-
0.82 cle in a stream of the heterogeneous traffic flow condi-
tions without any lane discipline and the driver’s
TMDC

5.109

behavior of target vehicle may be abnormal.

19.4
23.8

0.83
31.5
30.3
19.5
18.7
950

0.8
cycle

1471
6.33

15.4
22.2
0.55
0.59
30.6
28.6
31.4
HK

Methods of construction of driving cycle

9.4

The critical effort in driving cycle development is analy-

Hanoi

11.51

36.93
34.29

21.02
2061
20.1
21.7
0.42
0.46

7.71

sis of on-road data acquired to form the representative

driving cycles that appropriately replicate the driving
pattern of vehicles in a specified city or a country.
KHM

1126
6.65

0.58
0.61
32.6

27.7
8.7
21
29

31

Since large volumes of data are obtained, their analysis

is important to derive the candidate or representative
8.113

24.97
31.85

31.97

17.83
Khon
Kaen

1162

0.64
0.69

29.4
20.8

driving cycle. Driving cycles are constructed by various

methods like trip based cycle construction, the micro-
trip approach34,35 (Al-Samari et al. 2016), cluster analy-
Dhanbad

sis,36–38 the trip segment method,12 a Markov Chain

27.82
28.65

43.04
1683
12.9

0.79
0.81
41.2

2.91
12.9

Monte Carlo simulation for urban mixed roads13,14,39

(Fries et al., 2018; Li et al. 2017)40,41, and micro-
8.054

34.35

0.729
0.899
46.82

simulation model42 (Kumar et al. 2012). Trip based

Delhi

1667

36.6

42.7
1.03
9.4

and Micro-trip based methods are adapted widely by

the researchers in Asian countries. Trip based construc-
Chennai

tion method does not consider driving characteristics

24.97
31.84

31.91

17.83
1164
8.11

0.64
0.69

29.4
20.8

recorded during the test run. While adapting micro-trip

approach, some researchers selected the micro-trips
25.38

36.16
44.14
12.72

randomly to finalize the driving cycles like the KHM,

FHB

2.47

22.2

0.74
0.63

6.98
401

KMDC, CEMDC, and Chennai driving cycles.7,26,31 In

the random selection method of micro trips method
CADC

some of the trip segment may be missed out in the final

4.49

17.6

0.57
0.56
920

cycle. The micro trip based construction method was

adapted for developing driving cycle for Malasia’s
EDMC

38.85

44.45
46.87
1251

urban road system that dominated with stop and go

33.5

1.28
2.59

1.51
7.24
7.3

driving pattern. It is evident that micro-trip methods

Table 2. Summary of motorcycle driving cycle characteristics.

can well represent the actual driving conditions.43 In

Japanese

14.982

Markov Chain model work on transition probability

10-15

22.7
32.7
0.55
0.66
25.9
21.5
31.4
21.2
660

matrix, the cycle construction depends only on the cur-

rent driving modes selected and assessment criteria, it
14.79

can end with non-realistic if the driving mode selection

1877
34.1
41.6
0.61
0.71
33.1
28.5

20.4
FTP
75

18

goes wrong. The adaption of micro simulation

approach can reasonably produce synthesized driving
WMTC

cycle but it is data intensive. Cluster analysis segregates

3.93

23.6
28.4
0.67
0.72
25.2
27.5
17.1
27.3
600

the stratified classes of driving pattern based on vehicle

speed data, in this method accurate and rational
1.014

method of speed classification is required, which may

18.7
27.1
0.75
0.75
18.5
18.5
30.8
32.3
ECE

195

be difficult in the traditional approach. Some research-

ers followed factor analysis technique to formulate a
21.92
26.08

38.31
33.63
15.93
12.18
0.74
0.89
IDC

648

representative drive cycle, while other studies have used

3.9

simulation techniques and models to make the repre-

Duration (s)
Length (km)

sentative cycles like the Perth driving cycle in Australia.

