Gri 2022 36269

ARISTOTLE UNIVERSITY OF THESSALONIKI
SCHOOL OF SCIENCES - DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATICS

POSTGRADUATE PROGRAM: INTERACTIVE
SOFTWARE AND HARDWARE TECHNOLOGIES
Anti-Lock Braking System

Modeling and Analysis
Master Thesis
Anthoula Tsironi
ΑΜ: 48
Supervisor: Prof. Panagiotis Katsaros, AUTH
Thessaloniki, July 2022

Master of Science Thesis Anthoula Tsironi
atsironi@csd.auth.gr
Abstract
The brake safety of vehicles is an issue of great importance. Brakes are used to stop vehicles quickly
and prevent accidents. The technology faces new challenges and is required to improve the safety
systems to ensure effective braking in vehicles with the lowest possible cost. This is difficult
attainment as the road conditions vary and lots of variables need to be considered.
This thesis is focused on using Simulink to simulate a braking system under the action of an ABS
controller and reporting results about its effectiveness during braking. The Anti-locking system is a
safety system to prevent wheel blockage in vehicles and consists of wheel speed sensors, a
controller, a pump, and valves. There are many types depending on the number of used sensors
and channels. An anti-locking system is controlled by a controller. The electronic control unit ECU
receives data from sensors and determines whether to pump the brakes. Its parts interact with the
environment.
The performance of a braking system is measured by the metric stopping distance. Stopping
distance includes the braking distance, which is the distance that the vehicle has traveled after the
braking until it stops. This is affected by the weather, the road conditions, and the conditions of the
mechanical parts of the vehicle. To study the performance of a system under various scenarios,
vehicle modeling is the solution. In this work, the Kinematic bicycle model and the single-wheel
model are presented. Moreover, emphasis is given to the Pacejka tire model, the Burckhardt
model, and another based on a lookup table.
The control theory is directly related to security systems and is used for the ABS operation. It is
important to know the ABS control models, the objectives, and the methods that are used.
The simulation of the system’s model is done with the Simulink tool. Simulink is a block diagram
environment used to design systems and constitutes a graphical extension to MATLAB. The model
consists of blocks that are connected. Each block has a specific operation. Emphasis is placed on the
vehicle’s wheel speed and the relative slip.
The results of the simulation showed that the usage of ABS results in a small stopping distance,
stability, and steerability of the vehicle. Furthermore, for these reasons, many crashes have been
prevented. ABS needs to be effective for every environmental condition, so studying various
scenarios is beneficial and can contribute to its improvement.
These thoughts lead to a method called Sensitivity analysis. This method is based on uncertainties
inputs, assists in studying the interactions that occur between variables, and is useful for prediction
purposes of models. It highlights important parameters that influence the behavior of the model. It
showed that increasing vehicle mass, wheel Radius, and initial velocity increase the stopping time
and distance.
The presentation of ideas for modifications of the presented ABS model and future work is precious
and aims at encouraging Scientific Research in safety systems like the ABS.
Keywords: Anti-locking braking system (ABS), models, controller, tire, braking, wheel speed,
vehicle speed, slip, braking distance, forces, simulation

Acknowledgments
I would like to express my deepest appreciation to my supervisor, Mr. Panagiotis Katsaros, for his
guidance and support throughout the process of writing this thesis. I am extremely grateful to Mr.
Nikolaos Kekatos who was very supportive and willing to help me by providing me with pieces of
advice derived from his experience on braking issues. Many thanks to Mr. Ilias Akanthopoulos for
his valuable comments and tips relating to the format of this work. I thank them for our excellent
cooperation.
Additionally, I would like to express deep and sincere gratitude to my lovely family for providing
me with unfailing support and continuous encouragement throughout my years of study.
I would also like to extend my thanks to my friends for their endorsement and outstanding
feedback.

Declaration
I declare that this thesis represents my own work which has been done after registration for the
master’s degree at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki and has not been previously included in a
thesis submitted to this or any other institution.

Table of Contents
Abstract.................................................................................................................................................. 3
Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................................. 4
Declaration ............................................................................................................................................ 5
List of Figures ......................................................................................................................................... 9
List of Tables ........................................................................................................................................ 11
Chapter 1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Problem area ................................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Thesis objective ............................................................................................................................ 2
1.3 Thesis structure ............................................................................................................................ 3
Chapter 2 Braking .................................................................................................................................. 5
2.1 Basic types and components of anti-lock braking systems.......................................................... 5
2.1.1 Anti-lock braking .................................................................................................................... 6
2.1.2 Sensors – actuators ............................................................................................................... 6
2.1.3 Control ................................................................................................................................... 9
2.2 Types of electric braking ............................................................................................................ 11
Chapter 3 Modeling an ABS system.................................................................................................... 12
3.1 Vehicle models ........................................................................................................................... 12
3.1.1 Kinematic bicycle model ...................................................................................................... 12
3.1.2 Single-wheel model ............................................................................................................. 13
3.2 Tire models ................................................................................................................................. 14
3.2.1 The Pacejka tire model ........................................................................................................ 15
3.2.2 The Burckhardt model ......................................................................................................... 16
3.2.3 A tire model based on lookup table .................................................................................... 19
3.3 ABS control models ................................................................................................................... 20
3.3.1 Control objective ................................................................................................................. 21
3.3.2 Control methods .................................................................................................................. 22
Chapter 4 An ABS design case study................................................................................................... 24
4.1 Modeling control systems in SIMULINK ..................................................................................... 24
4.2 ABS model building blocks ......................................................................................................... 25
4.2.1 Variables and parameters.................................................................................................... 26
4.2.2 Vehicle’s wheel speed and relative slip ............................................................................... 27
Chapter 5 Experimental results .......................................................................................................... 29

