i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 6 0 9 9 e6 1 1 9

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

ScienceDirect

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/he

Drivers and barriers for the large-scale adoption of

hydrogen fuel cells by Nordic shipping companies

Mauricio Latapı́*, Brynhildur Davı́ðsdo

ttir, La

ra Jo

hannsdo

ttir
University of Iceland, Environment and Natural Resources Programme, Saemundargata, 2, 102, Reykjavik, Iceland

highlights graphical abstract

Nordic shipping companies are

front-runners in the adoption of
hydrogen fuel cells.

Pilot and demonstration projects
are testing hydrogen fuel cells for
shipping.

A variety of drivers and barriers
affect the decision of using
hydrogen fuel cells.

Policymakers should address these
factors to boost the use of
hydrogen fuel cells.

Industry specific and technology
specific barriers require policy
intervention.

article info abstract

Article history: The shipping industry needs to transition towards new fuels and technologies to reduce its
Received 4 October 2022 environmental impact. A promising option is using hydrogen fuel cells. However, the
Received in revised form technology is relatively new and not commercially available at a large scale. This study
6 November 2022 focuses on the Nordic shipping industry where the first commercial vessels are expected to
Accepted 10 November 2022 be launched. Interviews were conducted with high-level managers to identify the factors
Available online 8 December 2022 that influence the adoption of hydrogen fuel cells. Sixteen factors are identified as moti-
vating the decision and are categorized as internal, connecting, and external drivers. The
Keywords: most relevant are environmental commitments, customer expectations, and policies and
Hydrogen fuel cells regulations. Eleven factors are identified as limiting the decision and are categorized as
Hydrogen behavioral, economic, organizational, and technological barriers. The most significant are
Shipping high costs, lack of infrastructure, and operational challenges. The drivers and barriers are
Zero-emission categorized as company-specific, industry-specific, and technology-specific.
Drivers © 2022 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Barriers

Abbreviations: CAPEX, Capital expenses; ETS, Emissions Trading System; EU, European Union; FCHJU, Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint
Undertaking; GHG, Greenhouse gas; HFC, Hydrogen fuel cells; IMO, International Maritime Organization; OPEX, Operating expenses;
TCO, Total cost of ownership; COP26, United Nations Conference of the Parties 26.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: malatapi@hi.is (M. Latapı́).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.11.108
0360-3199/© 2022 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
6100 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 6 0 9 9 e6 1 1 9
Introduction
The international pressure to reduce emissions from mari-
time activities has increased significantly since 2015 [1,2] even
though the Paris Agreement does not cover the shipping in-
dustry [3,4]. However, the global efforts to reduce greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions have translated into ambitious policies
and commitments as well as stringent regulations for mari-
time transportation [5e7]. This is relevant considering that the
shipping industry emitted 1076 million tons of GHG in 2018
representing 2.89% of the total GHG emissions produced
globally [8]. Given this context, many Nordic shipping com-
panies have decided to become carbon neutral by 2050 (e.g.
DFDS and Maersk) which implies a transition towards alter-
native marine fuels and zero-emission technologies [5,9]. To
do so, the Nordic shipping industry has begun testing new
technologies in pilot and demonstration projects that include
the use of hydrogen fuel cells (HFC) [10e12].
Hydrogen fuel cells are a technology that can play an
important role for reducing the emissions of the Nordic
shipping industry [13,14]. However, the technology is still
being tested and is not commercially available at a global
scale. Given its novelty for shipping, limited studies have
analyzed the factors that influence the decision to adopt HFC.
While the drivers and barriers for the adoption of zero-
emission technologies have been identified by previous
research [15e17], a comprehensive study from an organiza-
tional perspective that analyses them specifically for HFC
seems to be missing. Furthermore, the literature that covers
HFC has mainly focused on costs and feasibility analysis
[14,18,19], development and applicability of the technology
[1,20,21], and the challenges for handling and storing
hydrogen. For instance Ref. [22], identify the challenges for
storing hydrogen in gaseous and liquid forms, the [23] identify
the challenges for handling, transporting, and storing
hydrogen, while [24] explain the overall requirements to store
hydrogen given its volumetric density. Other studies have
provided comparative analysis between alternative marine
fuels and technologies [2,25,26] as well as projections and
scenarios for green hydrogen production [2,27e29].
Focusing on the Nordic shipping industry is relevant
considering that the Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland,
Iceland, Norway, and Sweden) have some of the most ambi-
tious goals for reducing emissions [6,30]. Beyond that, the re-
gion has the highest number of pilot projects for zero-
emission technologies for maritime application [10] and is a
front-runner in demonstration projects regarding HFC [12].
Additionally, the Nordic countries have set the goal of
becoming the most sustainable region in the world by 2050
[31] and have signed the Declaration on Zero Emission Ship-
ping by 2050 [32] and the Clydebank Declaration for Green
Shipping Corridors [33] (except for Iceland) that resulted from
the United Nations Conference of the Parties 26 (COP26).
Conducting an empirical study grounded on organizational
theory and based on semi-structured interviews can provide a
better understanding of the factors that influence the decision
to adopt HFC. This kind of research helps fill in the gap in the
literature by focusing on aspects that are missing regarding
the adoption of HFC for Nordic shipping and complements
existing studies by providing an organizational perspective.
Furthermore, research focused on the region with the highest
number of pilot projects for this technology helps advance the
knowledge regarding its adoption and presents up to date
insights for its development and incorporation to the market,
which can also be of relevance also for other regions. While
previous studies have provided a comparative analysis of
alternative marine fuels and technologies [2,25,26], the focus
on HFC from an organizational perspective has been limited
so far. This context requires a holistic and updated under-
standing of the drivers and barriers faced by shipping com-
panies for the adoption of HFC. Given these aspects, the
objective of this research is to answer the following questions:

What drives Nordic shipping companies towards adopting
hydrogen fuel cells?

What barriers do Nordic shipping companies face for the
adoption of hydrogen fuel cells?