Assessment
parameters

Vr (km/h)
V (km/h)

Traffic conditions in Indian urban and rural driving

a (m/s2)
d (m/s2)

Pd (%)

Pc (%)
Pa (%)

Pi (%)

are heterogeneous with frequent stop and go sequence

of driving pattern, and the driving pattern also
Sithananthan and Kumar
Figure 1. Legislative driving cycles.
fluctuates heavily during peak and off-peak hours. For
developing Indian driving cycle, micro trips approach
is the most suitable method for Indian cities, in which
each trip segment can be captured to represent realistic
driving pattern.
Legislative and real world driving cycles
used world wide
Driving cycles are classified as legislative driving cycles
and Non-legislative driving cycles. Legislative driving
cycles are widely used for certification of vehicles for
on-road drives. Non-legislative driving cycles are widely
used for emission inventories and fuel economy stud-
ies.10 Figures 1 and 2 shows the driving pattern of the
legislative and non-legislative driving cycles. Every
country has their driving cycles for legislative and Non-
legislative purposes. Some of the developing countries
have adopted the driving cycles derived by developed
countries. The adaption of driving cycle from devel-
oped countries does not represent real driving patterns
in their local region; but supports the vehicle manufac-
turers in developing countries for export purpose of the
vehicles to other countries. It has been found that the
real-world driving cycles represent more close to vehicle
performance on the road.24 Table 1 presents the list of
driving cycle adapted in different countries.
The early studies on driving cycle in India were
reported by Gandhi et al. 198325 and further IDC was
developed by ARAI, Pune which was enacted under
Central Motor Vehicle Rules 1989. The IDC is charac-
terized by uniform acceleration and deceleration with
constant speeds, does not cover real-world driving
5
conditions and cannot give a realistic estimation of
emissions29 (Kumar et al. 2011; Nesamani et al.
2005).44,45 Adak et al.24 specified that in a study route
of 13 km in Dhanbad city, a motorcycle took 2136 s to
complete the route by following IDC, whereas the real
world driving cycle took only 1683 s with the reduction
of time taken by 21%; hence the legislative cycle does
not represent real world driving conditions.
The ECE cycle is the European legislative cycle
developed to represent city driving conditions in
Europe during 1970. Adaption of ECE cycle by many
Asian countries does not represent any real driving
conditions in the local region. The TMDC cycle devel-
oped for Taipei city shows higher mean emission levels
of 19%, 15%, and 12.7% for CO, HC, and NOx as
compared to the mean emissions tested by the ECE
cycle.27 The Japanese initiated a 10 mode cycle in 1983
followed by a 10-15 modes cycle and adopted the JC08
test cycle for light vehicles from 2008 to 2011. For the
motorcycle fuel economy and emissions estimation
Japanese 10-15 mode cycle is used. FTP-75 is the legis-
lative cycle used for emission certification of motor-
cycles in the United States.46
WMTC was developed in 1999 by a joint study of
the Netherlands Ministry of the Environment, TNO
Automotive, and the International Motorcycle
Manufacturer Association. The WMTC consists of
three parts that is, Part-1 reflects urban, Part-2 for
rural, and Part-3 for motorway driving. The KMDC
cycle developed for Khon Kaen city in Thailand. They
found WMTC part-1 urban cycle does not match with
driving characteristics such as average speed, percent-
age of idle, percentage cruise, and percentage of accel-
eration deviate from WMTC Part-1 in the range of –
6 Proc IMechE Part D: J Automobile Engineering 00(0)

Figure 2. Real world driving cycles.

16% to 53.1% and hence it cannot represent realist Table 3. Percentage deviation of legislative cycles with Indian
emissions.31 Since a standard legislative cycle adopted driving cycle.
in many countries does not represent their actual driv-
ing conditions, the real-world driving cycles are devel- Assessment WMTC FTP 75 ECE 10-15 mode
parameters
oped for motorcycles. Table 1 shows a summary of the
developed driving cycles in various countries. Length (km) 1 279 274 284
Duration (s) 27 190 270 2
V (km/h) 8 56 215 4
Driving cycle characteristics and analysis Vr (km/h) 9 60 4 25
a (m/s2) 29 218 1 226
The various driving parameters analyzed in this study d (m/s2) 219 220 216 226
are cycle length (L), cycle duration (D), average speed Pa (%) 234 214 252 232
(V), average running speed (Vr), average acceleration Pd (%) 218 215 245 236
(a) – where the rate of change of speed is above 0.27 m/s2, Pi (%) 7 13 93 97
Pc (%) 124 67 165 74
average deceleration (d) – where the rate of change
speed is below 0.27 m/s2, percentage acceleration (Pa),
Sithananthan and Kumar 7

Table 4. Percentage deviation of real world driving cycle with Indian driving cycle.

