Fault Ride Through approach for Grid-Connected Photovoltaic System ‘Komal Bai '"’, Vikas Sindhu’, Ahteshamul Haque” "Depron Eero ad Communion gern, Uvety Iie of Ege & Teo (WET MOU) MD. Univer Rak, ne * advo Power Recronts Rear La, Daren of Heal Prgnering, Jona ila ona, New De, nde ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT al le hough (Gcomeced Potvin Ste (GCPVS) 1a Vag Rice Tog WRT) This paper presents a fault idedhrough approach for griéconneced photovallaic (PV) systems, almed at Improving the system's response during vollage sags and liming the maximum inverter curret dig sym ‘etal als, A constant active curent reactive power injection approch was developed for low-voltage ride trough (LURT) operstion of gri-connece solar PV inverters In lo vltge grids. The method manages the active and reactive power references and satisfies grid code requirements wile also adéresing ippng ob lems cased by overcurrent. The approach improves the sped response of the power conver rig voltage sip resilng in beter dynamic grid suppor. The hors evalated the approach ving a 2 single-phase ‘tig-coected PV system and demonstrated is ability to jet the required reactive power dung fuk to Improve the vllage profile and achive cynic gid support requvements, The acaricy of the proposed rethodology I Mente o be 98.39%, ad the deteton time te redced by a rewonable margin in acwordance Wich the ged standards. Over te alt side-through approach ca enhance the peeformases ad relailty of ‘gid-conected PV systems, particularly tn low voltage gid, 1. temooucros ‘Over the las two decades, the intrest of industry and researchers in solar power has increased significantly cue tos infinite nature, coupled ‘with technological advancement [1 inthe eleetronic industry. This has resulted In the advancement of power electonics technology, making Photovoltaic (PV) power generators the most suitable alternative souree ‘of energy for power systems [2,3]. However, PV systems come with ‘several challenges, such a unintentional istanding, overloading of feeders, voltage regulation, and power quality issues (4). These chal- lenges are primarily due to the uncertainties of PV systems on the geld, ‘whieh affect voltage eves. To address these challenges, grid codes or ‘rid standards are defined, and various researchers have studied these ‘codes [5,5]. While the normal operation voltage zone lies between 0.9 p. Us to. pu, some grid codes exhibit variations in their lower limits. During high voltage ridethrough, reactive power injection is necessary to avoid voltage collapse. The voltage sag condition and power factor correction have been investigated in this study, and various approaches hhave been explored to ennance the performance of grd-connected sys tems, such as flexible reactive power compensation devices, maximum ‘power control, and optimam power low contol, among others [7) Several studies have been conducted to find the optimal method for achieving faut ride-through (8), and various custom control tools, such as dynamic volage restorer (DVR) (2), static compensators (10), and other reactive power compensation devices, have been implemented as solutions (11), However, tese methods have some significant draw. back due to overcurrent trip of, derating operation under severe faults, and implementation complexity, Moreover, the urgent requirement for efficient operation is to advance islanding detection (22). fs (13), an enhanced feult detection method for distribution systems was proposed. ‘This method, which improves fault detection accuracy by considering the modified voltage drop across the faulted section and the direction of fault curren, shovis promise for effective fault detection in low voltage distribution ‘systems. It offers shorer fault detection durtions, addressing the need for swift identification of faults in power system, Hoviever, there ae limitations to its effectiveness in accurately detect. ing faults in complex distribution systems with multiple sources and nonlinear loads. Additionally, the technique requires relatively higher reactive power injection, which can lead to increased power losses and voltage drops in the system, afecing its overall efficeney. In [14], a fault detection method for low voltage distribution systems uiizng the SAransform-based approach was introduced, The authors demonstrated the effectiveness of the Stransform in analyzing frequencyNomenclature vw, Angular switching frequency Px Nominal power |b Photovoltaic (PV) curtent me Angular frequency fu PWeall diode current vt, —_Angular switching frequency Diode reverse saturation eurent Ke Attenuation constant © Diode ideality factor ve Geid voltage Ra Resistanes of the soar cell connected ia series i Grid current Ry ——_-Resistances ofthe solar cell connected ia parallel Ye Amplitude of fe Teakage curent @ System operating frequency Yq ‘Thermal diode voltage 6 Phase Vou Boost converter input volage # Phase angle Voor Boost converter outpot voltage 80 Phase error fa Boost converter switching frequency © Locked phase Tho Boost converter output current T Period 2, Input eile voltage fo» Nominal frequency ly Input ripple curent Vico Voltage at point of common coupling Inverter ie filter inductor fice requeney atthe point of common coupling Ty Grid side ter induetor ‘AVhce At fault condition, Change in voltage vin Angular switching frequency Vig Nominal system voltage Ky —_-Atenuation constant Ve RMS ofthe measured Vice % Grid voltage PL Nominal power Grid current Angular frequency vm Amplitude of, PV Array DC Bus Boost Converter_Inverter s ig LCL Filter 1 in On oa Inc MPPT Outer loop pale 7 Gis oT, voltage contol ig. 1. Overall aout of Got Connected PY Syste ‘characteristics of fault signals, which contributes to accurate fault detection. While this method provides moderate fault detection dura tions, iis susceptible to noise and disturbances, potentially impacting the accuracy of fault detection. Furthermore, it exhibits longer fault ‘detection durations compared to ather techniques, which can result in ‘delayed fault clearance and prolonge system downtime, affecting the ‘eliability and performance ofthe power system. Secking to leverage the advancements in deep learning techniques, the discussion in [15] pee ‘sented a paper outlining an enhanced deep leaening model for fault {detection in low voltage distribution systems, By harnessing artifical intelligence, the authors developed a robust faut detection algorithm that exhibits short fault detection durations. This model optimizes reactive power injection, promoting efficient fault detection in low voltage systems. However, itis important to note that this approach ‘demands significant computational resources and a substantial amount of training data for model development and traning. The quality and representativeness ofthe training data playa eitical roe inthe gener alization and robustness of the model, In ||, proposed # novel approach for fault location in low voltage distribution systems, This