How can the drivers and barriers for the adoption of
hydrogen fuel cells be understood from an organizational
perspective?
The novelty of this article comes from providing empirical
evidence of the drivers and barriers for the adoption of HFC
and analyzing them through a framework based in organiza-
tional theory, a perspective that has not received a high level
of attention by the literature. By interviewing high-level
managers and experts, this article provides up to date evi-
dence of the factors that affect the decision to adopt HFC.
Understanding the perspective of practitioners is relevant
considering that HFC are still being tested in pilot and
demonstration projects and the first vessels to use them are
expected to begin operations in 2022. The novelty of this
article also comes from providing an organizational perspec-
tive to the adoption of HFC. This allows to understand that the
decision to adopt this technology is influenced at an organi-
zational level by internal, connecting, and external drivers
while it is limited by behavioral, economic, organizational,
and technological barriers.
The key contributions of this article are threefold: 1) It
contributes to the literature by providing a new conceptuali-
zation of the drivers and barriers by categorizing them as
specific to the industry, the company, and the technology. It
also provides a novel categorization of the drivers as internal,
connecting, and external and a categorization of the barriers
as behavioral, economic, organizational, and technological.
These conceptualizations can help understand the nature of
the drivers and barriers and can help policymakers design
holistic policies and help business managers improve their
strategies for the adoption of new technologies. 2) It can serve
as a starting reference for policy makers and practitioners
who wish to understand the organizational perspective of the
drivers and barriers for the adoption of HFC. This can help
design policies and strategies that focus on strengthening the
drivers and minimizing the influence of the barriers. 3) It
provides empirical evidence that indicates that the decision to
adopt HFC is influenced by positive and negative input which
can be understood through a systems perspective in the form
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 6 0 9 9 e6 1 1 9
of casual feedback loops. This could help policymakers and
corporate decision-makers get a better understanding of the
interdependence and interaction of drivers and barriers and
help design effective policies and strategies for the adoption of
HFC. The findings and contributions of this research have
wider implications beyond the Nordic shipping industry by
providing a broader understanding of the drivers and barriers
which can in turn help policy move forward. This can help
other regions and industries design policies to benefit from
new technologies such as HFC.
The article is structured as follows: the Introduction (Sec-
tion 1) is followed by Section 2 which provides the background
and contextualization of the topic. Section 3 provides the
theoretical framework used, while Section 4 explains the
research method. Section 5 presents the findings and Section
6 includes the discussion and analysis. Section 7 presents the
conclusions and policy implications of this research.
The transition towards zero-emission shipping
The shipping industry faces unprecedented pressure to
reduce its emissions and transition towards zero-emission
fuels and technologies. The pressure comes from policies
and regulations to reduce GHG emissions [1,13,14], environ-
mental commitments established by different organizations
in the value chain [26,29,34], and increasing customer and
stakeholder demands [5,9]. As a result, the shipping industry
is expected to transform its energy use and adopt new tech-
nologies such as HFC [5,7,29].
The pressure from international policies and regulations
has increased significantly in recent years [1,2]. The first
indication of more stringent regulations came in 2018 when
the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the
“Initial IMO Strategy on Reduction of GHG Emissions from
Ships” which defined the ambition of reducing the GHG
emissions of the shipping industry by at least 50% by 2050
compared to the 2008 levels [35].
Another indication of additional pressure came with the
presentation of the European Commission's Fit for 55 package
of proposals [36,37]. The initiative proposes legislative and
regulatory changes to help the European Union (EU) reach its
target of reducing GHG emissions by 55% by 2030 compared to
1990 levels [36,38]. To do so, the initiative proposes changes
for all industrial sectors including the shipping industry
which will be mainly affected by three aspects: 1) the EU
Emissions Trading System (ETS) will include shipping starting
in 2023. This means that all emissions from vessels operating
within EU waters will be included as well as 50% of the
emissions of the voyages of ships arriving/departing EU wa-
ters.; 2) the FuelEU Maritime Initiative will come into effect in
2025. This regulation limits the GHG intensity of energy used
on-board and mandates containerships and passenger vessels
to connect to onshore power when at port for longer than 2 h,
and; 3) the Energy Taxation Directive will have a new structure
for taxing fuels based on their energy content and environ-
mental performance. This includes removing tax exemptions
for fossil fuels starting in 2023 and introduces a ten-year tax
exemption for alternative fuels [based on information from:
[36,38,39]. While the Fit for 55 package of proposals is under
6101
review, it is expected to be adopted between the year 2022 and
2023 [40].
Other relevant examples of international pressure come
from an international call to action and two Declarations
made during COP26: 1) the Getting to Zero Coalition [41] was
launched in November 2021 in advance to COP26 with the goal
of making the shipping industry zero-emissions by 2050. The
Call emphasizes the necessity of having commercially viable
zero-emission ships by 2030, the need of developing further
zero-emission technologies, and the relevance of demon-
stration projects involving the complete value chain. By the
end of November 2021, the Call had been signed by more than
200 companies and supporting institutions including Nordic
organizations (e.g. Maersk, Copenhagen Malmo € Port, and
Wa € rtsila
€ ). 2) the Declaration on Zero Emission Shipping by
2050 [32] aims to demonstrate that zero-emission ships
(mainly deep-sea vessels) can be commercially viable by 2030
and to make the shipping industry zero-emissions by 2050.
The Declaration supports the “Call to Action for Shipping
Decarbonization” in requesting the IMO to define zero-
emission shipping as a target for 2050. By the end of
November 2021, the Declaration had been signed by 14 na-
tions, including all Nordic countries. 3) the Clydebank Decla-
ration for Green Shipping Corridors [33] aims to create at least
six green shipping corridors consisting of zero-emission
routes between two or more ports by 2025. By the end of
November 2021, the Declaration had been signed by 22 na-
tions, including all Nordic countries except for Iceland.
Shipping companies are also driven to adopt zero-emission
technologies by aspects such as becoming the first movers
and benefiting from a new technology [10,13,34], being part of
the innovation process through funding opportunities and
collaborations [1,42], having access to new market opportu-
nities [6,43,44], and responding to increasing customer and
stakeholder demands [5,9,45].
The Nordic shipping industry has responded to these
drivers proactively by setting a high level of ambition in the
transition toward zero-emission shipping and by becoming
the region with the highest number of demonstration projects
in the world [6,10]. Accordingly, many Nordic shipping com-
panies have ambitious commitments to reduce their emis-
sions and transition towards alternative fuels and adopt new
technologies [29,34]. An example from the container shipping
segment is Maersk, the largest container shipping company in
the world and part of the Danish group A.P. Moller-Maersk.
The company set the goals of having commercially viable
net-zero vessels in operation by 2023, of reducing 60% of its
CO2 emissions by 2030 compared to 2008 levels, and to have
net-zero CO2 emissions in its ocean operations by 2050 [46]. An
example from the passenger transportation segment is the
Danish company DFDS which has the goal of reducing its
emissions by 45% by 2030 compared to 2008 levels and to
become climate neutral by 2050 and has committed to develop
a zero-emission ferry that uses HFC for the Copenhagen-Oslo
route by 2027 [47]. An example from the bulk cargo segment is
the collaboration between HeidelbergCement Norway and the
Norwegian Felleskjøpet AGRI. Even though they are not ship-
ping companies, they have set a precedent in the shipping
industry by launching a tender in 2020 with the aim of
developing the first zero-emission cargo ship in the world and
6102 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 6 0 9 9 e6 1 1 9
having it in operation by 2023 for their west-east route in
Norway [48,49].
While the shipping industry is expected to transition to-
ward zero-emission vessels, doing so represents a series of
barriers. In the case of HFC, these include challenges in the