Assessment parameters % change with IDC

FHB EMDC CACD Chennai Delhi Dhanbad Khon Kaen KHM Hanoi HK TMDC Min Max

Length (Km) 237 87 15 108 107 231 108 71 195 62 31 237 231
Duration (s) 238 93 42 80 157 160 79 74 218 127 47 238 218
V (Km/h) 1 53 220 14 57 27 14 24 28 230 211 230 57
Vr (Km/h) 23 49 22 40 10 22 11 217 215 29 217 49
a (m/s2) 0 73 223 214 21 7 214 222 243 226 8 243 73
d (m/s2) 229 191 237 222 1 29 222 231 248 234 27 248 191
Pa (%) 26 16 217 22 8 217 215 24 220 218 220 22
Pd (%) 31 39 213 27 28 213 28 2 215 210 215 39
Pi (%) 220 291 31 294 282 31 74 252 97 22 294 97
Pc (%) 243 241 46 223 6 46 229 73 223 54 243 73

Table 5. Percentage deviation of real world driving cycle with WMTC.

Assessment parameters % change with WMTC

FHB EMDC CACD Chennai Delhi Dhanbad Khon Kaen KHM Hanoi HK TMDC Min Max

Length (km) 237 86 14 106 105 228 106 69 193 61 30 237 228
Duration (s) 233 109 53 94 178 181 94 88 244 145 58 233 244
V (Km/h) 26 42 225 6 46 18 6 211 215 235 218 235 46
Vr (Km/h) 211 37 12 29 1 12 2 224 222 216 224 37
a (m/s2) 10 91 215 24 9 18 24 213 237 218 19 237 91
d (m/s2) 213 260 222 24 25 13 24 215 236 218 15 236 260
Pa (%) 43 76 27 86 63 27 29 47 21 25 21 86
Pd (%) 61 70 7 55 57 7 13 25 4 10 4 70
Pi (%) 226 291 22 294 283 22 62 255 84 14 294 84
Pc (%) 274 273 235 266 253 235 268 223 266 232 274 223

percentage deceleration (Pd), percentage idle (Pi), and
percentage cruise (Pc) – where the percentage of time
spent by vehicle when the absolute vehicle speed
change is 40.27 m/s2 (40.972 km/h) respectively.
Indian legislative cycle versus other
legislative cycle (WMTC, ECE, FTP-75,
and Japanese 10-15 mode)
284% for the parameters cycle length, cycle duration,
average speed, average running speed, percentage accel-
eration, deceleration, and cruise respectively. The para-
meters of IDC show significant divergence from other
legislative cycles due to the variation in driving charac-
teristics, road infrastructure; hence, the driving cycle
developed for one country cannot represent local driv-
ing patter in another country and cannot support esti-
mation of realistic emission factors.

In India IDC is being used for certification of two and

three-wheelers up to BS III compliance vehicles, BS IV
and BS VI vehicles with engine size 4 50 cc limiting the
vehicle speed limiting 4 50 km/h. The WMTC cycle
was introduced in 2012 as an option and made manda-
tory for BS IV vehicles with engine capacity ø 50 cc in
2015 and for BS VI vehicles from 2020 onwards. The
estimated percentage variation of driving parameters of
IDC from other legislative driving cycles such as
WMTC, ECE, FTP-75, and Japanese 10-15 mode is
shown in Table 3. In overall IDC has shown deviation
from other legislative cycle in the range of –74% to
Comparison of real-world driving cycles
with legislative cycles
Many researchers concluded that the real-world driving
cycles deviate significantly from the legislative cycle
such as the IDC, ECE, WMTC, Japanese 10-15, mode
and FTP-75, due to non-representation of local traffic
conditions and improper emission inventories7,17,23,24,29
(Khumla et al., 2010).32 Tables 4 to 8 shows the esti-
mated percentage deviation of parameters of different
real-world driving cycles from legislative cycles. The
8 Proc IMechE Part D: J Automobile Engineering 00(0)

Table 6. Percentage deviation of real world driving cycle with ECE.