fapproach combines wavelet transform and fuzzy logie to extract faultrelated features from voltage and cutent signals and determine the fault location. The wavelethased method offers moderate fault detec ‘lon durations and reactive power injection. It demonstrates potential for aceurate fault location in low voltage systems. However, i Is Sens {ive to signal noise and variations, which ean impact the accuracy of fault detection and localization. Moreover, selecting the appropriate wavelet basis and decomposition levels can be challenging and require expertise, In [17,18], the authors addressed the challenges of favlt detection and localization in distribution systems that consider distri ‘uted generation. They proposed a hybrid method based on wide-area data, combining multiple techniques to achieve efficient fault detec tion ‘and localization. This hybrid approach showeases short fault detection durations optimal reactive power injection, and minimal in ‘crease in harmonics after fault clearance, demonstrating its effectiveness fn low voltage systems. Nevertheless, implementing and integrating ruliple techniques can increase the overall system complexity andttttt t Toa Me oo aie } ig. 2 Blok presentation for tnvertr Coal. Kl} al tut time (ms) ig, 4. EONNe GmbH Grid Code HRT characterise curve ‘computational requirements, Achieving optimal parameter tuning and ‘coordination between different techniques can aso be challenging and time-consuming. ‘Considering the above challenges, this paper aims to contribute to the efficient operation of gri-connected PV systems by investigating fault ride-through (19,20), and power quality issues [21]. Specifically, this research proposes a reactive power injection strategy for normal ‘operation, aiming to achieve low voltage rideshrough capability and Improve the power quality ofthe system. The research also examines the Impact of various reactive power supply methods and evaluates their effectiveness for grid-connocted PV systems. The technical catribution of thisresearch les n developing contol strategy that enables efficient and reliable operation of grid-connected PV systems under different ‘operating conditions, contributing tothe adoption of renewable energy sources and promoting sustainable development. The major objectives ofthis esearch are: + To enable a transformless PV inverter to operate efficiently and safely ina grid-connected system, a suitable control algorithm must be designed. Iris important to identify the potential scenarios where islanding ‘may occu and implement relevant measures to address these faults. By utilizing the pattem recognition capability ofa neural network, an Islanding detection approach can be developed, ‘A constant active current reactive power injection approach ean be employed to enable Fault Ride Through (FRT) operation in 2 gid connected. solar PV system, This approach helps regulate the output current and maintain ged stability during faults To fulfil these objectives, the major contributions of the research are: + Designing the control algorithm of a transformless PV inverter to realize its operation ina grid connected system. dentifying the posible islanding scenarios and the relevant fault ride through measures. + Realising the design of an islanding detection epproach using the pattern recognition feature of neural network, + Demonsrate the design ofa constant active current reactive power injection approach for FRT operation in gri-connected solar PV system, urther sections of the paper adhere to the development of the contro tategy as follows: In section Il the design and control of sngle- phase grid.connected inverters are discussed with thele reactive power ‘apabilies. In section the slaning scenarios in agri connected PV sytem are identified and he requirements for reactive power control strategy were discussed, Further, the full clearance strategy through reactive power conirol Is discused in section 'V and the corresponding Implementation is simulated with a single-phase grid coanected system {in setion V, The reslis are discussed, and conclusion i given in section WL 2, Don oF Gaim Connecrap PV Syste ‘The modeling of 2 grid-connected PV system (GCPVS) is required to understand the transient resposse ofthe system. The interaction be: tween grid and PV generation unit is controlled to make sure that the system runs in an equilibrium, GCPVS comprised of many diferent components such as photovoltaic panel, DC-DC converter, inverter, fl ‘er, grid, and different stage coatrol unit. All the above-mentioned components need to work together in a synchronized manner to ach feve a sable system performance In this ssction, all the stages of a CGCPVS wil be discussed. 2.1, Modeling of PY Array and DC DC converter ‘The most fundamental component of a PV based system is a PV cel [22].PV eel is connected in series to form a PY module ofa desired higher voltage output. PV modules aze connected In series and parallel configuration fo achieve the adequate amount of voltae and current from the PV array. The characteristics of a solar cel depend upon the ambient temperature and solar irradiation making the device non-linear in nature (23). 1s necessary to understand the modeling ofa PV system (o get an overview of total input coming of panels. The output ofa solar cell can be represented as Fa hente a@ Q ft PandQ i P Priority » Fig. 5. (8) EONNeWZ Gabi Grid Code reactive current injection cequrement dria FR (0) The lw voliage lg shits om P 1 Q print a Vny dereses. +, ig 6, Standard rectve power methods QU}, ‘Where current generated by PV cell is denoted by j, PV cell diode current is represented by iy lr denotes diodes reverse saturation eu rent, ideality factor of the diode is represented by 6, Ry 2d Ry are the resistances of the solar cell connected in series or parallel respectively. "The leakage current ofthe across the parallel resistance i represented by {Thermal diode voltage is represented by Vi which ean be expressed by @ Where k = 1.3806. 