5.1 Braking With/Without ABS ......................................................................................................... 29
5.3 Sensitivity analysis ...................................................................................................................... 37
Chapter 6 Conclusions and future work prospects ............................................................................ 53
References ........................................................................................................................................... 54

List of Figures
Figure 1The Architecture of the ABS system ......................................................................................... 5

Figure 2 ABS wheel speed sensor .......................................................................................................... 7
Figure 3 Electrical Linear Actuator ......................................................................................................... 8
Figure 4 Hydraulic Actuator ................................................................................................................... 8
Figure 5 Disc brake construction ......................................................................................................... 10
Figure 6 Drum brake construction ....................................................................................................... 10
Figure 7 The structure of an Electric braking system .......................................................................... 11
Figure 8 Bicycle model of a four-wheel car ......................................................................................... 13
Figure 9 The Single-wheel model......................................................................................................... 14
Figure 10 Graphical demonstration of the magic tyre formula........................................................... 16
Figure 12 Samples of road condition dataset ...................................................................................... 18
Figure 13 The tyre's input and output signals ..................................................................................... 19
Figure 14 A braking system with a Fuzzy logic controller .................................................................... 20
Figure 15 The relation between the reaction, braking and stopping distance ................................... 21
Figure 16 A simple block diagram of a control system ........................................................................ 24
Figure 17 Commonly used blocks in Simulink ..................................................................................... 25
Figure 18 Wheel speed calculation of the ABS control model ............................................................ 27
Figure 19 Relative Slip calculation of the ABS control model.............................................................. 28
Figure 20 Vehicle speed and wheel speed behavior ........................................................................... 29
Figure 21 Relative slip characteristics with ABS .................................................................................. 30
Figure 22 Yout wheel velocity graph ................................................................................................... 30
Figure 23 Yout wheel velocity and vehicle speed graphs .................................................................... 31
Figure 24 Yout Stopping distance and slip graphs ............................................................................... 32
Figure 25 Workspace’s parameters of ABS model .............................................................................. 32
Figure 26 Ctrl block for ABS activation ................................................................................................ 33
Figure 27 Vehicle speed and wheel speed behavior without ABS ...................................................... 33
Figure 28 Wheel speed behavior at the moment of wheel blockage ................................................. 33
Figure 29 Relative slip characteristics without ABS ............................................................................. 34
Figure 30 Relative slip characteristics without ABS at 6.86 sec .......................................................... 34
Figure 31 Stopping distance with ABS and without ABS ..................................................................... 35
Figure 32 Vehicle speed with or without ABS ..................................................................................... 35
Figure 33 Wheel speed with or without ABS ....................................................................................... 36
Figure 34 Slip with or without ABS ...................................................................................................... 36
Figure 35 Initialization of the data ....................................................................................................... 36
Figure 36 Desired Relative Slip 0.1 ...................................................................................................... 38
Figure 37 Desired Relative Slip 0.15 .................................................................................................... 38
Figure 38 Desired Relative Slip 0.2 ...................................................................................................... 39
Figure 39 Desired Relative Slip 0.25 .................................................................................................... 39
Figure 40 Wheel speed behavior for different vehicle's masses ......................................................... 40
Figure 43 Vehicle speed behavior for different vehicle's masses ....................................................... 42
Figure 44 Vehicle speed behavior for different vehicle's masses ....................................................... 42
Figure 45 Stopping distance behavior for different vehicle's masses ................................................. 43

Figure 46 Slip behavior for different vehicle's masses ........................................................................ 43
Figure 47 Slip behavior for different vehicle's masses ........................................................................ 44
Figure 48 Wheel speed behavior for different vehicle's initial velocity .............................................. 45
Figure 49 Wheel speed behavior for different vehicle's initial velocity .............................................. 45
Figure 50 Vehicle speed behavior for different vehicle's initial velocity ............................................. 46
Figure 51 Vehicle speed behavior for different vehicle's initial velocity ............................................. 46
Figure 52 Stopping distance behavior for different vehicle's initial velocity ...................................... 47
Figure 53 Stopping distance behavior for different vehicle's initial velocity ...................................... 47
Figure 54 Slip behavior for different vehicle's initial velocity ............................................................. 48
Figure 55 Slip behavior for different vehicle's initial velocity ............................................................. 48
Figure 56 Wheel speed behavior for the different wheel’s radius...................................................... 49
Figure 57 Wheel speed behavior for the different wheel’s radius...................................................... 50
Figure 58 Vehicle speed behavior for the different wheel's radius .................................................... 50
Figure 59 Vehicle speed behavior for the different wheel's radius .................................................... 51
Figure 60 Stopping distance behavior for the different wheel's radius .............................................. 51
Figure 61 Slip behavior for the different wheel's radius ..................................................................... 52
Figure 62 Slip behavior for the different wheel's radius ..................................................................... 52

List of Tables
Table 1 Burckhardt Tyre model parameters for different friction coefficients ................................... 18
Table 2 Mu values to slip values .......................................................................................................... 19
Table 3 Methods for Control ............................................................................................................... 22
Table 4 ABS model's parameters ......................................................................................................... 37
Table 5 Description and Units of ABS model's variables ..................................................................... 37
Table 6 Vehicle's immobilization time for different relative slip values ............................................. 39
Table 7 Mass values for each Simulation Run ..................................................................................... 40
Table 8 Initial vehicle’s velocity values for each Simulation Run ........................................................ 44
Table 9 Wheel’s Radius for each Simulation Run ................................................................................ 49

Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Problem area
The smooth handling of the vehicle and the braking stability is an issue that concerns the public and
needs special attention. Every day we are confronted with news related to traffic accidents. Many
people are injured or lose their lives on the streets. Getting the right information, the observance of
the traffic safety measures and driving laws, as well as improving safety systems through the
cooperation of the researchers and manufacturers of cars is the best prevention to avoid such
unpleasant situations. The conventional braking system is operated manually by using the brake
pedal. Its effectiveness depends on the driver’s experience and reflexes. Not all people are
experienced or have good reflexes. The reaction time is divided into the time for perception and the
time for movement. The operation of perception takes a longer time for the driver that the time to
act by pressing the pedal. Moreover, the reflexes differ from drivers. The driver’s age, gender,
visibility, and other factors influence its reaction time. So, the automation of the braking system is
essential.
ABS is an automated safety braking system that is used on vehicles like cars, motorcycles, buses,
and aircraft. From the software engineering perspective, an ABS software system is a safety
embedded control system that interacts with hardware sensors and actuators in a vehicle.[1]It must
respond quickly to difficult situations, it must indicate reliable fault tolerance and failure detection,
and it must be adaptable to match with the hardware of the intended installation vehicle. The ABS
is useful as it prevents the car’s wheels from locking up, helps maintain the car’s directional control,
and improves steering control during braking under critical conditions. Moreover, it decreases
stopping distances on dry and slippery surfaces. In difficult situations where severe braking of a
moving vehicle at high speed is required, the parameters of stopping time and stopping distance
play an important role, because an accident can be prevented in seconds. ABS is used to reduce the
vehicle speed quickly and gradually until its elimination for the immobilization of the vehicle. The
term "gradually" is used to emphasize that the ABS operation is based on achieving lots of smooth
brakings and not a severe one, which could have negative effects on the safety of passengers and
the vehicle. [2]Over time, the necessity of ABS’s existence is becoming more and more proven, and
that is why it is standard equipment of safety in modern vehicles.
ABS belongs to a bigger category of safety systems, which is called active braking systems. There is
also another category of safety systems, named passive safety systems. The category of active
braking systems, except for ABS, also includes electronic stability control (ESC), autonomous
emergency braking (AEB), and lane departure warning.[3] All these systems are used to provide
better control of the vehicle. Active braking systems ABS consists of specific parts: system kinetics,
tires, brake pedal, brake disc, master cylinder, pads, actuators, sensors, and a controller, which are
useful for ABS modeling. [4] The three last components are the electronic parts, and the others are
considered mechanical parts. The components interact with each other and with the environment
in which the vehicle is moving.
The ABS operation can be described as follows. When a wheel’s sensor detects that one wheel has
a different rate of rotation than the others, a sign is sent to the controller, which activates a relief
valve to reduce the braking pressure. This process can be repeated many times per second, to
restore the blocked wheel or prevent it from locking. Essentially, the pressure can be reduced,
Master of Science Thesis 1 Anthoula Tsironi

increased, or maintained. For this reason, the ABS operation is described in three phases. The
operation of ABS is based on static and kinetic friction between the tire and the ground surface.[5]
The friction between the tire and the ground surface is referred to as static friction. Kinetic friction
occurs when the surfaces are in contact and are moving relative to each other. The braking force of
ABS is from static friction. To achieve the shortest braking distance, the vehicle tires must transmit
the maximum possible braking force to the road surface. Reference is made to the coefficient of
friction denoted by μ. This coefficient indicates the relation between the tire contact force Fn and
friction force Fr and is equal to the division of the Fr by the Fn. The friction force differs accordingly
to the road construction material and surface, the material and structure of the tires, and the type
of friction. The tire has a dynamic character and changes with temperature, construction, tread
depth, load, and inflation pressure. [6] The operation of the ABS differs and depends on
environmental conditions like the weather, the ground condition where the vehicle moves, the
vehicle type, the tire properties, and other factors. These factors have great variability, while during
the movement of the vehicle, the interaction with the environment involves a high degree of
uncertainty.
Ιt is important to design and understand the behavior of a system before its implementation. So,
we resort to modeling it with the greatest possible degree of detail while ensuring that the analysis
of the model can lead to useful conclusions, which could contribute to system development. The
safety-critical systems require a lot of up-front analysis and the most used model for software
development is the waterfall model, the first introduced Process model which breaks down the
project into small phases for analysis. Mathematical models have the property of abstraction. An
abstraction is an efficient tool that offers flexibility. Capturing and representing complex topics in
such a way is something applicable to a variety of situations. However, the degree of abstraction
must be limited, to make the model analyzable. [7] Models are used for simulation purposes. While
the model represents the system’s behavior, the simulation represents how the model evolves over
time, after changing variables. For the ABS simulation, the major components are tires, brake disc,
pad, stopping distance, wheel slip ratio, braking torque, and wheel speed. An example of a changing
parameter is the desired slip for a type of road.
Various design approaches aim to the improvement of ABS performance. In papers, there are
approaches based on the usage of sliding mode control, fuzzy logic control, adaptive control, etc.
The selection of the used approach by a researcher is based on the objectives of each study. The
simulation process ends by analyzing and visualizing the results. It is very important to interpret the
results correctly, to reach a useful conclusion.
1.2 Thesis objective
This thesis is focused on showing the way of building a simple model for an anti-lock braking system
(ABS), gaining an understanding of its behavior under various conditions, and visualizing the results
of its simulation. Essentially, this work highlights the significance of Anti-Locking-Braking systems in
vehicles by analyzing and interpreting the existing knowledge.