Assessment parameters % change with ECE

FHB EMDC CACD Chennai Delhi Dhanbad Khon Kaen KHM Hanoi HK TMDC Min Max

Length (Km) 144 620 343 700 694 1172 700 556 1035 524 404 144 1172
Duration (s) 106 542 372 497 755 763 496 477 957 654 387 106 957
V (Km/h) 19 79 26 34 84 49 34 12 7 218 4 218 84
Vr (Km/h) 26 43 17 35 6 18 7 220 218 212 220 43
a (m/s2) 21 71 224 215 23 5 215 223 244 227 7 244 71
d (m/s2) 216 245 225 28 20 8 28 219 239 221 11 239 245
Pa (%) 95 140 72 153 123 73 76 100 65 70 65 153
Pd (%) 139 153 59 131 133 59 68 85 55 64 55 153
Pi (%) 259 295 232 297 291 232 210 275 2 237 297 2
Pc (%) 278 278 245 271 260 245 273 235 271 242 278 235

Figure 3. Average of the cycle characteristics with minimum and maximum range.

reasons for such deviation of parameters in the real-
world driving cycle compared to legislative cycle are
discussed as follows:
Average rate of acceleration (m/s2) and
deceleration (m/s2)
The rate of acceleration, percentage of acceleration and
deceleration in driving cycles indicates the traffic condi-
tions and road infrastructure in the city. Higher rates
and higher percentages of acceleration and deceleration
indicate a higher level of congestion in the heteroge-
neous traffic conditions in the city (Kumar et al.,
2013).58 The average of the rate of acceleration and
deceleration of the cycles calculated as 0.7 m/s2 and
0.82 m/s2. The minimum and maximum rate of accel-
erations and decelerations are in the range of 0.42 m/s2
to 1.28 m/s2 and 0.82 m/s2 to 2.59 m/s2, respectively
(Figure 3). The average rate of acceleration of real-
world driving cycles deviate from the IDC, ECE,
WMTC Part-1, Japanese 10-15, and FTP-75 in
the range –43% to 73%, –44% to 71%, –37% to 91%,
–24% to 133%, –31% to 110%, respectively. Similarly,
the average rate of deceleration of real-world driving
cycle deviates from IDC, ECE, WMTC Part-1,
Japanese 10-15 mode, and FTP-75 in the range of –
48% to 191%, –39% to 245%, –36% to 260%, –30%
to 292%, –35% to 265%, respectively (Tables 4–8).
This deviation has a larger impact on the estimation of
emissions.
Sithananthan and Kumar 9

Table 7. Percentage deviation of real world driving cycle with Japanese 10-15 mode.

Assessment parameters % change with Japanese 10-15 mode

FHB EMDC CACD Chennai Delhi Dhanbad Khon Kaen KHM Hanoi HK TMDC Min Max

Length (km) 284 251 270 246 246 214 246 256 223 258 266 284 214
Duration (s) 239 90 39 76 153 155 76 71 212 123 44 239 212
V (km/h) 22 48 222 10 51 23 10 27 211 232 215 232 51
Vr (km/h) 222 19 23 12 212 23 211 234 232 227 234 19
a (m/s2) 35 133 4 16 33 44 16 5 224 0 45 224 133
d (m/s2) 25 292 215 5 36 23 5 28 230 211 26 230 292
Pa (%) 40 72 23 81 59 23 26 43 18 22 18 81
Pd (%) 105 118 37 99 100 37 44 59 33 41 33 118
Pi (%) 259 295 234 297 291 234 212 275 0 238 297 0
Pc (%) 267 266 216 256 239 216 259 21 256 212 267 21

Table 8. Percentage deviation of real world driving cycle with FTP 75.

Assessment parameters % change with FTP 75

FHB EMDC CACD Chennai Delhi Dhanbad Khon Kaen KHM Hanoi HK TMDC Min Max

Length (km) 283 251 270 245 246 213 245 255 222 257 265 283 213
Duration (s) 279 233 251 238 211 210 238 240 10 222 249 279 10
V (Km/h) 235 22 248 227 1 218 227 238 241 255 243 255 1
Vr (Km/h) 239 27 223 212 231 223 230 248 247 243 248 27
a (m/s2) 21 110 27 5 20 30 5 25 231 210 31 231 110
d (m/s2) 211 265 221 23 27 14 23 214 235 217 17 235 265
Pa (%) 9 34 24 41 24 23 22 12 28 25 28 41
Pd (%) 55 64 3 50 51 3 9 20 0 6 0 64
Pi (%) 229 292 16 294 284 16 54 257 74 8 294 74
Pc (%) 266 265 213 254 237 213 257 3 254 28 266 3

Figure 4. % Acceleration, deceleration, idle, and cruise average speed (km/h) versus acceleration (m/s2), deceleration (m/s2), idle
(%), and cruise (%).