10-*J/K, is the Boltzmann constant and the clectzon charge q ~ 1.602% 10°". from the above equations the ‘panel output can be analyzed, and supply is given to DC-DG converter for stabilizing the ouput and maintaining it ta constant level, The DC- [DC converter consist of a power electronics switches along with few passive components 2] and it maintains the DC voltage atthe inverter input terminals. The passive components ensure that the tpt ofthe converter is smooth and ripple free in nature. Further, the value ofthese passive components is estimated by Voc Vace ~ Vas} t0 Stace © Ica Coe = o and the duty cycle canbe caeutated by © \Where the input and output voltage ofthe converte is represented by Va and Vics sespectvely, fs the switching Frequency of the IGBT, Ines Is he output current fom the converte Ay isthe ripple voltage of| the output which is considered 296 ofthe output voltage and Ay i the {input ripple current which is considered tobe 10% ofthe input current ofthe converter (25) 2.2, Transformeres Inverter and Fiter Design In recent year, a major focus has shifted towards inereasing the ‘overall efficiency ofthe PV inverter. There has been a substantial work done in the field of single-stage PV system where there is only one conversion stage from PV array to load. But the limitation on an output voltage range of PV string especially during low power applications tends to affect the efficiency ofthe system. Hence, a two-stage PV system where 8 DC-DC boost converter maximizes the PV output and maintains a constant voltage atthe inverter input terminal (26| is designed. To achieve the maximum power point tracking (MPPTan incremental conductance {InC) MPPT algorithm (24) is used withthe boost con verer. Further, the major concern of high-power application isthe size of solar inverter. With an increase in power rating, the solar inverter gets bulkier, and hence the design of transformerless inverter is adapted in this research. One of the significant issues regarding the operation of transformerles inverter in a grid connected system stands to be the leakage current circulation, which can be minimized by designing a ‘modulation scheme as per the requirement. HS trensformerless inverter topology is one of the most commonly used PV inverter topologies in recent years [27], In tis topology, an adtional switch is added tothe DC path providing isolation between grid and DC half of the system ring the feewheeling stage and in tue, reducing the leakage current Injection as wel (2) "igure 1 shows the baste layout ofthe HS transformertess inverter ‘The switches $1 and $4 along with $5 operate using the postive half cycle ofthe inverter. When $5 disconnects the inverters start o operate ina freewheeling mode withthe help of S1 and $3. During the negative yee, $5 operates along with $2 and 83 (29). The output obcained from the inverter is filtered with an LCL filter to achieve sinusoidal ourput voltage with es harmonics before achieving grid integration (20)1. The values for LCE filter design fora single-phase inverter operation can be cextimated as Ya “omar =a o{doconcrtion and ‘ating the mer itso fea Ie 3 fs-s0%e Vena Ve eS y ature extraction ¥ ‘andom division of exacted feature into training, vliaton| and testing data q INN elasiter FuultDgecion Algorthn Fig. 7. QU) method impeme ‘Tablet Over Sytem escrito for 24W solar inverter Section of e Se racer Vane Phot Taprinir——Pawer Poa) 7 wate asx. Sorchcatcamentofthe 1468 rule fe) NedleOpe out valage 22a . ti! ‘Mbemum ower Pose Valage 18 Va 2 oot Covent Dal eye a lnvener Ravers Topology ks ‘ome Bar Vetage ‘eov ‘olenneeVlage init er Cpetnce our ie ste Phe) (ie eneney Sate “Tie tlie volge vets ‘helio Newtal luge 220 vais ie npn one, ‘Where 1 isthe inductor towards the inverter and Lis the inéuetor to ‘wards the grid. Py isthe total power of the system. w, is the angular frequency of the system whereas wa isthe angular switching frequency. ‘is the attenuation constant ofthe system. iat gs 603 ealeulate Qs fom the etion z ‘sion the value ©. heck the vale of Vs f= and timer ito A cat Vt Sass ration withthe hep of Dow chart. Best Validation Performance i 0.039089 at epoch 569 w i i E 300 15 Epochs 00 S00 Fig 8. Tallng, testing and valldation performance of tened dts, 23. Overall Conol of Grid Connected PV system ‘Tae control for GCPVS [31 ean be divided into two categories: (1) DC side control and (2) Grid side control. The DC side control ims 19 ‘maximize the power output obtained by the PV panel, and grid side control sims to meet the power demand by the grid as per the regula: ‘dons. DGsde controls achieved using the MPPT algorithm a discussed previously. Further, the ineracton with the ged, injection of currentGrati 003849, at epoch $78, Validation Checks =6, at epoch $75, aaa ga 200 ne 0 ees dee ee oe] 575 Evochs Fig. 9. Training Sates of Neural Neowork All Confusion Matrix Output Cass ae oN o 123 4 5 6 Target Class ig. 10, Necral network al confsion mars ‘rom PV tothe grid needs to be controlled by adhering toe st of stan dards. This contol can be implemented both in rotating as well as the stationary frame of reference for controlling the exchange of reactive ‘power along with the grid. The parks transform considered for dg toa transformation, and inverse Clark transform used for tod trans formation (32). For making the controlling less complex stationary frame of reference is preferable over rotatory frame of reference. AS ‘shown in the figure 1, The MPPT provide active power reference in dq frame to the PI controller of the poster control loop. The PI controller ‘an be used to regulate the cureat control of the system, but the ‘decoupling of curren is required in the form of d-exs and q-axis current for synchronizing the rotating frame of reference. The current reference 1 Is ealeulated with the help of power reference, but the Pl controler ‘may give out error while controlling the grié. Hence the current ‘controller mast be designed in an af frame of reference (2), "The injection of grid current needed to be synchronized long with ‘grid voltage as per the requirement of the standards [4]. Grid syn ‘chronization is also necessary ast provides stability tothe entire control AIL ROC. True Positive Rate 02 ig. 1, Neural network tcelver operating characteris, <10% Error Histogram with 20 Bins Instances system and contributes to the dynamic performance of the system. In a Single-phase system, it can be a challange to synchronize the grid as on ard voltage is the variable which is utlined for syneheoniztion. Many diferent methods [32) such as Phase lock loop PLL, Zero crossing ‘method, iter to grid voltage method have provided a resolution tothe Issue, Considering an SPGCS, PLL approach with 1/4 delay pusses the fri voltage vy 28 the “a” eomponent of the “ap system, and the "p” ‘component is obtained by introducing a phase shift of s/2 rad with respect tothe fundamental fequency of. Thus, the Park Transform for detceting the phase error is expressed a, El-(s ale]-Liemt]-[2e] 09‘Table? Decision time based on signal processing metho Ret Sent ‘Sigal Deecion — Rateof Procesing Parameter Time Recognon os) Dereon Tee om oo) Dheete™ glee naw Wavelee ———peodbiie Proposed Discrete Orme 9.9% Wavelet PERMISSIABLE Time (ees) @ | PERMISSIABLE ~ FREQUENCY ‘Time (sees) © Fig. 15. (a) Tripping range a8 per IBC 62116, (b)Tip range as per national ‘gd code Where, — Vasin(@) — Vagsin(ot + 4), in whlch Vso, Band § are the ampliude, fequency, phase, and phase angle ofthe grid voltage vpA0 = 00 is the phase error detected using Parks transformation, and @ is the locked phase. PLL system with T/4 Delay is shown ia Figure 2, where T stands for the period and a is nominal frequency of the input voltage» 23. Istana scananis Axo DeTEcTON mea conwcaD PV sysTEt 3.1, landing Scenarios ‘sanding is performed based on the sbnomality detected a the point of common coupling (PC). PCC the junction where the PV fystem it integrated withthe geld, and the faults cause on elter end