The objectives of this work are:
1. Describe the basics of an Anti-locking system.

2. Underline the contribution of the control theory and the Anti-locking system to safety
issues.
3. Present the Simulink tool.
4. Build the model step by step.
5. Run the Simulation.
6. Interpret results.
7. Conduct sensitivity analysis.
8. Compare and interpret the results.
9. Summarize and give conclusions.
10. Suggest and discuss future work prospects.
A description of the objectives is presented below. The first objective is focused on understanding
the basics of an Anti-locking system. It is significant to have a precise definition of the Anti-locking
system. Questions about its existed basic types, its components, and its operation have to be
answered. Moreover, the reader of this work has to know the outstanding contribution of the ABS
to safety issues. Generally, the control theory has a big impact on safety aspect, and in the present
work control objectives and methodologies will be presented. After reviewing the referenced
knowledge, the emphasis is on the modeling and simulation of the ABS model.
The simulation will be implemented by the tool Simulink, so it is necessary to gain knowledge about
this tool to understand better the process of simulation. It is beneficial to know the purpose of
using Simulink, its features, possibilities, operation modes, and the areas, in which it can be used.
After this, the model will be presented. The model consists of blocks. These blocks are connected.
The connection shows a relation between the linked blocks. Each block has an input and an output.
Questions relating to the operation of the blocks will be answered.
The next step is to run the simulation and see the results. A correct interpretation of them is
necessary to gain useful conclusions. The results will be described analytically in the context.
Afterward, a sensitivity analysis is conducted. Changing the input variables can provide us with
useful results for comparison. The methodology will be described step by step to assist the readers
to run the Simulink model by themselves and see the results for verification purposes. This thesis
can constitute a source of inspiration for improvements to existing ABS and designing variants of
braking systems.
1.3 Thesis structure
The present work consists of five chapters.
The introductory chapter provides information about the problem area, the thesis aims and
objectives, the literature review, and the thesis structure described in the present subsection.
Chapter 2 is referred to the braking and the control theory. Introduces basics including the
definition and terminology for the study of Anti-Locking Systems. Basic types and components of
the ABS are presented. Emphasis is given to the sensors and actuators as they interact with the
environment and their operation is important. Electric braking is selected for further analysis.

The next chapter provides information about modeling an Anti-Locking System. Modeling is a
mathematical representation of a system’s operation. Modeling can refer to the vehicle and its tires
separately. In this work, two-vehicle models and three tire models are presented. For the vehicle,
we have chosen the Kinematic bicycle model and the single-wheel model. For the study of tires, we
have chosen the Pacejka model, the Burckhardt model, and a model based on a look-up table. In
this chapter, we give information about the control objectives and the used methods too.
Chapter 4 is dedicated to a case study for the design of an Anti-Locking System. For the model
building, we used the tool SIMULINK. After understanding the way of using this tool and its
possibilities, we emphasize explaining the structure and connectivity of the building blocks of the
model. For the model’s simulation, we need to explain the used variables and the parameters too.
The last subsection of this chapter is addressed to the vehicle’s wheel speed and relative slip.
The experimental results are presented in Chapter 5, where a result comparison is done relating to
the effectiveness of the ABS usage in braking. Furthermore, a sensitivity analysis is used for the
comparison of the model’s behavior to different input variables. The results are visualized and
interpreted.
The last chapter contains the conclusions and the future work prospects, which complete this
thesis.

Chapter 2 Braking
2.1 Basic types and components of anti-lock braking systems
There are four types of ABS: The one-channel/one-sensor, Two-channel/four-sensor, three-

channel/three-sensor and four-channel/four-sensor.[8] The first type of ABS is found on trucks,
vans, and rugged automotive vehicles and contains one valve that controls both rear wheels. In this
system, one-speed sensor is in the rear axle. The rear wheels work as a pair. These rear wheels
must lock up before the ABS actuates. The second type of ABS exists on passenger cars of ’80s
through the mid-90s. This system contains four speed sensors for the four wheels accordingly. It
includes one control valve for the front and one other valve for the rear wheels. If the speed sensor
detects a lock-up in a wheel, the control module sends signs for both wheels. The third type exists
on pickup trucks with four-wheel ABS. In this system there are a speed sensor and a valve for each
of the front wheels, but for the rear wheels there is only one valve and one sensor. The front
wheels are controlled individually but the rear wheels are controlled together as a pair. The last ABS
type is more effective than others because it gives the capability of pulsing only the affected wheel
to manage the brake action in a skid situation. It contains a speed sensor on the four wheels and a
separate valve for all four wheels. The components of an ABS are the speed sensors, the valves, the
controller, and the pump. Speed sensors determines the acceleration or deceleration of the
vehicle’s wheel.[9] These sensors work with a magnet and a hall effect sensor, or a toothed wheel
and an electromagnetic coil. [10]
Figure 1The Architecture of the ABS system