Time spent in acceleration, deceleration,
idle, and cruise (%)
The driving cycle parameters acceleration, deceleration,
idle, and cruise as shown in Figure 4 are crucial to
determine fuel consumption and emission factors for
the vehicles and the typical values of these parameters
will support the auto industry to optimize engine size to
reduce emission without compromising vehicle power
characteristics and market requirement. The real world
10
(a)
(c)
Figure 5. (a) Avg speed versus acc and dec, (b) avg speed versus %acc (Pa) & %dec (Pd), and (c) avg speed versus %idle (Pi) and
%cruise (Pc).
driving cycles have shown higher percentage of accel-
eration and deceleration, lesser percentage of cruises as
compared to legislative cycles. The EDMC, Delhi, and
Dhanbad cycles have spent more than 40% of time in
acceleration with cruise less than 13%. Tables 4 to 8,
show the percentage of time spent in acceleration, decel-
eration, idle, and cruise. They differ from the legislative
cycle IDC, ECE, WMTC Part-1, Japanese 10-15, and
FTP-75 in the range of –95% to 74%, –91% to 153%,
–974% to 86%, –94% to 74%, and –97% to 118%.
IDC shows a larger variation that again reflects differ-
ences in the real-world and regulatory driving cycle.
The average speeds of the motorcycle in urban traf-
fic range from 15 to 30 km/h for all the driving cycles
except the Edinburgh cycle. Edinburgh’s average speed
is at a higher side of 35 km/h. The reasons for the high
speed and acceleration of motorcycles are the larger
engine size and the high-speed limits in the urban and
rural highway in Edinburgh. The rate of acceleration
and deceleration of driving cycles ranges from 0.42 to
2 m/s2 except for the Edinburgh cycle. Edinburgh has a
Proc IMechE Part D: J Automobile Engineering 00(0)
(b)
higher range of 1.28 and 2.56 m/s2 for acceleration and
deceleration (See Figure 5(a)). The percentage of accel-
eration and deceleration of the cycles ranges from 15%
to 45% (Figure 5(b)). The percentage of idle and cruise
ranges from 5% to 33%, and the average speed ranges
from 15% to 35% (Figure 5(c)).
Emission factors (g/km) of driving cycles
Emission factors measured by the legislative cycles and
non-legislative real world driving cycles are given in
Table 9, the deviation of emission factors of legislative
and real world cycle are a major cause of concern.
Specifically, the CO and HC emissions estimated by
the real-world driving cycle are significantly higher
compared to the legislative cycles. The nitrogen oxides
(NOx) emissions are at par or no significant change
observed. The carbon dioxide (CO2 emissions estimated
by real-world driving cycles are closer to or higher than
the legislative cycles. The use of the ECE cycle in
Turkey and the FTP-75 cycle in Taiwan for emissions
Sithananthan and Kumar 11

Chen et al.
estimation is unable to predict the total exhaust emis-

125–150
(2003)56
TMDC
sions and failed to support exact pollution control stra-

41.42
6.53
1.62
0.11
tegies.27,47,48 Table 10 shows the estimated percentage
deviation of emission factors. Emission factors mea-
sured with legislative cycles do not match with the real-
Tung et al.7

world driving cycles. The percentage deviation for CO,

125–150
CEMDC

HC, NOx, and CO2 emissions of the real-world driving

Hanoi,

50.26
6.76

0.11
0.5 cycle from the IDC was found in the range of 430% to
1472%, 85% to 654%, –73% to 3.5%, and –27% to
82%, respectively. Whereas compared to the ECE
cycle, it was in the range of 430% to 1472%, 85% to
Tuan et al.50
Kaohsiung,

654%, –73% to 3%, and –27% to 82%, respectively.

125–150

Compared with WMTC cycle, the deviation is not as

KHM

2.28
0.48
0.17
61.3

high as seen with the IDC and ECE. This intent to state
that real-world emission is quite high in many studies
done by several researchers. Hence, it is important to
Tsai et al.26

0.001–0.26

understand the real-world driving cycle and its emission

1.17–7.02
0.29–3.63

52.4–61.3
125–150

factors.
Khon
Kaen

Emission performance of motorcycles

Dhanbad cycle

Adak et al.24

 Average running speed (km/h).