disrupt the flow of diferent parameters which are put under survel lance. Iany ofthe parameters go beyond a cetin limit then the grids Slated withthe PY system. ow Vote Ride Trough (LVR) the Voltage athe PCC (Vu) falls Insow a certain Tnit as prescribed by the eid code (6% or the rated Via) then the ste is said 0 experience LVR Over Votge Rede Through (OVRT) I he Voltage a the PCC (Vp) exceeds eta lint a preserbed by the guid coe (64 oF the raed Vins then the system i sid co experience OVRT. “Frequncy Ride Trough the frequency of the system (px) 08 beyond a certain range as prescribed bythe grid code (9% oF the rated regency) then the sytem is said 0 be is fault ide through the condition, 3.2 Islanding classification Feature Extraction and Signal Processing: There has been a wide Implementation of wavelet theory when i comes to signal processing and feature extraction in power system application [35).Wavelt is highly usofl for distinguishing the falty operation ofthe system to that of the normal operation. It can also be described as a function, which characcerizesa specific signal by decomposition of signal takin place at diferent bandwidth of frequency. The signal is then passed through a low and high pass filter wich result in approximation coefficient and Getzled coefficient respectively. approximation coefficient is further <éecomposition by repeatedly passing the signal through high and low pass filters, Signal processing is performed on the data se of voltage and current signal. These dataset are made for time end frequency domain. Hence, ‘the proposal will also consider the energy of wavelet to overcome the Jssue, Afr the signal sa reconstructed feature of signal suchas entropy, peak, power, total harmonic distortion (THD), signal to noise ratio (SNR), skewness and kurtosis are considered as well 4. Tmszoner Fauer mie ranovstt 4.1, Systm Foul Recovery In ease of renewable energy integration with grid issues arses around few parameters, which are discussed as: Voltage operating range, Frequency operating range, Active power control, Frequency costral, Voltage control, Reactive power contol, Law voltage ride ‘through, High voltage ride through (HVT), Power quality and external contra [36]. These issues can be broadly lasiied into two eategores: () Power quality, and (i) Fault ide through, which includes voltage and frequency, Power quay and conro: PV power must have good power quality without transient i., active and reactive power. Low harmonics ‘without felt ride through (371 Prequency coniol: PV power plants should be operated in the assigned frequency range. In India typical frequency is SOMz and fre- ‘quency shouldbe maintained in the frequency range of 48,5 Hzand 51.5 He and at least 0.2 seconds between 48 Hz and 48.5 Hz, Operation outside this frequency range results in system failure [36]. aul ride rough (ERT) capably Different countries have diferent ard codes for these FRT. FRT characteristic euve is derived from EON [Net GmbH Grid Code (38 is shown in Figure & [AC the fault time, the PV system inserts Q in correspondence with voltage change, AVic:, of Vace shown in Figure 52). Here, AVroc1 Vpec rrr) ‘Time (see) Active and Reactive Power 2 2s ‘Time (see) Vde ‘Trip State 0s 1 1s ‘Trip Signal 2 Time (see) Fig. 14. Measured characteristics during Voltage Drop > 6. Vay ~ Vu Where Vi iscaleulated using the dg-components. The steady sate band states thatthe permissible vollage range of VPCCis exist 6% range of the rated voltage, which is given asthe dead-band in igure 5 (a). The above aiseussed bane, dead band, wis in this, che PV system is alloyed to insert any Q, which s further does not outstrip the ated MVA ‘of the PV plant, At the time of fault, if 0.Spu< Vine < Op, the Su pervisory contro issues @ negative fg and insert Q. As described is Figure 5 (b), within chi Limit 0.5pu'< Vy < 0-9pu, P and Q are at prime concern since the PV system is inserting lg ad y= Whe Vu ‘drop again, prime importance is given toQ because of low voltage logic Isdropped as lig. Prime importance is given 10 when Vig ies haa, 05 pu, the low voltage logic decreases Jig 10 zer0 and the FRT ‘Controller increases ly pu Smalley, If Vac exceeds 1.1 ps te st pervisory control providesa postive Ing 0 absor® Q. with the cond Hons Vins > 11 pu, all present limit is assigned to laa since Pis a prime importance, however, withthe condition of keeping power con stant and Vin inereses, Jag naturally dereases permits present cx pacity to be asigned 10 Fy With the condition, Vin Surpass12 pu, the plant disengage from the PCC. For slope k, equation is given in igure 5(a), explains the change in voltage Vice, with every percent, aftr the detection ofthe fault within 20m the contol system should inert a minimum 296 ofthe VSC rated current f0F ly 4.2, Reactive power tnecion ‘One of the main sources for voltage instability in GCPVS during {alts is de to the lack of active power [39]. To overcome the voltage Instability, issue the reactive power flow control method is one ofthe ‘economic choices. Incase of inverter capacitive and induetive power is limited because its operate on rated range of active power (40). ($1) four different type of methods are described: fixed power factor, con stant reactive power, power factor control depesdent on the active poiver injection cofe(P), and local reactive power ontroldependent on voltage Q(U). In last method use of local voltage information is given. ‘The following equation (11) reactive power isinjected to contol the low voltage (22) aaVaet < Vn Va) + Onan S Vous Vi 0 Ve SMe My an oti Wo Ya¥n < Yu Ya ‘With the help of voltage variation value at PCC as given in equation (12), reactive power reference is calculated. Tse drooping curve in igure 6 for QU) method: Often, given by ged operator. Therefore it is very mandatory to consider the LV grid network droop characteristic Figure 6 explains that during over voltage, the maximum value of voltage magnitude should not exceod Vi. and at that time the reactive ower absorption is — Qn Similarly, atthe time of under voltage the ‘minimum value of voltage magnitude should not drop Selow Vs and at that point reactive power generation if + Qyu- The star value for absorbing and generating the reactive power i chosen tobe Vp and Va ‘Thereafter, the droop characteristis can be formed as Figure 6. Signed values forthe volages Vi, Va Vi Vi) depend on the I grid stan dards. Maximum reactive power is equation is gives a follows: a2) Omar = san(acosasp)) x Pypec 20 28 3 38 4 ime (sec) Active and Reactive Power . «00 = 4000 = 52000) asi reve) | 0b t = oe hLr,S—_CLr CL Time (se) _ Vae soo — Zo oes 41s Time (ee) ‘Trip Signal Trip State o os 1 1s (CT 20°28 3 35 4 Time (sec) lg, 18, Measured chacacterstls during incease ia voltage Here Py is defined as the nominal power production capacity of PV. ‘At power factor 0.85 the PV inverter gives maximum reactive power S. Rasuis ano Anacras S.. Simulation Analysis ‘After the ful detected and the system has attempted to clear