Source: https://cecas.clemson.edu/cvel/auto/systems/braking.html
As the wheel rotates, it creates a magnetic field around the sensor. This procedure generates a
voltage in the sensor. Sensors do not give accurate measurements at slow speeds, because
fluctuations are caused in the magnetic field. Valve is controlled by the ABS and usually has the
below positions. The valve can be open to allow pressure from the master cylinder to pass right
through to the brake. The valve can block the line to prevent the increase of pressure. This happens
by separating the brake from the master cylinder. Moreover, the valve can release some pressure
from the brake. Every wheel speed sensor sent information to the controller about each wheel’s

the ABS modulator which regulates the braking valves on and off. The pump is responsible for
restoring the desired amount of pressure as soon as a valve releases the pressure exerted by the
driver.[11] When slip is detected in a wheel, the controller will modulate the pump’s condition and
sent a signal that releases the valve by providing the desired amount of pressure. Essentially the
controller limits the brake force (EBD) and manages the ABS modulator to actuate the brake valves
on and off proportionally. This results in the reduction of the slipping.
2.1.1 Anti-lock braking
The control algorithm receives information about the vehicle’s speed, the speed of each wheel ‘s
rotation and the tire-road interaction. Tire-road interaction produces the vehicle’s motion This
information is sent by the vehicle’s sensors. Control Algorithm is a type of logic, which is
programmed into a controller. Controller uses this logic to process field data and decide the next
action, which depends on the results of the analysis of a measured value and a fixed-set point.
[12] Then the Brake actuator valves limit the pressure on the brakes accordingly. The Brake
actuator converts the air reservoir into a mechanical force, which activates the brake.
Some of the main advantages that ABS offers is stability and steerability. Stability means that
ABS reduces the possibility of vehicle skidding and brake lockup. Steerability refers to faster
reactions to situations. For example, when the car is too close to an obstacle, the faster the braking
is, the lower is the possibility to crash, as steerability reduces the stopping distance. Stopping
distances differ as they depend on surfaces and environmental conditions. Moreover, an ABS can
ensure vehicle protection and normal tire wear. Some disadvantages of ABS are that it adds weight
and cost to the vehicle.[13] By adding more mechanics to the car, the possibilities of system
damages are increasing. The more complicated a braking system is the more system errors may
occur. Furthermore, ABS does not have good performance on soft surfaces like sand.[14]
2.1.2 Sensors – actuators
The sensing and actuating are the source data and output data of The Internet of Things (IoT) data.
Sensors and actuators are referred as the main elements of an embedded system. [15] Vehicles
consist of electronic components, the amount of which is growing constantly. [16] Sensors and
actuators are small devices that assist in monitoring and controlling operations relating to
the wheel speed, engine time, temperatures, tire pressure, distances from obstacles, fluid flow in
valves, the engine’s noise, etc. Essentially, actuators do the opposite function of sensors. While
sensors interact with the environment and take physical inputs like measurements of the vehicle’s
wheel speed and send them to the control unit to become electrical output, the actuators take the
electrical signals of the unit and convert them into physical actions. [17] The sensing unit can
contain filters. The controller makes decisions based on control algorithms. The actuating unit
contains an actuator and in some cases a power supply.[18]

At the following figure, an ABS wheel speed sensor is visualized with the electronic unit and the
reluctor ring.
Figure 2 ABS wheel speed sensor
Source: https://apecautomotive.co.uk/techmate-guides/abs-sensors/
A vehicle has lots of types of sensors, which can operate autonomously or can be preprogrammed
by users. The control units of driving assistance systems like ABS, TCS, and ESP use ABS sensors.
These sensors sent information about the wheel speed to the control unit. For this reason, ABS
sensors are also called wheel speed sensors. ABS sensors do not operate effectively always. Breaks
in wiring, mechanical damage, Internal short circuits, or harsh environmental-related conditions
(moisture, high heat, low temperatures) are some possible causes of their failure. Determining their
reliability and availability could be interesting. [19]
Actuators are part of machines that converts power to motions according to each machine’s
objectives. [20] They can be dived into two categories, based on their motion and source of their
energy. According to the first category, actuators are characterized as linear or rotary. Based on the
criteria of their source, they are referred as electric, mechanical, smart material, micro actuators,
nanoactuators, hydraulic, pneumatic, thermal, magnetic and supercoiled polymer. Actuators can be
dived into two categories two, the binary and continuous. This classification is based on the number
of stable-states outputs.[21] Some common actuators used in vehicles are fuel pump, fuel pressure
regulators, injectors, ignition coils, idle speed actuators and spark plugs [22] The most common
actuator is a motor that converts electrical energy to mechanical motion. This actuator is referred
as electromechanical.
The figures below show an Electrical Linear Actuator and a Hydraulic Actuator, with their main
components. According to the first figure, the main components of an Electrical Linear Actuator are
the Electric motor, the Gears and the Screw. According to the Figure 4, the main components of a
Hydraulic Actuator are the Cylinder, the Spring, the Piston, the Hydraulic supply and return line, the
Stem and the Control Valve.