0.45
0.46

Figure 6(a) to (c) show the emissions performance of

150
1.6

driving cycles against average running speed. The aver-

age running speed of the driving cycles ranges from
21.7 km/h to 29.62 km/h, whereas CO (g/km) and HC
Vasic et al.
(2006)51

(g/km) are higher for real-world cycles (KHM, TMDC,

0.413

FHB, Hanoi) as compared to legislative cycles (IDC,

FHB

1.78

91.1
583
5.1

ECE, WMTC). Real-world driving cycles have an

aggressive driving pattern in urban driving conditions;
hence the emissions of real world driving cycles are
Vasic et al.
(2006)51

higher as compared to legislative cycles. No significant

CADC

0.414

difference observed in NOx as compared to other legis-

583

104
6.6
1.6

lative cycle, moreover NOx is the characteristics of peak

combustion temperature and it is stated that NOx is a
more significant factor for heavy duty diesel vehicles.52
Alvarez et al.9

 Average acceleration and deceleration (m/s2) mode.

WMTC

0.21
125
2.7
0.4

68

The increased rate of acceleration and deceleration

Table 9. Emission data measured by driving cycles. .

influence exhausts emissions particularly the NOx emis-

sions.37 The higher rate of acceleration influences the
ECE, Euro III

vehicular emissions significantly as compared to decel-

125–150

eration. Since the engine is disengaged during decelera-

et al.26

1.17
0.29
0.15
59.5

tion mode caused by engine braking, it does not

Tsai

participate in load generation to the engine. The CO,

HC, and NOx emissions increased by 55%, 20%, and
174% respectively for an increase of acceleration from
Sakthivel

1.0 m/s2 to 1.6 m/s2 in a small petrol car.53 The percent-

et al.49

0.43
0.26
IDC

150

0.4

age of acceleration and deceleration in the driving also

57

plays a vital role in determining the emissions charac-

teristics of vehicles, other than the rate of acceleration
NOx (g/km)

and deceleration.
CO2 (g/km)
Assessment
parameters

CO (g/km)
Engine CC

HC (g/km)
Reference

Figures 7(a) to (c) and 8(a) to (c) show the relation

between increases of the percentage of acceleration and
deceleration in the driving cycle increase the tailpipe
12
(a)
(c)
Figure 6. (a) Average running speed (Vr) versus CO, (b) average running speed (Vr) versus HC, and (c) average running speed (Vr)
versus NOx.
emissions, particularly the carbon monoxide (CO) and
hydrocarbon (HC). However, no significant increases
observed in nitrous oxide (NOx) emissions, except in
the urban cycles such as Dhanbad, FHB, and CADC,
where the percentage of acceleration was high.
Real-world driving cycles were observed with higher
the percentage of acceleration and decelerations as
compared to legislative cycles, resulting in a higher level
of emissions.37 The increasing trend of emissions fol-
lows more the percentage of time spent in acceleration
and deceleration rather than the rate of acceleration
and deceleration buy the vehicles.
Framework for the development of the
driving cycle
The framework has been developed based on the review
of existing driving cycles developed worldwide.33 It is
intended to follow steps given in Figure 9 to develop a
real-world driving cycle that includes urban, rural, and
highway driving patterns.
Proc IMechE Part D: J Automobile Engineering 00(0)
(b)
Vehicle selection
The motorcycles with engine capacity of 125 cc and
100 cc of popular make should be used for the study as
the market share of this category of vehicle is higher in
India (Statista, 2014–2018).57 Minimum four bikes in
each category should be used for the data collection in
order to have wide representation.
Route selection
The Delhi-National Capital Region (NCR) is one of
the densely populated cities in India holding 22 million
people with an annual growth rate of 3.21% since
2015.54,55 Delhi holds 10.9 million total vehicles popula-
tion on Delhi roads with two-wheelers accounting for
around 7 million in 2018, which shares 64% of total
vehicles (SoE-Delhi 2018–2019).59 In the present frame-
work, it is appropriate to select a home to work trips as
the majority of the workforce use motorcycle as a con-
venient and economical mode of transport. For finaliz-
ing the route, a socio-demographic origin-destination
Sithananthan and Kumar
(a)
(c)
Figure 7. (a) Rate of acceleration & %acc (Pa) versus CO, (b) rate of acceleration & %acc (Pa) versus HC, and (c) rate of
acceleration & %acc (Pa) versus NOx.
survey should be carried out which include the spatial
expansion of the city and its population.
Test vehicle preparation and
instrumentation
The test vehicle for the development of real-world driv-
ing cycles should be selected based on the market share
of the vehicle in the country. The selected vehicle should
be instrumented with GPS, a data logger, an emission
analyzer, and an exhaust temperature sensor to collect on-
road speed time profile data in conjunction with on-road
tailpipe emissions during the trial. Figure 10 shows the
schematic diagram of a typical emission test facility for
two-wheeler in the laboratory. A correction factor may
also be employed when bringing to real-world emissions.
Data collection
The data collection should be done on the pre-
determined routes using the on-board measurement
method with instrumented motorcycles (Figure 11).
The onboard method is more suitable and appropriate
for Indian traffic scenarios as the traffic composition in
India is heterogeneous. The chase car technique is not
suitable for the heterogeneous traffic conditions in
India due to persistence change in lane follow.
13
(b)
Data analysis and driving cycle
construction
The micro-trip approach should be adapted for data
analysis and driving cycle construction. The micro trips
approach captured trip segment can represent a realistic
driving pattern in the city that will support the realistic
estimation of fuel consumption and emission factors in
the city. The steps involved to formulate the representa-
tive driving cycle by micro trip approach are to cate-
gories the speed ranges with the break-up of 10 km/h
and quantifies the number of micro trips in each cate-
gory of speed ranges, identify the trip duration of each
micro trips in each category. Finally, select the best sui-
ted micro trips in each category of speed segment and
formulate the target driving cycle including the idle and
cruise part that represents the real-world driving pat-
tern. The percentage of different micro trips under dif-
ferent speed categories in the final cycle will be based
on the percentage of total data falling under different
speed categories. Broadly four category of speeds such
as congested (410 km/h), semi-urban (10–25 km/h),
urban (25–40 km/h), and extra urban (40–60) should be
considered for the data analysis.29 For deriving the final
representative micro trips in each speed category, the
relative average speed, relative percentage of idle, rela-
tive percentage of cruise, acceleration, and deceleration
should be determined.
14 Proc IMechE Part D: J Automobile Engineering 00(0)