the taut by the method of injecting reactive power, er tis, fhe fault condition fil presen, then there ia equiement of dsconecton of ‘stem fom the ris Trp signal i generated based on National grid code (India) (3) and IEC 62116 (4. The voltage and frequency are monitored at PCC, and if the vate of ether ofthe condition exceeds or fails below the threshold vale a trip signal is generated, Depending on the seniority ofthe fal the time between default detection and wip signal varies as er the standards tn betwee the detection an rp ine system aes to recover the alt by eave power ineeion ito the syste incase of transient vltge if devalue i 50% greater or below the ated voltage value i sigaal is generated in 0.2 see ofthe fult detection. Inthe case of normal operating coniton such a8 voltage is rater or blow 6% the nominal valu, wip signals generated afer 2 ec of fault detection giving sytem enough time to atempt recovery. Frequency, onthe other hand, sa crucial characteristic, and if system freguancy varles more than 39% ofthe rated value « ip sigal is ‘generated 0.2 secs after faut detection. In sr, ith the hep of lowe char explain about faut identification, Q(U) method for PV inverter 2nd ‘ep signal generator. Based on voltage magnitude ative power effect generation from the PV Plans studied. Based on measurement of ‘vole value Vy the reactive power Qi signed individually tora cach PV system. 5.2, Simulation Results As discussed inthe previous section taking all the design parameters Jn consideration, a GCPVS of 2kW is designed using MATLAB 20172. Design specification given in tale 1 For fru detection and classification, NN is implemented. A 84013 ‘matrix is formed which has input data that is obtained from wavelet transform is tabulated. The target class forthe input data by arranging binary data (000001 to 1000008) into a matrix of 14013. 70% of the ‘oral samples (2808 samples) are randomly allotted as trining datases, and 15% of coal samples (602 samples) as validation dataset and remaining 15% of the samples (602 samples) are alloted as testing dataset, For training the neqwork is done by using 575 iterations, Across entropy of $68 epochs was performed for crose-validtion as depicted in {he figure 8, The plot also depits mean square eror forall dataset at Togarithmic scale. The validation dataset is used for validating the trained data. In ‘igure 8, validation of tained data is elaborated. It ean be concluded fom the ‘gure 9 that after validation checks at 575 epoch the value of gradient is 0.003548. The overall confusion matrix of the system is depicted inthe figure 10. There were 4013 samples out of which 3943 samples were trained, ‘They were validated and classified as corect. 70 samples aze classified as incorrect. The accuracy is recorded a5 98.3% for fault classification. Im the Figure 11, receiving operation characteristics (ROC) of the classification proces is depicted, The plot is performed between true positive rate and false positive ate. The area which is covered in the ROC curve represents classifier efficiency for different clases, ‘The figure 12depicts error histogram for all training testing and validation steps. The value of error ranges from -0.5145 to 0.6285. ‘Whon compared sith the literature, is was observed the feult clas sifcaton is carried outwith a less detection time and more accurately. Apec 02 04 08 OKO ‘Time (sees) ia ee Act re and Reactive Power Saar Reactive saastacieacensaiea maaan : Time (secs) > Vde | _— z id Time oe) ‘Trip Signal E£os Fa” : Siumioa pale aa SO%. brief summary of comparative analysis presented in able 2 ‘System ties to recover itself before occurring the tip signal atthe time of faut, National ged eode (9) and HEC 62112 [1 are methods or the uninterrupted operation of the system atthe time of fault and also provide information the range of operation. At he time of aul ifsysem doesnot recover atthe specified time, system generates a trip signal. Ix Figure 13, grid ode is presented. [MATLAB simulation of the study system of Figure 13. In Figure 14, at t= 1816 fault occurs and Vpcc value decline from 230V to 200V. Due to negative sequence components, a high fequency ‘scllation occurs at Prcc and Qpcc, and a condition arise for the PV system that exchange of power must be done with unbalanced grid system. Pree range is from 4020W to 2800W and Qroc made increment in its value of 1p, Att — 0.25 from fault injection, Va comes back to their normal steady state In Figuce 15, value of Vagg made an increment from steady state value of 230V to 258V and at time (0)= 1see a LG fault €o happen. Because of a sequence component which is negative in nature a igh frequency oscillation condition oceurs forthe value of Pac and Qoas Here, power exchange of PV system happened with an unbalanced grid ‘system. Frce (Average valu) varies fom inthe 4105W to 3700W, and for the same time Qpcc mage an increment of 1 pu. AS per the FRY re. ‘qulrements, solar power plant is operated, and i also supports the in Jecton of @ component, Oscilations of higher vale of feauency are resent in Va and these oscillation are present for the very small ime i ‘e, = O.s from fault injection and Vg. comes back to its normal steady sate values of operation. As per above explained grid codes condition {or the trip signal isi, for voltage rise above 6% of nominal value ‘generate a trip signal after 2 sec, fn the Figure 15, a trip signal is wit essed at 3 see as fault arises at 1 sec and i is not mitigated with ia defined time frame. The grid side PV generation is disrupted by the wip ‘signal and this result in the drop in ative and reactive power, further {his condition made the Vac as an open circuit In Figure 16, value of Vice made an Inerement from steady state value of 230V to SOV and at time (= 1seea 145 fault do happen at PCC, Average value of Pre varies from in the 4100W to 1820W, and for the same time Qpco made an increment of 1 pu. AS per the FRT re: ‘quirements, solar power plant is operated, and it also supports the Q Injection. As per the above explained ged codes a condition fr the trip signal is Le, voltage rise above 50% of nominal value generate a trip signal after 02 sec nthe figure 16, rip signal is witnessed at 1.2secas fault arises at 1 see and it snot mitigated with in defined time frame. ‘The grid side PV generations disrupted by the trip signal an this result in the drop in active and reactive power, further this condition made the Va. a5 @ open circuit. In Figure 17, value of Vice made an increment from steady state value of230V to 650V, at time (1) Isec a LG fault do happened at PCC. ‘This kind of sudden rise in voltage represents a transient fault. Average value of Pc decreases and forthe same time Qacc ade an increment of 1 pu. As per she FRT requirements, solar power plant is operated, and it aso support the Q injection, As per the above explained gid codes a condition for the trp signals Le, rise above 50% of nominal value genecne a trip signal after 0.2 see. In the iguce 