Figure 3 Electrical Linear Actuator
Source: https://www.digitalconnectmag.com/the-major-types-of-linear-actuators/
Figure 4 Hydraulic Actuator

Source: https://instrumentationtools.com/what-is-a-hydraulic-actuator/

2.1.3 Control
In recent years, there has been a significant advancement in vehicle’s braking control systems. The
braking control systems vary in modern cars. Drivers need to know the type of their vehicle’s
braking system for services purposes. Some common types of braking systems follow[23].
1. Mechanical Brake System

2. Hydraulic Braking System
3. Pneumatic Braking System
4. Electromagnetic Breaking System
5. Electrical braking system
6. Disc Brake System
7. Drum Braking System
8. Servo Braking System
9. Anti-lock Braking system
10. Emergency Brake System
The brakes can be categorized as:
1. Disc brakes
2. Drum brakes
Disc brakes can be dived into the following categories, based on the existence of holes on the
surface which affects the cooling rate:[24]
1. Solid
2. Ventilated (provides higher cooling rate)
Drum brakes can be dived into three categories based on the way that the brake shoes are pressed
on to the drums:
1. Leading shoe type

2. Twin leading shoe type
3. Duo-servo type
Disc and drum brakes as part of the hydraulic brake system. Disc brakes are considered better than
drum brakes because of the following:
1. There is faster cooling due to the larger surface of friction, which boosts the stability in
operation at high and low temperatures
2. Provide shorter stopping distance even in heavy vehicles
3. The variation of Coefficient of friction has a low impact on the braking control
4. The direction of travel does not affect the braking moment
5. There is resistance to water fade
6. Consist of fewer components
7. Provide easy service.
Brake rotors and brake drums rotate with the wheel. The Disc brake contains three elements: the
disc rotor, the brake pads and the brake calipter. [25] Brake pads are fitted to the caliper from both

sides. The piston presses the brake pads, which generates friction and decelerates the disc rotation.
This results in the transformation of the kinetic energy to thermal, which generates heat. Each
drum contains brake shoes that are covered by brake linings, which is a friction material. Pistons
press the drums from the inside.
The figure below represents the Disc brake construction. The Brake pad, the piston and the disc
rotor are obvious.
Figure 5 Disc brake construction

Source: https://www.akebono-brake.com/english/product_technology/product/automotive/disc/
The next figure represents the Structure of drum brakes. The Brake lining, the piston and the brake
drum are obvious.
Figure 6 Drum brake construction

Source: https://www.akebono-brake.com/english/product_technology/product/automotive/disc/

2.2 Types of electric braking
Electric braking is used to a large extend in electric vehicles. There are three different types of
electric braking:
1. Reverse current braking or Plugging counter-current braking

2. Dynamic braking or Rheostatic braking
3. Regenerative braking.[26]
In the Plugging counter braking, the armature terminals or supply polarity of a separately excited
DC motor or shunt DC motor when running are reversed. Plugging is a highly inefficient method of
braking because, in addition to the power supplied by the load, the power supplied by the source is
wasted in the motor or controller. In Dynamic braking, the motor functions as a generator and
produces the braking torque. In Dynamic Braking the generated energy is wasted in the form of
heat to the resistances. Regenerative braking is possible when the driven load forces the motor to
run at a speed higher than its no-load speed with a constant excitation. The motor begins to
operate as an electric generator. Regenerative braking is a mechanism that converts its kinetic
energy into another form for immediate usage or storage. Regenerative braking cannot be used to
stop a motor, but it is used to control its speed. Moreover, it is used where the load on the motor
has very high inertia.
Electric braking has lots of advantages. First of all, electric braking systems are environment-friendly
because they don’t use hydraulic or mechanical parts, which can be harmful for the environment.
[27]Electric braking is fast and has no maintenance costs. Motor torque can be found precisely[28].
Moreover, during electric braking, a part of the energy is returned to the supply consequently the
running cost is reduced. Another advantage is that the capacity of the system, like higher speeds
and heavy loads, can be increased. Finally, the amount of heat, which is generated is negligible.
However, in electric braking, you cannot set the braking power on the front or back wheels
individually. Controlling over the braking force applied is very important. Although electric braking
can stop the motor, it cannot hold it stationary. Therefore, a mechanical friction brake is required in
addition to an electric braking system of a heavy vehicle for holding the load after braking,
especially on slopping ground.
According to the Figure 7, the main parts of an Electric braking system are the Control Unit, the
Converters and the Battery for energy supply.
Figure 7 The structure of an Electric braking system

Source: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-16-9239-0_26

Chapter 3 Modeling an ABS system
3.1 Vehicle models
The model is used to simulate the driving behavior of the vehicle. Vehicle models can be classified
into three categories: Dynamic Models, Kinematic Models and Point Mass Models. [29]
While dynamic models describe the relationship between the vehicle and the road, the kinematic
models use equations to describe the vehicle’s geometry.
3.1.1 Kinematic bicycle model
The classical kinematic model can only be used at low velocities, for comparatively light systems
moving on sufficiently solid ground, typically asphalt.[30]
The model considers only the front steering angle and the acceleration. It collapses the left and
right wheels into a pair of single wheels at the center of the front and rear axles. Moreover, the
wheels are assumed to have no lateral slip, which is the angle between the moving direction and
the pointing direction, and only the front wheel is steerable.
The Kinematic non-linear continuous time equations of motion [31] are listed below:
𝑥̇ = 𝑣 cos 𝜃
𝑦̇ = 𝑣 sin 𝜃
𝑣
𝜃̇ = tan 𝛾
𝐿
The input signals to the system are:
L: The length between the axes on the vehicle
θ: The heading angle of the vehicle
v: The wheel speed
γ: The steering angle of the wheel
The output signal 𝜃̇ is the rate of change of heading.
The configuration of the vehicle can be described as q= (χ, y, θ) in the global coordinate system.
Below is a figure for the model visualization. The distance between the front wheel from the ICR
point at the left are R1 and R2. The bicycle rear wheel is attached to the body, while the front wheel
can be steered. The starting point is theoretically the middle of the rear shaft. The front wheel
follows a longer path and rotates more quickly than the back wheel, so R2>R1.