(a)

(b) (c)

Figure 8. (a) Rate of deceleration & %dec (Pd) versus CO, (b) rate of deceleration & %dec (Pd) versus HC, and (c) rate of
deceleration & %dec (Pd) versus NOx.

Table 10. Percentage deviation of emission factors of real world driving cycle with respect to IDC, ECE, and WMTC Part-1 cycle.

Assessment parameters % Change with IDC

CADC FHB Dhanbad Khon Kaen KHM Hanoi TMDC

Engine CC 583 583 150 138 138 138 138

CO (g/km) 1435 1086 272 852 430 1472 1419
HC (g/km) 515 585 73 654 85 92 523
NOx (g/km) 3 3 15 267 258 273 273
CO2 (g/km) 82 60 0 8 212 227
% Change with ECE
CO (g/km) 464 336 37 250 95 478 458
HC (g/km) 452 514 55 576 66 72 459
NOx (g/km) 176 175 207 213 13 227 227
CO2 (g/km) 75 53 24 3 216 230
% Change with WMTC
CO (g/km) 152 95 241 56 213 158 149
HC (g/km) 113 137 13 161 236 233 116
NOx (g/km) 144 143 119 223 0 235 235
CO2 (g/km)

Average relative speed of micro trip number i, in %idle timemt, i

%idle timerel, i =
each category of speed, %idle timetotal
vmt, i Relative percentage cruise for micro trip i in each cate-
vrel, i = gory of speed
vtotal
Relative percentage idle time for micro trip i in each %cruise timemt, i
%cruise timerel, i =
category of speed, %cruise timetotal
Sithananthan and Kumar 15

Figure 9. Recommended framework for developing a real world driving cycle.

Figure 10. The schematic of two-wheeler chassis dynamometer test facility.