bunkering and storage of hydrogen [22,24,50], competition
with other fuels and technologies [25,51,52], high cost of the
technology and fuel [15,16,53], lack of supply of green
hydrogen and lack of infrastructure [1,54,55], lack of regula-
tions and standards [29,44,56], low technological readiness
level [16,23,57] and negative public perception towards
hydrogen [29,44]. Furthermore, pilot and demonstration pro-
jects for HFC are considered costly, technically challenging,
and usually have long research periods [58]. Nevertheless, HFC
are expected to become feasible for short sea shipping in the
short to mid-term [59].
Theoretical framework
This research follows the notions of organizational theory
which explains that organizational behavior is influenced by
internal and external factors that need to be strategically
managed to guarantee the success of the company in an
increasingly complex and competitive world [see: [60,61]. This
article considers the work of [61,62] that indicates that each
organization is influenced by a unique set of motivations and
challenges that can be of internal or external nature, which
could help explain the drivers and barriers for the adoption of
HFC from an organizational perspective.
The theoretical foundation comes from a branch of orga-
nizational theory called systems theory which understands
organizations as complex open systems with interdependent
activities within the organization as well as in its relations
with the external environment [see: 61, 63, 64]. A systems
theory perspective is useful because it considers that organi-
zations make decisions based on feedback mechanisms with
the aim of improving their activities and output for their
stakeholders [61,63,64]. Following a systems theory perspec-
tive is relevant because it can help explain the drivers and
barriers faced by Nordic shipping companies for the adoption
Fig. 1 e Visualization of the systems theory approach used. Created by the authors based on the notions of systems theory
explained by Refs. [61e64].
of HFC (see Fig. 1 for a visualization of the systems theory
approach that was used).
Several studies can be used as the basis for categorizing the
drivers and barriers for the adoption of alternative fuels and
zero-emission technologies for the shipping industry [2,5,16].
However, it seems that a systems perspective with a particular
focus on HFC is missing from the literature. This study pro-
poses a categorization of the drivers based on the work of
Lozano [65]. While Lozano's [65] framework focuses on
corporate sustainability, his work follows a systems perspec-
tive to categorize the drivers as internal, connecting, and
external and considers the interactions and interdependence
between them, a notion that is consistent with the approach
of systems theory to organizational behavior [see: 61, 63].
Lozano [65] defines the internal drivers as those that are
associated to the company's internal processes, connecting
drivers as those that represent an interaction and interde-
pendence between internal processes and external stake-
holders, and external drivers as those that are associated with
external stakeholders. However, Lozano's work focuses only
the drivers which means that the categorization of the bar-
riers requires a different framework.
A variety of studies have identified and categorized the bar-
riers for the adoption of alternative marine fuels and zero-
emission technologies [1,15,16]. For this research, the frame-
work of [66] is used as the basis for the categorization because it
provides an organizational perspective of the barriers [66].
categorize the barriers as behavioral, economic, and organiza-
tional which is a common classification in energy-related
research [67e69]. However, several studies suggest that tech-
nological factors can also be considered barriers [1,2,70]. This
study builds on the work of [66] by adding the technological
factors to propose the categorization of the barriers as behav-
ioral, economic, organizational, and technological. Based on
these studies, this research considers behavioral barriers as the
factors that influence the behavior of individuals and organiza-
tions; economic barriers as those economic aspects that can
influence the decision to adopt HFC; organizational barriers as
those aspects directly related to the organizational culture,
power, and structure; and technological barriers as the chal-
lenges directly related to handling and operating the technology.
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 6 0 9 9 e6 1 1 9
Research method
This research is based on 38 interviews performed specifically
for this study with high-level managers and experts from the
Nordic shipping industry. An interview framework was
designed based on the considerations of [71] for conducting
semi-structured interviews and consisted of five stages:
design of the interview questions, selection criteria and
sampling, conducting the interviews and transcription of the
recordings, extraction of information and data analysis, and
discussion of the findings. Fig. 2 shows the process followed.
Design of the interview questions
Semi-structured interviews were chosen and consisted of
open-ended questions that were ordered progressively to
guide the conversation. This led to having seven questions
with specific follow-up inquiries (the questions can be seen in
Appendix 1).
Selection criteria and sampling
This stage began by determining the characteristics of the
experts and organizations that could be potential in-
terviewees. Based on the notions of purposive sampling, the
first step was to identify key stakeholders in relation to the
potential use of HFC for the Nordic shipping industry. To do
so, a stakeholder identification matrix was developed and
consisted of nine categories (see Table 1).
Fig. 2 e Steps followed for the research. Created by the
authors.
6103
This led to the identification of 121 organizations - 17 in
Denmark, 16 in Finland, 16 in Iceland, 36 in Norway, 18 in
Sweden, and 18 international organizations. The higher
number of stakeholders identified in Norway was expected as
the country has a high level of attention on the transition to
zero-emission shipping [see: 6]. To have a balanced repre-
sentation for each category and each country, 40 organiza-
tions were prioritized as initial selection. The organizations
were contacted via email as well as through online contact
forms in their websites to ask for an interview. The notion of
snowball sampling was used to identify and contact addi-
tional key participants for the research. This led to having 38
interviews from June to October 2021 (the names and organi-
zations of the interviewees can be seen in Appendix 2). The
number of interviews was considered adequate as the satu-
ration principle was fulfilled through the interview process
and was confirmed during the extraction of information and
data analysis. The overall characteristics of the interviews can
be seen in Table 2.
Conducting the interviews and transcription of the
recordings
The Coronavirus pandemic, the location of the interviewees,
and the preference of the participants led to conducting all
interviews online with the use of Zoom (three participants
specifically asked to use Teams instead). The interviews were
conducted in English. All participants allowed to record the
interview with Zoom or Teams and the transcripts were done
automatically by the program. The transcripts were reviewed
and corrected manually in a text file in Microsoft Word 2018.29
participants agreed to review the transcript of their interview.
This gave them the possibility to modify the text slightly
which helped validate the data-collection process. A random
number was assigned to each interviewee to differentiate
them during the analysis and throughout the article. Some
quotes within the article were modified in a minimum way to
guarantee that interviewees cannot be identified.
Extraction of information and data analysis
This stage followed the notions of thematic analysis proposed
by Refs1. [72,73] and consisted of five steps: compiling, dis-
assembling, reassembling, interpreting, and concluding. The
compiling step began by letting interviewees review the tran-
scripts with the possibility of making slight changes to the
document. The final version of the transcripts was transferred
to MAXQDA 2020 which allowed to organize and structure the
data. The disassembling step consisted of a systematic coding
process to identify specific themes covered during the in-
terviews. A coding framework was designed based on the
considerations of [73,74] and included codes that were defined
a priori based on the literature as well relevant themes and
concepts that were induced from the transcription process.
1
Yin (2015) [72] proposed these five steps for the analysis of
qualitative data from a general perspective on qualitative
research. Castleberry and Nolen (2018) [73] built on the work of
Yin (2015) [72] and proposed the use of the same five steps for
conducting thematic analysis.
6104 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 6 0 9 9 e6 1 1 9
Table 1 e Stakeholder identification matrix.
Type of stakeholder
Energy sector
Energy companies with operations in the Nordic region.
Funding organizations
Funding organizations at the local, national, and international level.
Governmental sector
Local, national, and international regulatory bodies and
governmental institutions.