The wheels cannot slip sideways so the speed of the vehicle in yv direction is equal to zero. The
formula for the turning radius is R1=L/tan(γ). The angular velocity of the reference point of the
vehicle which follows a circular path is given by the following formula [32] :
𝑣
𝜔 = 𝜃̇ =
𝑅
Figure 8 Bicycle model of a four-wheel car

Source: https://icarus.csd.auth.gr/autonomous-car-modeling-and-control-lecture/
3.1.2 Single-wheel model
The dynamical equations that describe this type of model are listed below. [33]
𝐽𝜔̇ = 𝐹𝑥 𝑅 − 𝑇𝑏
𝑚𝑉̇ = 𝐹𝑥
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜇(𝜆)𝐹𝑧
𝐹𝑧 = 𝑚𝑔
The input signals to the system are:
j: The wheel inertia

ω: The angular speed of the wheel[rad/s]

𝐹𝑥 : The longitudinal road tire contact force- the friction force [N]
R: The wheel radius
𝑇𝑏 : The braking torque (control/input variable)
m: The single corner mass, which equals the ¼ of the vehicle mass
v: The wheel center speed [m/s]
μ(λ): The road adhesion coefficient
λ: The slip ratio
𝐹𝑧 : The vertical road-tire contact force- the vehicle normal load [N]
The illustration of the model can be seen in the next figure.
Figure 9 The Single-wheel model

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326433449_Integrated_model_control_of_brake-
wheel_system_using_bond_graph_method/figures
No model of the effect of aerodynamic drag force is provided and the road is supposed to have no
grade.
Modelling the friction force 𝐹𝑥 is important. This will be presented in the next chapter, by using the
static Burckhardt model.
3.2 Tire models
Tires are key element in the vehicle dynamics. Tire modelling is used to capture the physical
behavior of the vehicle's tire. It is based on its construction and basic mechanical properties. The
wheel-ground interaction force or grip force can be generated by the adhesion, the hysteresis or
indentation and the soil resistance to distortion. [34] The term hysteresis means the existence of a
force in the contact patch due to the supplementary energy loss in the rubber as it deforms to
cover the road irregularities. Moreover, the term soil resistance exists when the ribs of the wheel
engage the soft deformable ground or the hard ground’s large irregularities. The tire-ground grip
force presupposes the existence of a force that presses the tire against the ground, and the

existence of the tire slip. The first one is referred as normal load. For this study, tire properties such
as compliance and inertia are ignored.
3.2.1 The Pacejka tire model
The Pacejka tire models, which are used for vehicle dynamics simulations purposes, were named
the "Magic Formula" because the structure of the equations chosen are not deprive from a specific
physical basis. This means that these equations are not applied only to a specific tire constructions
and operating conditions, but they can be transformed to fit a variety of cases. The Pacejka's model
does not work for low speeds. Magic Formula is not a predictive tire model. This model belongs to
the empirical approaches category.[35]
The general form of the Magic Formula, given by Pacejka, is:
y = D sin [C arctan {Bx − E (Bx − arctan (Bx))}]
Tire forces are defined as 𝑌(𝑋) = 𝑦(𝑥) + 𝑆𝑉
Sh = horizontal shift
Sv = vertical shift
Where,
x = X + 𝑆ℎ
Y: 𝐹𝑥 (longitudinal force), 𝐹𝑦 (lateral force) or 𝑀𝑧 (aligning torque),
X: κ (longitudinal slip) or tan α (where α is the sideslip angle),
B: stiffness factor,
C: shape factor
D: peak value,
E: curvature factor
𝑆ℎ : horizontal shift
𝑆𝑣 : vertical shift.
The inputs of the Magic Formula tire model include tire lateral slip angle, the slip ratio, and the tire
normal forces. B, C, D and E represent fitting constants and y is a force or moment resulting from a
slip parameter x. The formula may be translated away from the origin of the x–y axes. The Tire-
Road Interaction (Magic Formula) block assumes longitudinal motion only and includes no camber,
turning, or lateral motion. The factors mentioned above determine how the curve shapes out.

These factors are found by approximating the data obtained from experiments for the specific tire
type and environment.[36]
Moreover, the combined slip is defined as G = D cos [C arctan (Bx)]
Figure 10 Graphical demonstration of the magic tyre formula

Source: https://www.racecar-engineering.com/articles/tech-explained-formula-1-tyre-model-
development/attachment/revised-pacejka-figure/
The Pacejka tire model generally provides a curve that passes through the origin (x, y )=( 0,0)
reaches a typifying maximum value (Peak factor) and afterward gravitates to a horizontal
asymptote. The factor C controls the shape of the curve and has a control over limits of the range of
the sine function which is modeled in the magic formula. This factor determines the characteristic
of the curve. The factor B determines the slope at the origin. The term E controls the curvature at
the maximum value and the horizontal position at this point.
3.2.2 The Burckhardt model
Burckhardt model is used for modelling the friction force Fx. It offers accuracy and has a simple
structure, so it is sufficient for the purposes of this thesis. The tire forces are nonlinear functions
and can be described by the equations below.
𝐹𝑥
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜇𝑥 (𝜆, 𝛼, 𝛾, 𝐹𝑧 ) ≈ 𝜇𝑥 (𝜆, 𝛼, 𝛾)𝐹𝑧 ⇔ 𝜇𝑥 (𝜆, 𝛼, 𝛾) = ⇔ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝜇𝑥 (𝜆)𝐹𝑧
𝐹𝑧
𝐹𝑦
𝐹𝑦 = 𝜇𝑦 (𝜆, 𝛼, 𝛾, 𝐹𝑧 ) ≈ 𝜇𝑦 (𝜆, 𝛼, 𝛾)𝐹𝑧 ⇔ 𝜇𝑦 (𝜆, 𝛼, 𝛾) =
𝐹𝑧