16
Figure 11. On-road data collection setup.
Relative percentage acceleration for micro trip i in each
category of speed
%acc timemt, i
%acc timerel, i =
%acc timetotal
Relative percentage deceleration for micro trip i in each
category of speed
%dec timemt, i
%dec timerel, i =
%dec timetotal
An ideal representative micro trip with an indicator Mi
is selected in a particular speed category, for which its
relative parameters are equal to 1.
Mi = jvrel, i  1j + j%idle timerel, i  1j
+ j%cruise timerel, i  1j + j%acc timerel, i  1j
+ j%dec timerel, i  1j
Mi is indicator for the micro trip number i, for ideal
micro trip Mi should be zero, since the probability of
Mi being zero is less, the micro trip number very close
to zero should be selected as representative micro trip
in each category of speed.
The duration of each speed category in the final driv-
ing cycle is given by
trdc X ni
ti = ti, j
ttdr j = 1
Where,
ti is duration of micro trip of category number i
(i = 1,2,3,.n) in the cycle,
trdc is duration of representative driving cycle,
ttdr is the total duration recorded,
ni is the total number of micro trips in category number
i,
ti,j is the duration of micro trip number j in category
number i.
Finally, the representative micro trips in each category
of speed should be selected and synthesized to form a
final representative driving cycle based on the percent-
age of data in each speed category.
Proc IMechE Part D: J Automobile Engineering 00(0)
Driving cycle validation
After finalizing the desired representative real-world
driving cycle, the cycle needs to be validated. The vali-
dation of the final cycle should be done on a chassis
dynamometer, in which the developed cycle can be
simulated by mounting the instrumented motorcycle on
the chassis dynamometer after generating the road load
coefficients Ra, Rrl, and Rg of the vehicles. The fuel
consumption and emission factors generated on chassis
dynamometer with developed cycle should match with
on-road field the data of fuel consumption and emis-
sion factors for representing the real world driving pat-
tern. The formula for vehicle inertial and road load
coefficient is as given below.
F = ma + Ra + Ra + Rr1 + Rg ð1Þ
r
Ra = CD Af V2 ð2Þ
2
Rr1 = fr1 W ð3Þ
Rg = W(sinug ) ð4Þ
F = final inertia, Ra = aerodynamic resistance,
Rrl =rolling resistance, Rg = gradient resistance, a =
acceleration, m = vehicle mass, r = density of air,
CD = Drag coefficient, Af = vehicle front area, frl =
rolling friction, V = speed, W = vehicle weight, Qg =
gradient angle.
Conclusion
This paper reviewed the methodology to develop
motorcycle driving cycles and compared the character-
istics of real-world driving cycles with legislative cycles
and quantified the percentage deviation of its charac-
teristics and emission factors. The general outcomes of
this work are as given below:
 In general, the researchers followed three main ele-
ments of driving cycle development which are route
selection, data collection, and driving cycle con-
struction methods. For route selection, the road
infrastructure and traffic conditions of the city were
considered, for data collection chase car or on-
board measurement technique was followed and
for driving cycle construction micro-trip approach
was adapted predominantly the other methods are
equally good to employ based on condition and
circumstances.
 The parameters of real-world driving cycles are
very different from the legislative cycle. The para-
meters of real world driving cycle deviate from
Indian legislative cycle (IDC) and other legislative
cycles in the range of –74% to 284% and –97% to
+ 1172% respectively.
 The emission factors measured by real-world driv-
ing cycles show significant deviations from legisla-
tive cycles.
Sithananthan and Kumar
 The higher percentage of acceleration and decelera-
tion in real-world driving cycles as compared to leg-
islative cycles contributed to higher CO and HC
emissions. However, no significant change observed
in NOx emissions.
This review formulated a framework for the develop-
ment of a real-world driving cycle for the Delhi/NCR
region that can support for the estimation of realistic
emission factors.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest
with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publi-
cation of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the
research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
ORCID iD
Masilamani Sithananthan https://orcid.org/0000-
0003-4243-0749
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Appendix
Notation
acc – Acceleration
IDC– Indian driving cycle
cc – Cubic centimeter
IMMA – International motorcycle manufacturer
association
KHM – Kaohsiung motorcycle driving cycle
dec – Deceleration
KMDC – Kaen motorcycle driving cycle
 Sithananthan and Kumar 19

ARAI – Automotive Research Association of VROM – Netherlands ministry of the

India environment
Km/h – Kilometers per hours EDMC – Edinburgh driving cycle
CEMDC – Hanoi motorcycle driving cycle WMTC – Worldwide harmonized motorcycle
NOx – Nitrous oxide emissions certification/test test
CO – Carbon monoxide procedure driving cycle
SIAM – Society of automotive manufacturers FTP – Federal test procedure
association HC – Hydrocarbon
DCs – Driving cycles HK Cycle – Hong Kong cycle
TMDC – Taiwan motorcycle driving cycle
ECE – Economic Commission Europe

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