Industrial and professional associations
Industrial associations, partnerships, and clusters; professional
associations, and trade and industry unions.
Shipping industry
Shipping companies as well as any organization related to the Nordic
shipping industry including ports, fueling stations, shipbuilding
companies, component suppliers, passenger, freight, research,
and leisure vessels as well as shipping, cargo and port-related
operations.
Research sector
Academia, research institutes specialized think tanks, consulting
companies, and advisory service providers.
Social sector
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) as well as social and civil
organizations.
Technology
Technology developers and innovators in aspects such as maritime
management, logistics, shipbuilding, port management,
propulsion technology as well as hydrogen fuel cells.
Other
Created by the authors.
Notes: 1) This research considers the stakeholders of the Nordic energy sector to include companies in the generation, transmission, distri-
bution, and commercialization of energy.
2) For this table, the term “Nordic” refers to organizations that operate in one or more of the Nordic countries.
This led to having 19 codes for the drivers and 14 codes for the
barriers. The considerations for each code and specific rules
for the coding process were included in a coding manual. The
manual followed the code definition style set by Ref. [74]
which includes the name of each code, the description of what
it includes, as well as examples and decision rules when
applicable. The coding was applied to the transcript of each
interview at a sentence and paragraph level and the use of
different codes for the same text was allowed. The coding was
conducted by one member of the research team and reviewed
by the rest. While this process did not require an interrater
reliability score, the exhaustiveness, saturation, and reliability
Selection criteria
The organization is a relevant stakeholder for the Nordic energy
sector.
The organization provides funding for research and/or development
of projects related to hydrogen fuel cells for shipping.
The organization has a direct activity related to any of the following:
a) the Nordic energy sector.
b) the Nordic shipping industry.
c) hydrogen research, development, and/or use in the Nordic
countries.
d) Nordic institutions.
The organization is a relevant stakeholder for any of the following:
a) the Nordic energy sector.
b) the Nordic shipping industry.
c) hydrogen research, development, and/or use in the Nordic
countries.
The organization is a relevant stakeholder for the Nordic shipping
industry e priority was given to organizations with a particular focus
on the potential use of hydrogen fuel cells.
The organization is involved in research related to any of the
following:
a) the Nordic energy sector.
b) the Nordic shipping industry.
c) hydrogen research, development, and/or use in the Nordic
countries.
The organization has a direct interaction and/or relation with any of
the following:
a) the Nordic energy sector.
b) the Nordic shipping industry.
c) hydrogen research, development, and/or use in the Nordic
countries.
The organization has a direct activity related to any of the following:
a) the Nordic energy sector.
b) the Nordic shipping industry
c) hydrogen research, development, and/or use in the Nordic
countries.
Any additional stakeholder that is or is expected to become relevant
in relation to any of the following:
a) the Nordic energy sector.
b) the Nordic shipping industry.
c) hydrogen research, development, and/or use in the Nordic
countries.
of the coding frame were evaluated following the re-
quirements set by Ref. [74]. Following Schreier's [74] frame-
work was of relevance considering that it focuses on
conducting qualitative analysis. A pilot test was conducted on
two interviews selected randomly to evaluate the consistency
and validity of the coding framework. Afterwards, all the in-
terviews were coded following the specifications of the coding
manual. The reassembling consisted of organizing the coded
text into thematic matrices and was done in MAXQDA. The
thematic matrices were reviewed continuously to guarantee
that the consistency of the data and its validity and relevance
for the research. As explained by Ref. [73], the interpreting
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 6 0 9 9 e6 1 1 9
Table 2 e Characteristics of the interviews.
Characteristics
Number of organizations that granted an interview
Number of experts that participated
Gender
Maximum duration [h:m:s]
Minimum duration [h:m:s]
Average [h:m:s]
Videocall
Asked to see the transcripts
Allowed to include the names of the interviewees and organization.
Created by the authors.
process occurs while conducting the previous steps and con-
tinues throughout the analysis of the findings. The interpret-
ing process allowed to understand the relevance of each
theme based on the participant's view and experience giving a
lower relevance to the frequency in which it was mentioned.
However, the frequency helped understand its validity across
different contexts, in this case different countries. The inter-
pretation process was reviewed several times to test the
consistency of the themes which allowed to reach the
concluding step. This iterative process confirmed the reliability
of the analysis and allowed the researchers to reach their
conclusions.
Results and discussion
Identification and categorization of the drivers
Based on Lozano's [65] framework, this section identifies and
categorizes the drivers found in the interviews as internal,
connecting, and external. This allows to distinguish the level
at which each driver influences the organization.
Internal drivers
Internal drivers are those motivations that originate within an
organization and are directly associated with internal pro-
cesses. Based on this notion, six internal drivers were identi-
fied within 37 of the 38 interviews (see Table 3). In total, 36
interviewees identified environmental commitments as the main
internal driver and highlighted a strong motivation to reduce
the environmental footprint of shipping. Notably, all of them
stressed that reducing emissions from shipping is the main
and most relevant driver for their organizations. However, it
was explained that the adoption of HFC was not only driven by
environmental commitments but also by a desire to become first
movers and as part of a business strategy that would allow them
to have a practical experience of the technology ahead of their
competition. In specific, 19 interviewees explained that look-
ing into the adoption of HFC was part of a proactive and long-
term business strategy that would allow their organization to
improve its position in the market and stay relevant. This
notion was mentioned in connection to future-proofing the
company and was explained as a way for making sure that the
organization has a business case in the future when the
6105
Total Notes
38
40 Two organizations asked to have two experts in
the same interview.
12 female
28 male
01:05:43
00:23:21
00:43:05
38 All the interviews were conducted online via videocall.
29
35 Three organizations asked to remain anonymous.
context of shipping will be different and will have external-
ities such as higher taxes on CO2 emissions along with strin-
gent environmental regulations and customer demands for
zero-emission transportation.
Interviewees explained that their planning indicates that
the use of hydrogen is expected to become cheaper to operate
than the fuels being used today making HFC an attractive
technology not only for future-proofing the company but also in
terms of cost-savings. One interviewee mentioned the
following:
We ended up actually going with the option that was cheapest,
but also happened to be the best one. So, it wasn't only a question
of price, it was also a question of using the least amount of
hydrogen and having the concept that we believe in the most.
(interviewee #34)
Proactive leadership and influence from the owners were
brought up in 18 interviews and was mentioned with a
direct connection to environmental commitments. This is
relevant considering that interviewees stressed that leaders
in their organizations are setting higher levels of ambition
than ever before in relation to their environmental perfor-
mance. The same notion was expressed regarding the
ownership of shipping vessels and fleets and interviewees
explained that vessels which are owned, chartered, or
operated by authorities are required to be in line with the
government's environmental goals. For example, the Nor-
wegian Road Administration, operator of the main road
ferries in Norway, was mentioned as a key driver for the use
of HFC in ferries.
Connecting drivers
Connecting drivers are those motivations that originate from
the relation of internal processes with external stakeholders.
Based on this notion, five connecting drivers were identified
within 37 of the 38 interviews (see Table 4). Access to resources
and funding opportunities was mentioned as a relevant driver in
29 interviews. It was highlighted that access to resources to
develop the technology and access funding for pilot tests have
become key drivers. Interviewees highlighted Enova, a fund-
ing organization from the Norwegian government, and
pointed out that it gave financial support for the construction
of the first hydrogen fuel cell ferry.