17, a trip signal is witnessed a 1.2 seas fault arises at 1 see and itis not rltigated with in efined time frame, The grid side PV generation Is discupted by the trip signal and this result in the drop inactive and reactive power, further this condition made the Ve as a open eieuit. In Figure 18, a frequesey mismatch occurs atthe PCC att ~ 1s and occ increases from a steady state value of S0tz to 54H. Ths kind of gradual rise in frequency represen frequency mismatch, The average value of Proc stats to osilate, for the same time Qncc made an incre sent of 1 pu. As per the FRT requirements, solar power plant i oper ated, and it also support the Q injection. As per the above explained grid codes a condition for the trp signa is ie, frequency rise above 3 % of© 02 04 0% Of 1 12 14 16 18 2 Time (see) x10! Active and Reactive Power 0 02 04 06 08 1214 16 182 Eso & oo 2 400 © 02 04 06 08 1 4a ta ‘2 Time (see) ‘Trip Signal eae ea" ° 0 02 04 06 O% 1 12 14 16 18 2 Time (see) nominal value generate a trip signal after 0.2 sec. In the Figuce 18, a tip ‘signal is witnessed at 1.2 sec a fault arses at 1 see and tis not mitigated ‘with in defined time frame, The grid side PV generation is disrupted by the tip signal and this result inthe deop in acive and reactive power, further this condition made the Mg: as an open circuit In Figure 19, frequency mismatch comes into pieture at PCC att ~ sand fr declines froma steady state value of 502 co 461. This kind of gradual fallin frequency represents frequency mismatch. The average value of Pc stars to oscillate, forthe same time Qrcc made an inere ‘ment of 1 pu. As per the FRT requirements, solar power plant is oper ated, and it also support the Q injection. As per the above explained grid ‘odes a condition for the trip signal i. there is a decrement in fe ‘quency more than 2% of nominal value, Tis situation leads to gener ation of trip signal after 0.2 sec. Inthe figure 19, arp signal is witnessed at 1.2 see as fault arises at 1 ste and it snot mitigated with in defined time frame. The trip signal disconnects the PV generation from the grid, land this results in the drop in active and reactive power, futher this ‘condition made the Vj as. an open circuit. Inall the above cases, the full ‘was injeted into the system externally, hence even after reactive power Injection the system didn’t recover, and the tip signal was generated, But in ease of intemal fault oF actuation, when reactive power Is Injected into the system tends to recover In the figure 20, a fault took place at 1 sec Like the above case, when a large Toad fs connected, of there Is a sudden influx of power inthe system the frequency of the system tends to uctuate, This fluctuation is controlled by reactive power injection, byrestabilisng the frequency in 0.2sec and avoiding the tripas depicted in the figure 21. 5.3. Experimental Analysis ‘To validate the results obtained from theoretical models and 5-17, Mesnured characters dringSO8wotage He simulacions, experimental testing is conducted. This involves setting up specific configuration as shown ine 22 The purpose of the setup {so simulate the operation ofa photovolale (PV) array, To achieve this, an Agilent Keysight solar simulator is ublzed. The simulator emulates {he behavior ofa PV array and is connected toa Semikron inverter, The fnverter is controlled using the Typhoon tlardware in the Loop unit (Typhoon IL). To utilize Typhoon IL fr implementing and control ling a single-phase inverter, the procedure consists of hardware setup, configuration of Typhoon HIL software, simulation and testing, as well 1s deployment: During the hardware setup phase, the physical components of the Jnverter, suchas the control board or microcontroller, are connected 19 the Typhoon Hil. platform. This connection is established through ppropriace communication interfaces such as USB, Ethernet, or GPIO connections. Subsequent, the Typhoon HIL software is launched to Initiate the configuration process. Within the Typhoon HI software, a ew project is crested, and system parameters are defined. These pa rameters encompass the electrical specifications ofthe inverter, such as voltage ratings, power estings, and control parameters. To esablsh the simulation environment, parameters such a5 the simulation time step, ‘uration, and any additional system components or loads are specified, [Next the conzol algorithm forthe inverter is developed. This entails selecting a sultable Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) technique, Aesigning feedback control loops, and implementing protective mecha ‘isms. The contrat algorithm is writen or imported using Typhoon HIL's supported programming language or modeling environment, such as C/ Cit, MATLAB/Simulink, or Python, Once the control algorithm is implemented, the simulation and testing phase commences. The sim lation is executed to assess the inverters behavior under diverse oper: ating conditions, load profiles, and grid disturbances. The simulation results, including voltage and current waveforms, power quality pa rameters, and control system performance metrics are analyzed. BasedE fpee Time (see) e Vac rs a 3s : i 3s Time (see) Trip Signal 0s 1 1s 2 2s Time (see) Fig 18. Messed chraceritiedring incense in frequency by 36 ‘0n these outcomes, the conteo algorithm and parameters can be tefined lteravely to optimize the inverter’s performance and_ response. Following satisfactory shnulation results, the control algoritim can be ‘compiled or exported tothe inverters microcontroller or programmable logic controler (PLC) for real-world implementation. The inverter ‘control system is then deployed in the physical setup, and its peor ‘mance is evaluated using actual hardware and loads. urther, se ouput ofthe inverter is connected tothe griéincerface, ‘which serves as the connection point between the PV system and the utility grid. Additionally an AC load s connected in parallel to represent the eletrcal load thatthe system may encounter during normal oper fon, To implement the trained classifier for detecting the fault condi- tions, ® field programmable gate array (FPGA) is used, The Implementation of fault classification ulizing a neural network (NN) in 2 Altera Gyelone IV FPGA entails several technical steps: Italy, the NN design commences by determining the appropriate input signals for feult classification, suchas voltage, curent, frequency, fr other relevant measurements fom the power system. The neural network's architecture is then defined, specifying the number and types ‘ofayers (eg, input layer, hidden layers, and output layer, the number ‘of neurons in each layer, and the activation functions employed. The subsequent step Involves traning the neural network using labelled training data. Ths data comprises the input signals along with thelr corresponding fault classes, Preprocessing. techniques, such as normalization, feature scaling, or other data transformations, may be employed to enhance the training process The neural