Table 3 e Internal drivers.
Internal drivers
Business strategy
Cost savings and profitability
Environmental commitments
First movers
Future-proofing
the organization
Proactive leadership
and influence from
the owners
Created by the authors
based on the analysis of the interviews.Notes for the tables that categorize the drivers and barriers: 1) The frequency presented in percentage is rounded to the closest number.2) The tables are
organized in alphabetical order and do not follow any other consideration.
Description
[# interviews]
If the organization sees the use of hydrogen fuel
cells as a business strategy or as a current
business case or for the future.
If the organization sees the use of hydrogen fuel
cells as a way to reposition itself in the market.
If the organization sees the use of hydrogen fuel
cells as a way to have cost savings and improve
its profitability in the future (e.g. if a carbon tax is
in place in the future).
If the organization sees the use of hydrogen fuel
cells as a way to fulfil its environmental
commitments and sustainability ambitions.
Note: this only applies for environmental
commitments that are made by the organization
on a voluntary measure and not as a mandatory
response to regulatory requirements.
If the organization sees the use of hydrogen fuel
cells as a way to become the first movers/
champions/leaders in their industry or shipping
segment.
If the organization sees the use of hydrogen fuel
cells as a way to future-proof the company.
If the decision of using hydrogen fuel cells is
motivated directly by the leadership of the
organization or by its owners.
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Frequency Frequency [%] Example
19 50% As a company, we will be investing in zero-emission ships. So that's a
strategic position we are taking. We are going into this market and we are
willing to take risks to get this up running. And we see that by starting in
the short-sea market we can learn and then develop it into the deep-sea
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 6 0 9 9 e6 1 1 9
market in the long run. So that's a strategic view - we have to do this.
(interviewee #6)
10 26% We have done a lot of calculations and we are looking at the forecast on the
cost of diesel. And the trend is that it's going slightly up towards 2030
e2034 and we are looking to break-even at some point. So maybe it will be
a cost for us in the first years, but when we did the financial calculations on
the hydrogen fuel cells ferry, we reached a break-even in 2032. So it is not
that far away. And we didn't include anything on possible carbon taxes. So
it was actually without any involvement from the authority side or from
taxation of emissions. (interviewee #24)
36 95% We have an internal interest to be a sustainable company in all aspects …
we need to lower our emissions by 45% by 2030. This means that we really
need to get moving. (interviewee #24)
For us, the main driver is our contract with society - we have to become
greener. We know that diesel is a dying fuel. It's not going to die next year
or by 2030, but it is dying, it's going away, it's going to be replaced. And
we know that we have a certain role in bringing forward the demand and
hence the supply of alternative fuels. (interviewee #34)
21 55% We decided that we want to be among the early runners and that means
that we know that the business case is so many years ahead, but we
believe that it's crucial to take a position. (interviewee # 22)
We don't want to be the last one to understand it and see how it works,
right? We want to be at the forefront or first-mover. (interviewee #14)
12 32% In the near future there will be requirements and then companies are in
better situation if they have started early to focus on the right technologies.
(interviewee #7)
18 47% The driver is the Norwegian Road Administration which pay for the ferries
to operate. And the administration said they want zero-emission ferries.
And now, the administration has required the testing of a both compressed
and liquid hydrogen for their ferries. And the first ferry to be fueled by
liquid hydrogen will start up this autumn in Norway (note: autumn
2021). (interviewee #6 talking about the context in Norway)
Table 4 e Connecting drivers.
Connecting drivers Description
[# of interviews]
Access to resources and If the organization sees the use of hydrogen fuel cells as a way
funding opportunities to access resources and/or funding. For example: access to
investments or financial instruments; access to new tenders
and new funding opportunities from organisms specifically
designed to support hydrogen fuel cells (e.g. FCH JU, tenders).
Branding and reputation If the organization sees the use of hydrogen fuel cells as a way
to improve its branding and reputation.
Customer demands and If the organization sees the use of hydrogen fuel cells as a way
expectations to satisfy the demands and expectations of their customers.
Market opportunities If the organization sees the use of hydrogen fuel cells as a way
to access new market opportunities, such as expanding its
market or target new customers. (e.g. to be able to enter
emission controlled areas, ports with emission restrictions,
etc.). It also includes access to a certain suppliers and
certifications that would allow the organization to expand its
market.
Social license to operate If the company sees the use of hydrogen fuel cells as a way to
improve or maintain its social license to operate now or in the
future.
Created by the authors based on the analysis of the interviews.
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 6 0 9 9 e6 1 1 9
Frequency Frequency Example
[%]
29 76% This also has made us eligible for green loans which we have not been
in the past. I know for a fact that quite a few banks, including some of
the larger Norwegian shipping banks are now imposing stricter terms
for brown shipping than for green shipping. (interviewee 34)
7 18% We want to be green and show the customer that we are a green
company … As it is now, it is just preparing, showing that we can
deliver a clean solution. (interviewee #28)
26 68% Some customers are starting to ask for it. So basically okay, the
transporter, the operator, is trying to meet the customers' demands.
(interviewee #18)
19 50% You will actually lose out on bidding wars or contract wars if your
transport is not as green as your competitors. (interviewee # 34)
7 18% There is a genuine willingness to transition shipping. I think they know
that this is their license to operate, if they don't go into this transition
then they simply are not fit to operate as an industry anymore. So, they
know that this is a basic requirement, it is an expectation.
(interviewee #11)
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Customer demands and expectations was mentioned in 26
interviews as a significant driver. Interviewees emphasized
that there are increasing customer demands for less
polluting vessels and stressed that in the future the demands
will be for zero-emission ships. Market opportunities was
mentioned in 19 interviews with a close link to the internal
driver of future-proofing the organization and the external
driver policies and regulations. Interviewees pointed out that
adopting HFC would create new market opportunities by
being able to certify or label their vessels as zero-emissions
which in turn would help attract new customers. They also
highlighted that using HFC helps prepare for the future when
certain market opportunities will only be available to zero-
emissions ships such as entering ports and harbors with
higher environmental controls. It was highlighted that the
creation of zero-emission navigational areas such as the
World Heritage Fjords in Norway represent market oppor-
tunities that are only available for vessels using zero-
emission technologies. Similarly, interviewees pointed out
that long-term contracts and market opportunities, such as
tenders for the operation of ships and specific routes, will
require the use of zero-emission vessels. To quote one
interviewee:
Our customer wanted to be sure to be allowed to enter the Nor-
wegian fjords in the future. This was a driver for them to look into
zero-emission shipping into the World Heritage Fjords in Nor-
way, because there are regulations coming in after 2026 that you
are supposed to have zero-mission to go into the fjords. (inter-
viewee #6)
Notably, interviewees saw a clear relation between three of
the connecting drivers: branding and reputation, customer de-
mands and expectations, and social license to operate. They
explained that in the following decades vessels will compete
with other modes of transportation that can be faster and more
environmentally friendly than ships operating today (e.g. zero-
emission trains and buses). In this sense, interviewees
mentioned that many ship operators and owners are looking
into HFC because they want to be seen as a green company and
doing so would allow them to keep and attract customers while
it would help maintain their social license to operate.
External drivers
External drivers are those motivations that originate from the
relations with external stakeholders. Based on this notion, five
external drivers were identified within all the interviews (see
Table 5). Policies, legislation, and regulations were mentioned in
37 interviews as significant drivers and interviewees high-
lighted that the political, legislative, and regulatory context of
the shipping industry changed significantly during the years
2020 and 2021 mainly influenced by the EU Fit for 55 package
of proposals.
Interviewees pointed out that policies at the national level,
such as National Roadmaps for Hydrogen, have become rele-
vant drivers to investigate the adoption of HFC as they reflect
the government's position in relation to the future of hydrogen
in the country. However, when asked about the status of reg-
ulations for HFC interviewees gave three different views:

The current lack of specific regulations for the use of HFC in
shipping is a driver for innovation because it allows the
industry to find efficient ways to incorporate HFC to
maritime applications. It was explained that this allows to
test the technology and improve it before it enters the
market on a wider scale. These aspects were mainly
mentioned by technology developers and ship designers.
One interviewee explained the following:
There are no specific regulations for hydrogen … But that's not
necessarily a bad thing because it makes it difficult at the same
time. It is too soon to develop these regulations because if you
develop too many regulations, it hinders innovation. And that's
why it is so important to do piloting tests and get the vessels on
the water, because it is the same with testing the technology, you
need to kind of test the vessels, test the technology, and after two
or three ships, then you can start developing the regulations for it
because you then have done the testing. Otherwise, it would
definitely be a barrier for innovation and there are still so many
innovations to be done. (interviewee #13)

The current context without specific regulations for HFC is
comfortable for some organizations because they can have
innovative ship designs approved through the alternative
ship design process established within the IGF Code of the
IMO. Interviewees explained that this allows them to
determine their own parameters. This view was mainly
shared by interviewees from large and international ship-
ping companies.

The lack of regulations for the use of HFC in shipping is a
barrier because organizations do not have a clear path or
guidelines to follow. These interviewees stressed that they
intend to wait for regulations as they prefer to use tech-
nology that has clear specifications and has already been
tested. This was mainly mentioned by smaller companies
and governmental authorities.
Interviewees highlighted the close link between the
collaboration with other stakeholders and new industry
standards for this technology. For instance, nine partici-
pants identified DNV, the Norwegian classification society,
as a key driver and pointed out that DNV is leading a con-
sortium of 26 partners called the MarHySafe JDP which
published the “Handbook for Hydrogen-fueled Vessels” in
June 2021.
Interviewees explained that the industry faces increasing
societal and stakeholder expectations to provide zero-emission
transportation. They explained that their organizations are
now facing higher expectations than before from a broader
range of stakeholders and pointed out new environmental
requirements from banks and financial institutions, sup-
pliers, and contractors, as well as from passengers, and port
authorities. Finally, technological availability was mentioned
as a driver in 19 interviews with a particular focus on HFC
reaching a higher level of maturity than before. In-
terviewees explained that fuel cells have already been
tested in other modes of transport such as buses, trains,
and cars, and that this motivates the shipping industry to
use the technology. One participant expressed that we have
Table 5 e External drivers.
External drivers Description
[# of interviews]
Collaboration If the organization believes that the use of hydrogen fuel cells is
driven by collaborations with stakeholders from the same or
other industries.
Industry standards If the organization sees the use of hydrogen fuel cells as a way
to keep up with or push for new industry standards. This
includes standards and guidelines set by classification
societies.
Policies, legislation, If the organization sees the use of hydrogen fuel cells as a way
and regulations to comply with existing or upcoming policies, legislations, and
regulations. This includes policies, roadmaps, climate targets,
and regulations.
Societal and stakeholder If the organization sees the use of hydrogen fuel cells as a way
expectations to satisfy societal and stakeholder expectations.
Technological availability If the technological availability of hydrogen fuel cells drives the
organization to look into its potential use for shipping.
Created by the authors based on the analysis of the interviews.
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 6 0 9 9 e6 1 1 9
Frequency Frequency Example
[%]
23 61% People are coming together across the value chain, from ship operators
to ship designers, shipyards, technology providers, and classification
societies and are now really doing, let's say, co-innovation, working
together to solve these issues. (interviewee #31)
17 45% We have released, together with 25 partners, a hydrogen Handbook
which was developed in a project called MarHySafe, and the handbook
is available online … and it describes the road for the approval, it
describes critical areas. It is a guide for the ship owners for when they
want to start with hydrogen fuel cells. (interviewee #32)
37 97% The policies have been pushing forward the development. At the end of
January this year (2021), the Swedish government decided to launch a
national strategy for hydrogen, ammonia, and electro fuels.
(interviewee #4)
23 61% A probably stronger driver we see, at least in some segments, is the so-
called public opinion, meaning that people are calling for actions and
answers for sustainable shipping. (interviewee #31)
19 50% Fuel cells are becoming a more publicly known technology as well
because it's also starting to be used in buses and trucks and trains and
so forth. So, the technology is also maturing, and we are getting
familiar with it. (interviewee #31)
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the technology now, the technology is ready, we are ready to scale
up (interviewee #18).
Identification and categorization of the barriers
This section builds on the work of [66] to identify and cate-
gorize the barriers as behavioral, economic, organizational,
and technological. This allows to distinguish the type of bar-
rier faced from an organizational perspective.
Behavioral barriers
Behavioral barriers are those factors that influence the
behavior of individuals and organizations. Based on this
notion, four behavioral barriers were identified within the
interviews (see Table 6). While inertia and resistance to change
was only mentioned as a barrier in 11 interviews, interviewees
highlighted that individuals within the shipping industry are
used to operating certain types of engines and fuel and
explained that they usually have long-term relations with
their partners and suppliers. These aspects make individuals
hesitant about operating a new technology and create a
certain organizational inertia that can cause a path de-
pendency and eventually lead to a technological lock-in.
Notably, two interviewees pointed out that fossil fuel com-
panies and conventional engine manufacturers and suppliers
are making it difficult for HFC providers to enter the market
and explained that this is mainly done through lobbying with
institutions such as the IMO and directly with shipowners and
ship operators which reinforces their resistance to change.
Interviewees explained that the lack of knowledge of the
technology represents a relevant barrier and pointed out
three key aspects: 1) the technology is not commonly known
around the world which makes people skeptical about its
use; 2) shipowners and ship operators do not have the
knowledge and experience to operate this technology; 3) the
overall lack of experience with the technology raises ques-
tions about its safety for maritime applications. Another
barrier mentioned in the interviews was the lack of systemic
view from the authorities. Interviewees explained that this is
evident in the overall efforts to reduce emissions of the
shipping industry which follow a vessel-by-vessel approach
and not a fleet or system approach that considers the com-
plete value chain. It was highlighted that the lack of systemic
view has a close relation to the lack of knowledge of the
technology.
The negative public perception towards hydrogen was iden-
tified as a barrier and interviewees explained that it is mainly
the result of lack of knowledge of the fuel and technology as well
as an increasing negative attitude towards it due to accidents
involving hydrogen. For instance, one interviewee highlighted
that the 2019 explosion of a hydrogen fueling station for cars
in Norway was a very big step back for hydrogen as a fuel
(interviewee #6). Another one mentioned the following:
A cousin of mine is a captain and he said, oh no, I'm not going on a
hydrogen vessel. Because he doesn't know anything about
hydrogen. He
s just heard about the explosion danger and of
course if you don't know anything about a fuel and if all you hear
is that it's dangerous, then you don't want to drive that ship.
(interviewee #13)
Economic barriers
Economic barriers are those economic aspects that can
negatively influence the decision to adopt HFC. Based on this
notion, five economic barriers were identified (see Table 7).
Interviewees explained that the high costs associated to HFC
are a significant barrier and mentioned that the capital ex-
penses (CAPEX), operational expenses (OPEX), and total cost of
ownership (TCO) of using this technology are still too high to
consider its adoption. They stressed that the access to capital
for adopting HFC is limited and that even with initial financial
support for the CAPEX, the OPEX and TCO are still too high.
Notably, the interviewees mentioned that the OPEX of using
hydrogen as a fuel is too high in comparison to other alter-
natives and explained that a CO2 tax on fossil fuels is needed
to help HFC become cost competitive. They also explained
that using HFC includes additional costs such as the replace-
ment and/or retraining of staff and costs related to the
installation of equipment and infrastructure for using the
technology including bunkering facilities. To quote one
interviewee:
Hydrogen is still really expensive, both the fuel itself, but also the
fuel cells. And what we found out when starting to look at the
numbers for a hydrogen ferry was that the hardware part and the
propulsion package would be six times more expensive than with
a classic or conventional diesel engine, and the OPEX or the fuel
part would be four times more expensive than diesel. (inter-
viewee #24)
The lack of regulations and standards was mentioned in 31
interviews as a key barrier and interviewees explained that
they prefer to wait until there are clear regulations and stan-
dards before investing in an expensive technology. They
further explained that the current approval process through
the IMO-IGF Code for Alternative Ship Design using HFC is too
complex and expensive for many organizations, especially
smaller ones. It was stressed that regulations are needed not
only for the operation of the technology onboard vessels, but
also for building the infrastructure needed to deliver the fuel
to the harbors as well as for its bunkering.
The lack of infrastructure and the lack of supply of green
hydrogen where also mentioned as barriers and interviewees
explained that they are mainly the result of a lack of demand
for green hydrogen for the shipping industry, and vice versa.
While the demand might increase in the following decade,
interviewees emphasized that shipping would compete with
other industries for the supply of green hydrogen which might
in turn delay the investments for specific infrastructure for
the use of hydrogen for maritime transportation.
Interviewees explained that adopting HFC represents un-
certainty and high risk and pointed out that there is no available
supply of green hydrogen that can be purchased and delivered
with the same guarantees as traditional fuels. While they
mentioned the option of using swap containers with hydrogen
to get the fuel onboard, they stressed that this is only a tran-
sitioning solution and should not become permanent high-
lighting that it represents uncertainty and higher risks than
using other fuels. Interviewees explained that these aspects
along with the costs associated to HFC would translate into