neworks trained using machine leaning algorithms as discussed inthe previous sections Hyperparameter optimization, involving the tuning of parameters like learning rate, batch size, or regularization, is performed to enhance the neswork’s performance. Once the neural network is trained, the FPGA implementation phase is initiated, An appropriate FPGA development board or platform is ehosen to host the fault classification system. The development envieonment, encompassing FPGA synthesis and pro. gramming tools, is established, The trained neural network model Is converted into hardware description language (HDL) code, such as VHDL or Verilog, suitable for FPGA implementation, The HDL. code Is ‘hen compiled, generating the corresponding bisteam or configuration file required for programming the FPGA. Hardware integration and (esting follow the FPGA implementation. The FPGA board is connected {o the power system, ensuring proper interfacing with sensors or mea surement devies to acquire real-time input signals, The fault classi cation system is integrated into the power sytem, allowing it to receive these signals. The system is tested by introducing various fault condi tions, and the accuracy of the fault classification results is verified. Refinement and optimization are crucial steps inthe process, The per formance ofthe fault classification system is analysed, considering fac: torssuch as classification accuracy speed, and resource utilization inthe FPGA. Based on this analysis, the neural network model or FPGA Implementation may undergo fine-tuning to enhance accuracy and system response trative eles of raining, FPGA implementation and ‘esting can be conducted to achieve the desired levels of performance and accuracy. The experimental testis specifically conducted on a4 KW sriécconnected PV system. This system represents a practical imple !meniation of the PV technology and allows for real-world performance evaluation. The results obtained from the experimental test are then carefully analyzed and compared with the expected outcomes based on ‘heoretcal models and simlalons. igure 23 provides a visual representation of the normal operating condition ofthe grid-connected PV system. In this mode, the voltage at {he point of common coupling (PCC), which isthe interface between the PV system and the grid, is maintained at 230 V. Correspondingly, current of 17 A flows through the system. The figure also depicts con stant active and reactive power values, which demonstrate the consis: ‘ent and stable power output ofthe PV system under normal conditions.fpce ‘Active and Reactive Power 1s Time (sec) Time es) > Vae Bewo( Time (sec) Trip Signal 1 0 ° 05 1 1S 2 2s ‘Time (sec) We. wana cn tg een cy Be i, i, : : are reese acme is ot Fig, 20. Measured. characteristics under fault cde through from 6M voltage do, In contrat, Figure 24 showeeses the behavior of the grid-connected PV system during fault learance. Initially, the voltage atthe PCC re mains at 230 V, and the current maintains a value of 17 A. However, ‘hen a fault is intentionally introduced into the sytem, such as a short CGreuit or @ grid disturbance, the current nereases, and the voltage ‘drops. This behavior is a result of the system responding the fault ‘onion. At the same time, the inverter sits injecting reactive power Fig. 21. Measured characteristics under fault ide though fom 9% fe. quency op. into the system to mitigate the effets of the fault and stabilize the voltage. It is worth noting thatthe fault is cleared within a short period (of 0.2 seconds, and no trip signal is generated, indicating the system's ability to autonomously recover from such fats. After the fault is cleared, the system undergoes a thorough inspection during scheduled maintenance to ensure is integrity and continued reliable operation. To sumerically quantify the advantages of the developed approach,Figure 22. Experinenal Setup for Photovliaic Array Simulation and Single Phase laverter Convo using Typhoon HL and FPGA, AM Figure 23. Normal Op Sn Condon of GridsComnecte PY System Figure 24, Behavior of Grid-Conneced PY System during Paul Clearance. “different techniques have been investigated and wlized to address fault ‘detection, reactive power injection, fault clearance time, and harmonics after fault clearance in low voltage systems. The comparison with the proposed approach is provided in Table 3 Further, to indicate the superiority ofthe developed approach over the conventional FRT approaches developed in the literature a ‘comparative analysis is carried out. Generally, efficiencies related to fault ridethrough in low voltage grid-connected PV systems have been reported in the literature. These efficiencies include FRT capability, ‘hich indicates the ability of «PV system to stay connected to the grid land continue power generation during and after a fault event. FRT capability is usually expressed as a percentage of the system's rated power, wit reported values ranging fom 50% to 100%, Power quality |s another important efficiency metric, and literature reports various Tables Comparivon of Fault Deteton Technique for Low Voltage Sytens Technigue Flt Taal ‘arent Harmonics Deveson Clearance er fait learner Dertion ms)_Time tom) CUD). Timctemaln 6-10 0108010 ‘ene 5) fethoe() ‘elie Sed ‘eit 15) Woveetbeed 10-29 00-1000 sas, ‘tho 6) 78) Proposed 2 200 ss ‘proach parameters such as voltage dips, harmonies, and licker, which can affect power output quality. The efficiency of power quality is typically expressed in tems ofthe level of distortion or deviation from the ideal waveform, ranging ftom a few percentage points to several teas of percentage points. Reactive power suppor, whic is erudil for power system stability, can also be provided by PV systems during and after a faultevent. The eiiency of reactive power suppor is usually expressed fn terme of the power factor, with values ranging from 0.9 t0 1.0 re ported in the literature. Eficient fale detection and protection systems Aare critical for the safe and reliable operation of PV systems, and various ‘echniques have been proposed inthe literature. The efficiency of these ‘echniques is typically expresed in terms of the time taken to detect and Isolate a fault Overall, the literature shows a broad range of efficiencies for fault ride-hrough in low voltage grid-connected PV systems, which depend on several factors such as system design, fault detection and protection tedhniques, and the specific requlrements of the grid, A ‘comparison based on few of the systems is given in Tol In conclusion, the experimental setup and the corespoading test resulls provide valuable insights into the performance and behavior ofa grid-coanected PV system. By comparing the experimental data with {heoretical models and simulations, the efleciveness and reliability of the system can be validated. This information is erucal for guiding maintenance activities and optimizing the fanctioning ofthe PV system to ensure it long-term operation within desired parameters. 