Table 6 e Behavioral barriers.
Barrier
Inertia and resistance to change
Lack of knowledge
Lack of systemic view
Negative public perception
Created by the authors based on the analysis of the interviews.
Description Frequency
[# of interviews]
If individuals within the organization have a resistance 11
to change and as a result the organization falls into a
certain inertia that limits its ability to change and adopt
new technologies. Note: this focuses on behavioral
aspects and does not consider organizational factors
such as internal structure.
If the organization sees the use of hydrogen fuel cells 19
limited by lack of knowledge and awareness of the
technology. This includes the lack of trained staff.
If the organization believes that there is a lack of 19
systemic view from authorities which translates into a
barrier for the adoption of hydrogen fuel cells.
If the organization believes that there is a negative 12
public perception towards the use of hydrogen as a fuel.
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 6 0 9 9 e6 1 1 9
Frequency Example
[%]
29% There is another barrier that is tradition. You know, you sailed
on bunker fuel the last 30 years, and it worked out. Now you
need to go to new fuel. (interviewee #9)
50% Then the next thing I think it's knowledge, knowledge about
the fuel, I mean hydrogen. What kind of safety systems? What
is the demand of safety systems and what kind of education
must the crew have onboard? (interviewee #36)
50% Instead of focusing on many smaller projects, the government
decided only to support their own projects, their own
companies. But that was a mistake …. they have forgotten the
customers. (interviewee #36)
32% It should not be underestimated that we need to also prepare
people because the less people know, the more skeptical they
are, and more resistance there will be. And Norwegians are
open-minded to new technology but not in my backyard. You
know, we can accept it, the neighbor can take it, but we will
not have it in our backyard. (interviewee #6)
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Table 7 e Economic barriers.
Barrier
High costs
Lack of infrastructure
Lack of regulations and standards
Lack of supply of green hydrogen
Uncertainty and high risk
Created by the authors based on the analysis of the interviews.
Description Frequency
[# of interviews]
If the organization believes that the use of hydrogen fuel 35
cells is limited by its current and/or future costs. This
includes CAPEX, OPEX, and TCO.
If the organization sees the use of hydrogen fuel cells 31
limited by the lack of infrastructure that could guarantee
that the fuel is delivered when needed.
If the organization believes that the adoption of hydrogen 31
fuel cells is limited by the lack of regulations and standards
for the technology.
If the organization believes that the lack of supply of green 32
hydrogen limits the adoption of hydrogen fuel cells.
If the organization believes that there is uncertainty and 26
high risk for the adoption of HFC. This includes uncertainty
of demand for their shipping routes, uncertainty of supply
of the fuel, as well as financial risks for the first movers.
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Frequency Example
[%]
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92% CAPEX and OPEX are high … And CAPEX and OPEX aside,
even though they get a 25% support by the government, they
still have to pay the remaining 75%, and afterwards it costs
perhaps two times running the ferry. (interviewee #36)
82% We don't have an existing infrastructure when it comes to
hydrogen, and to get price down we need to get the volume
up. So, we need to get infrastructure to kind of, you know,
make that happen. (interviewee #13)
82% There are no regulations and that is a big problem … that's one
of the big issues and that has also delayed the rollout of the
ships massively, because at the moment, if you want to build a
hydrogen ship or with fuel cells, you have to go to a kind of
prototype licensing for certification of your ship. That means
that, every entity that gives you the certification interprets the
rules like they want to, and it is a very lengthy process because
there are no clear rules and it is very costly as well. So, that
doesn't help. (interviewee #18)
84% We have another issue which could be a problem, we don't
know, but it could be a problem, is that we want availability
on a lot of locations, we need to bunker because of the limited
volume we can have on board. We need to bunker frequently
the vessels. And that is, since hydrogen is not easily available,
we don't have hydrogen all over. Right now, we have it in very
few sites. That means that it may be necessary to do trucking
of liquid hydrogen or compressed hydrogen. (interviewee #6)
68% I think it is challenging, it's more than challenging, it's
absolutely terrifying to go out there and be the first to use any
kind of a very expensive ship. (interviewee #34)
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 6 0 9 9 e6 1 1 9
risks for their organizations. While the cost of hydrogen is
expected to decrease, it was explained that adopting HFC
would translate into operating the vessel without profit for
several years which represents a financial risk for their
organization.
Organizational barriers
Organizational barriers are those aspects directly related to
the organizational culture, power, and structure. Based on this
notion, one organizational barrier was identified in 11 in-
terviews. Interviewees explained that a barrier is the inflexible
and bureaucratic structure that many organizations have and
highlighted that some companies have outdated structures
that limit their ability to adapt to the market where they
operate. Interviewees further explained that these structures
are inefficient for today's competitive environment and can
prevent effective internal communication as well as affect the
relation of the company with its stakeholders. One inter-
viewee mentioned the following:
You don't always have a very good communication between the
commercial part of and the technical department. The technical
department may tell the commercial one that we are actually
engaging in this and that this regulation is coming, but they are
not actually listening. (interviewee #11)
Technological barriers
Technological barriers are the challenges directly related to
handling and operating the technology. Based on this notion,
one technological barrier was identified in 33 interviews. In-
terviewees explained that operating HFC has significant oper-
ational challenges and highlighted the bunkering and storage of
hydrogen. In relation to bunkering, they explained that doing
so with traditional fuels is rather simple and comfortable, and
changing to hydrogen would make it complicated. One
participant mentioned the following:
Fig. 3 e Internal, connecting, and external drivers found in the interviews. Created by the authors.
6113
As an example, on the biggest ferry route, we refuel once a
month. That is very comfortable. And in the other routes we are
refueling every second week. And how will it be with other
alternative fuels? This is also a question if we need to refuel every
day. (interviewee #16)
In relation to storage, interviewees explained that the
characteristics of hydrogen make it more difficult to store
onboard than other fuels and pointed out two key aspects: 1)
hydrogen would need to be stored above deck due to safety
concerns for passenger transportation, and; 2) hydrogen re-
quires more storage space than traditional fuels. Interviewees
explained that these aspects make the ship design and oper-
ation more complex, especially for passenger vessels. One
interviewee explained the following:
I would say that for hydrogen it's the storage part which is
complicated. You can either have it compressed with high pres-
sure or you can liquefy it with very low temperature. And those
are the two main options we have today, and none of them is
really good. (interviewee #23)
Discussion
This research had the objective of answering three questions:
1) What drives Nordic shipping companies towards adopting
hydrogen fuel cells? 2) What barriers do Nordic shipping
companies face for the adoption of hydrogen fuel cells? 3) How
can the drivers and barriers for the adoption of hydrogen fuel
cells be understood through an organizational perspective?
Concerning the first question, the analysis indicates that
Nordic shipping companies are motivated to adopt HFC by in-
ternal, connecting, and external drivers (see Fig. 3). The findings
are consistent with the literature in three ways. First, the
findings suggest that the international pressure and efforts to
6114 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 6 0 9 9 e6 1 1 9
reduce emissions are the most relevant motivation and it is
brought forward by different drivers, mainly by environmental
commitments and proactive leadership and influence from the owners
(internal drivers), customer demands and expectations (connecting
driver), and policies, legislation, and regulations (external driver).
This is consistent with the findings of previous studies [see: 1, 5,
29]. Second, the analysis indicates that a significant driver are
the existing and upcoming policies, legislation, and regulations
which is consistent with the literature on the topic [see: 1, 2].
This suggests that specific policies focused on reducing the
emissions from the shipping industry are relevant drivers and
highlights the importance of initiatives and declarations made
during 2021 (e.g. EU Fit for 55 as well as the declarations made
during COP26). The findings show that interviewees believe
that the target set by the IMO to reduce the emissions of the
shipping industry by at least 50% by 2050 compared to the 2008
levels is not ambitious enough and is not consistent with the
international efforts to reduce emissions, a notion that is
consistent with the declarations made during COP26 in relation
to shipping. Third, the analysis indicates that becoming first
movers and having access to new market opportunities play a
significant role in the business strategies of Nordic shipping
companies and motivates them to adopt HFC which is consis-
tent with the literature [see: 10, 13, 43]. In specific, interviewees
emphasized that being first movers allows companies to have
practical experience with the technology and it helps them
reach new market opportunities that are only available for zero-
emission shipping (e.g. access to ports with stringent emis-
sion controls). However, the findings indicate that the motiva-
tions go beyond the aspects covered by the literature and
include additional drivers such as new industry standards and
collaborations as well as the desire to improve their branding and
reputation along with their social license to operate.
Regarding the second question, this research identified
behavioral, economic, organizational, and technological bar-
riers (see Fig. 4). The findings indicate the that the most sig-
nificant barriers are the high costs associated to the technology
and that using HFC is more expensive than other fuels and
technologies in all its costs (CAPEX, OPEX, and TCO) making it
Fig. 4 e Behavioral, economic, organizational, and technological barriers found in the interviews. Created by the authors.
difficult for shipping companies to adopt them, a notion that
is consistent with the literature [see: 1, 15]. However, some
studies indicate that the overall costs for HFC are declining
and it could become cost-competitive in the mid-term [see: 14,
18]. This is consistent with the views of interviewees from
companies that have already decided to adopt this technology
who explained that the decision considered two aspects
regarding costs: 1) the cost of using hydrogen and HFC is ex-
pected to decline in the near to mid-term, mainly due to the
European Union's commitment to increase the production of
green hydrogen up to 1 million tons in 2024 and 10 million tons
by 2030 [see: 53]. As a result, adopting HFC might become cost-
competitive in the next five to ten years, and; 2) their com-
panies expect a significant increase in taxes for CO2 emissions
and fossil fuels in the near-term, mainly as a result of the EU
fit for 55 initiative. Therefore, adopting zero-emission tech-
nologies is a way of future-proofing the company for upcoming
regulations and taxes. These findings suggest that while high
costs are currently the main barrier, this might not be the case
by the end of the decade considering that the European Union
has committed to increase investment in the production of
green hydrogen which will in turn help lower the costs and
accelerate the wider adoption of hydrogen-related technolo-
gies. Notably, the findings suggest that for some companies,
the high costs are outweighed by internal drivers such as their
business strategy, the desire of becoming first-movers, and
future-proofing the organization. However, interviewees
explained that this is only possible for large or state-owned
companies that can operate a new and expensive vessel
without profit for several years before it becomes cost
competitive. This indicates that even when high costs have
been identified as a key barrier by the literature [1,15], there
are additional aspects to consider such as the ownership and
financial capability of the organization.
The analysis shows that the storage and bunkering of
hydrogen represent two key technological barriers which is
consistent with the literature [see: 22, 23]. Interviewees
explained that these aspects can be solved through technical
solutions and innovative ship designs but emphasized that
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 6 0 9 9 e6 1 1 9
other barriers such as the lack of infrastructure and lack of supply
of green hydrogen require collaboration between different
stakeholders beyond the shipping industry. This suggests that
the large-scale use of hydrogen for shipping depends on fac-
tors that are external to the industry, such as the production
of green hydrogen and its delivery to ports as well as the cost
of hydrogen, which is consistent with the literature [see: 9, 26].
The findings reveal that interviewees have three con-
trasting views regarding the current lack of regulations for HFC
in shipping: 1) It is too early to define specific regulations for
HFC for shipping and doing so would hinder the innovation
process. This view was mainly shared technology developers
and ship designers; 2) The current context without regulations
for HFC is comfortable for some companies because they can
make an innovative ship design and apply for its approval
through the alternative ship design process established within
the IGF Code of the IMO. This view was mainly shared by
participants from large and international shipping com-
panies; 3) Some organizations prefer to wait for new regula-
tions to come into effect before they consider HFC. This view
was mainly shared by interviewees from smaller companies
and governmental authorities.
The findings indicate that the inertia and resistance to change
is a significant barrier which is consistent with literature that
identifies the technological lock-in of fossil fuels in trans-
portation [see: 1, 51]. Interviewees explained that shipping
companies are comfortable with the way they operate
because they are used to the fuel, the technology, and their
suppliers which makes them reluctant to adopt something
new. While this does not seem to be a barrier for the most
proactive shipping companies, it indicates that organizations
along the value chain might not be prepared to adopt new
technologies. The findings indicate that the inertia and
Fig. 5 e Key drivers and barriers for the adoption of hydrogen fuel cells for shipping, Created by the authors.
6115
resistance to change is also influenced by the negative public
perception towards the technology which suggests that
behavioral barriers play a significant role in the adoption of
HFC.
The analysis suggests that drivers can be industry specific,
company specific, and technology specific. To begin with,
there are common factors across the industry such as customer
demands and expectations (connecting driver), policies, legislation,
and regulations (external driver), and societal and stakeholder
expectations (external driver). However, there are factors that
are specific to the company and the technology such as envi-
ronmental commitments made by the organization, proactive
leadership and influence from the owners, the desire to become
first movers and have access to new market opportunities, as well
as specific business strategies that consider the use of HFC.
The same can be said about the barriers. For instance, in-
dustry specific barriers include the lack of infrastructure, and
the lack of supply of green hydrogen. However, the findings
indicate that some barriers have a different level of influence
depending on the company. Such is the case of the lack of
regulations which is viewed differently by each organization as
well as the challenges in the storage and bunkering of hydrogen
which some companies believe can be solved with innovative
designs. The analysis also indicates that there are specific
barriers associated to this technology such as its high costs and
the lack of regulations.
To answer the third question, this research proposes three
models to complement the existing literature and provide an
organizational perspective on the topic. The first model (Fig. 5)
identifies and categorizes the drivers and barriers and con-
siders the interaction and interrelation between them. This
helps understand the variety of factors that influence orga-
nizational behavior in relation to the adoption of HFC. The
6116 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 6 0 9 9 e6 1 1 9

model provides an organizational perspective that can help
organizations evaluate their motivations against the barriers
for incorporating this technology to their vessels and can help
policymakers prioritize key aspects.
This research proposes a second model (Fig. 6) that cate-
gorizes the drivers and barriers as industry specific, company
specific, and technology specific and is based on the following
considerations: 1) Industry specific drivers/barriers are
directly linked to the industry where the company operates.
This means that any company operating in this industry faces
these drivers/barriers. For example, similar customer de-
mands and expectations can be found across this industry. 2)
Company specific drivers/barriers are directly associated to
the organization's internal activities and decision-making
process. For example, proactive leadership and influence
from the owners is an aspect that is particular to each com-
pany; 3) Technology specific drivers/barriers are directly
associated to HFC. For example, having access to funding for
the development, testing, and adoption of HFC can be
considered as a technology specific driver. The model provides
a visual perspective which indicates that most of the drivers
are company specific while most of the barriers are technol-
ogy specific. The model provides a systems perspective that
can help understand the interaction and interdependence
between drivers and barriers. For instance, organizations that
wish to become first movers or that are driven by their envi-
ronmental commitments might be limited by the high costs and
high risks of adopting the technology as well as the lack of
infrastructure, the lack of supply of green hydrogen, and the lack of
CO2 taxes on fossil fuels. Another example is if companies
wish to respond to customer demands and expectations and apply
to funding opportunities specific to HFC but are limited to do
so by their lack of knowledge, their organizational structure, and
the resistance to change from their managers.
This research proposes a third model (Fig. 7) to describe the
decision to adopt HFC through a systems perspective. The
model illustrates the drivers as positive input and the barriers
as negative input that influence the decision in the form of a
causal feedback loop. The model includes three examples: a)
the positive inputs and the negative inputs have the same

Fig. 6 e Categorization of the drivers and barriers as specific to the industry, company, and technology, Created by the
authors. Note: The barriers marked with an asterisk (*) can be considered in more than one category.

Fig. 7 e Decision to adopt HFC in the form of causal feedback loops. Created by the authors.
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 6 0 9 9 e6 1 1 9 6117

relative strength, and a decision is not made. b) the relative technologies for each segment of the shipping industry. This
strength of the positive inputs outweighs the relative strength would allow to identify the most effective ways to reduce
of the negative inputs, and the organization decides to adopt emissions for each segment as well as the policy options
HFC; c) the relative strength of the negative inputs outweighs needed to do so.
the relative strength of the positive inputs, and the organi-
zation decides not to adopt HFC.
Authors contributions
Conclusions
Mauricio Latapı́: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software,
Validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Resources, Data
The main contributions of this research are: 1) it identifies and
curation, Writing e Original Draft, Visualization, Project
categorizes the drivers that motivate Nordic shipping com-
administration.
panies to adopt HFC; 2) it identifies and categorizes the bar-
Brynhildur Davı́ðsdo
ttir: Conceptualization, Writing - Re-
riers that exist for their adoption; 3) it categorizes the drivers
view & Editing, Supervision, Project administration, Funding
and barriers as specific to the industry, the company, and the
acquisition, Resources.
technology; 4) it presents three models to provide an organi-
La
ra Jo

hannsdo

ttir: Methodology, Writing - Review &
zational perspective of the drivers and barriers for the adop-
Editing, Resources.
tion of HFC.
The shipping industry faces unprecedented pressure to
transition towards new fuels and technologies to reduce its
Funding
emissions. However, the transition will require policy inter-
vention to achieve the pace and scale needed to reach the
We are grateful and acknowledge the financial support from
targets of the Paris Agreement. This research can assist poli-
the Nordic Energy Research, the Norwegian Research Council,
cymakers in three ways: 1) it can help understand the nature
the Swedish Transport Administration, the Icelandic Research
of the drivers and barriers for the adoption of HFC. This could
Center, Business Finland, the Danish Energy Agency, Stena
help identify the policies needed and prioritize the barriers to
Rederi AB, and PowerCell Sweden AB via the HOPE (Hydrogen
be addressed in different stages of the hydrogen value chain.
fuel cells solutions in shipping in relation to other low carbon
2) It identifies that most of the barriers are specific to the
options e a Nordic perspective) project.
technology. This suggests that technology-specific policies are
required to accelerate the adoption of HFC. 3) The findings
suggest that addressing the economic barriers is crucial.
Declaration of competing interest
Doing so requires holistic policies across different sectors and
industries (e.g. policies for green hydrogen production fall
The authors declare that they have no known competing
under energy related policies). These aspects highlight the
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
need for cross-sector and technology-specific policies to
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
accelerate the adoption of HFC.
The study was limited to stakeholders of the Nordic ship-
ping industry with headquarters in the Nordic region which
were selected through a specific criterion and excluded orga- Acknowledgements
nizations with headquarters outside of the Nordic region. The
interviews were conducted in English which can be a limitation We want to thank all the experts from the Nordic shipping
considering that potential interviewees might not have a good industry who agreed to be interviewed for this research. We
command of the language. However, the findings indicate op- also want to thank the partners from the HOPE project who
portunities for research that focus on identifying effective helped define our stakeholder identification matrix and
policies that can help make HFC become commercially viable. criteria and helped with the initial contact of interviewees.
The novelty of the technology and its status within the
shipping industry translate into having a limited number of
studies on the topic which means that further research Appendix A. Supplementary data
focused on HFC and its wider adoption by the shipping in-
dustry is needed. To begin with, research that conducts policy Supplementary data to this article can be found online at
assessments and identifies and evaluates the policies required https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.11.108.
to stimulate the drivers and reduce the barriers would be of
academic and practical interest. This kind of research would
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