6, Result Summary Tae research paper presents the results of an experiment on fault detection and classification in a solar power system using a neural retwork. The experiment involved the use of a Q(U) method for PV {inverter and trip signal generator, ané a NN for fault detection and classification. The system's fault detection was based onthe monitoring of voltage and frequency at PCC. I the value of either of the coneitions ‘exceeds of falls below the threshold value, trp signal is generated The Daper presents the results of the design of a GCPVS of 2kW using MATLAB 2017s. The design specification includes details ofthe phot voltae, DE-DE boost converter, and inverter parameters. The fault Aetection and classification were performed using a neural network The INN was trained using a dataset obtained from wavelet transform. The (raining dataset was randomly allotted 25 70% ofthe total samples, with 15% allotted a validation dataset and the remaining 159% as testing dataset The results of the experiment showed that the fault classifica tion was carried out with les devetion time and more accurately than other methods reported in the literature. The confusion matrix of the system showed that 98.3% of the samples were correcty classified. The paper also presents a comparative analysis of decision time based onTet Approach ‘consoled Be —_Overarent Reacive power ‘ional SESE) Molied vee concer Ne Ye ond Ne S57) Dynal current iting Yes Yes tow No 550) Tater er Ye ve Cond Ye signal processing methods. n addition to the above, the esearch paper demonstrates the use of a Q(U) method for PV inverter and trip signal generator and 2 neural network for fault detection and classification in Solar power system, The results showed thatthe faule classification was Carried out with less detection time and more accurately than other methods reported in the literature. The study contributes tothe devel ‘opment of faut detection and classification methods for solar poster systems. Further, the comparison of the developed intelligent fault ride ‘through control with the developments made inthe literature indicated the following benefits for PV systems that operate with low voltage aids. These benefits include + Enhancing grid stability The use of ineligentfeult ride through control enables PV systems to withstand grid faults such as voltage sags and dips without disconnecting from the gid, thereby main taining grid stability, and preventing blackouts Increasing energy yield: By enabling PV systems to remain connected to the grid during faults, intelligent fault ride through control helps to inerease the energy yield of the system. This is especially impor tant for PV systems that operate with low voltage grids where grid ssturbances ace frequent. Reducing maintenance costs: Intelligent fault ride through control can help to reduce maintenance costs associated with system downtime and repairs by decreasing the frequency of PV system ‘isconnections "Enhancing system reliability: The risk of damage to system compo- rents during grid faults can be reduced uring intelligent fault ride through contol, which enhances the reliability of PV systems. + Improving power quality: Intelligent fault ride through contol can Improve power quality by minimizing voltage Nuetuations and other isturbances that may arise during grid felts, In summary, the application of intelligent fault rie through control ln BV systems that operate with low voltage grids can enhance syste performance, elabilty, and energy’ yield, while reducing maintenance costs and improving grid stably 7. Coveuusos ‘This paper presented a new approsch to fault classification ina grid connected phozovoltsic system based on wavelet transform and neural network techniques. The proposed methodology was tested on @ 2-kW photovoltaic system designed using MATLAB, and the results showed that it was able to cassify faults with a high degree of accuracy and speed. The main technical contributions ofthis paper are the develop. ment of an efficient fault clasiiation technique based on wavelet transform and the implementation ofa neural network fr foul clas Feation. Additonaly, the proposed methodology is designed to work with various types of faulis, making sta versatile approach co fault, 1 in photovoltaie systems, Furthermore, the results demon. he proposed methodology outperforms other signal pro cessing methods in terms of fault elasication aceuraey and detection time. The accuracy of the proposed methodology was recorded 2s 98.3%, and the detection time was less than other signal processing ‘methods. The proposed methodology hes several potential applications inthe field of renewable energy, particularly in photovoltaic systems. The technique can be used to improve the reliability and safety of grid connected photovoltaic systems and reduce the maintenance costs associated with faulty system. In conclusion, the proposed feult clas sification methodology based on wavelet transform and neural network techniques offers a promising approach to fault detection and classifi cation in grid‘connected photovoltaic systems. The results suggest that {he proposed methodology has the potential omprove te performance and reliability of photovoltaic systems, which can lead to @ more sus: tainable energy future Further, the future objective of developing an intelligent fault eide ‘ough control approach for PV systems involves two main aspects Firstly validating the approach through reabime simulations to assess As eeciveness in realistic operating conditions. Secondly, addeesing any potential imitations that may arse during real-world testing such as ‘hardware limitations or environmental factors that were not accounted for during simulation testing. Real-time simulations are crucial for validating contol systems since they provide a controlled and repeat able environment that closely cesembles real-world operating condi tions. The goal is to optimize the control approach's performance and reliability through testing under real-world conditions. By addressing limitations that may be foreseen during real-world testing, the effec tiveness of the approach can be maximized. The overall aim is 10 demonstrate the feasibility and effectivenes of the intelligent fault ride through control approach for PV systems in real-world applications. Through real-time simulations ané the resolution of any limitations during testing the control approach can be refined and optimized to provide maximum performance ane reliability, and the potential bene fits of the approach can be fully realized ata Availability Statement There Is no data assoclated wi tis research Declaration of Competing Interest ‘The authors declare that they have no known competing financial {interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence ‘the work reported in this paper. ata availability ata will be made available on request. Reason Ingen enya yg yy 203 So Renew Energy Fac #5 Jun 202) 30790, wipe onlay aivie a a