Where,
γ: The tire inclination with respect to the vertical direction
𝐹𝑧 : The vertical force at the tire-road contact point. It can be simply described as 𝐹𝑧 = mg (m
corresponds to the mass of each wheel)
a: The side-slip angle, which is the angle between the tire longitudinal axis and the speed vector of
the contact point
𝜇𝑥 : The longitudinal friction coefficient
𝜇𝑦 : The lateral friction coefficient
λ: The longitudinal slip, which is the normalized difference between the vehicle velocity and the
equivalent wheel linear velocity, in case of zero tire side-slip angle is defined as
𝑣 − 𝜔𝑟
𝜆=
max {𝑣, 𝜔𝑟}
v: the axle velocity

r: the tire rolling radius
ω: the wheel angular velocity
The last equivalence is acceptable by considering the assumption that the load transfer is negligible,
and the side-slip angle is equal to zero.
Modelling the friction coefficient μ, is the next step. The modeling will be done by using the static
Burckhardt model.
If the wheel speed is equal to the vehicle speed, then the slip is zero. If the wheel is locked, then the
slip is equal to one.
The friction coefficient μ is represented by the relation
𝜇(𝜆) = 𝑐1 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑐2𝜆 ) − 𝑐3 𝜆
Where 𝑐1, 𝑐2 and 𝑐3 are the model parameters.[37] These include information about the road
adhesion conditions and vary in time. The longitudinal slip is noted by λ.
The table below contains typical values of 𝑐𝑖 , for i=1,2,3 that are obtained by a curve designed using
experimental data. We can model a variety of road conditions by using different ci, i=1, 2, 3.

Road 𝐜𝟏 𝐜𝟐 𝐜𝟑
Condition
Dry Ashpalt 1.28 23.99 0.52
Wet Ashpalt 0.86 33.82 0.35
Cobblestone 1.37 6.46 0.67
Snow 0.19 94.13 0.066
Table 1 Burckhardt Tyre model parameters for different friction coefficients
Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270684635_Design_of_a_multiple-
model_switching_controller_for_ABS_braking_dynamics/figures?lo=1
The road surface could

• be (a) dry or (b) wet
• have (c) snow, (d) ice, (e) puddle of water or (f) sand
These data about the road condition could be used for training and testing purposes.
At the figure below, we present some images that contains information of the road condition
described above.
Figure 11 Samples of road condition dataset

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337359416_Efficient_Evolutionary_Learning_Algorithm_for_Real
Time_Embedded_Vision_Applications/figures

3.2.3 A tire model based on lookup table
Tire models are used to simulate the behavior of tires. A tire is a non-linear function and can be
modeled by using lots of inputs and outputs.
Figure 12 The tyre's input and output signals

Source: https://sbel.wiscweb.wisc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/569/2018/05/TR-2011-02.pdf
A look up table, or any other tire model, could describe the relation of the inputs and outputs. This
relation is represented by the box, in the figure above, and is described by mathematical equations.
At the left side of the figure, we can see the input variables and at the right the outputs. A lookup
table can be represented by a graph. [38]
The Look-up Table used in this thesis, maps the value of coefficient friction to slip values. The
friction coefficient between the tire and the road surface, mu, is an empirical function of slip. It is
called mu-slip curve. The LookUp Table includes the values listed below:
Table 2 Mu values to slip values

3.3 ABS control models
ABS control has complex structure and is a nonlinear control problem.
An ABS model contains an important element which is the controller. ABS controllers need to be
designed carefully because there is a variety of limitations and uncertainties relating the road
condition, the tire slippage values and the Brake pad coefficient of friction. Delays of the braking
system have to be considered too.
There are different controllers used for ABS model building purposes. According to the article [39] ,
some controllers than can be used in combination with the quarter car model, which is a
representation of the car that uses longitudinal and rotational dynamics are:
1. Electronic Braking Force Distribution (EBFD) controller

2. Fuzzy Logic Controller
3. Bang-Bang controller
4. PD controller
5. PID controller
At the same article, the comparison between them is presented.
The ABS braking system presented in this thesis contains a Bang-bang controller. Bang-bang
controller system is simple, as it does not have lots of inputs. It has two modes the on and off one.
The ABS system is based on the difference between the actual and desired slip. When the friction
coefficient with respect to slip ratio gives the optimum value, the stopping distance is minimized.
This indicates that the slip ratio is the desired.
PD and PID controllers are classical. PID control is used in order to overcome the main
disadvantages of PD Control, which are the offset and the steady-state error. The PD controller
contains a proportional and a derivative gain, while the PID controller contains an integral gain
additionally. [40]
The system's Fuzzy logic control is interesting due to its adaptation to road conditions, by changing
the desired slip ratio value. The ability of parameters update on each control cycle makes the model
flexible, so it is theoretically better that the PID controller.
The figure below represents a braking system which contains a Fuzzy logic controller.
Figure 13 A braking system with a Fuzzy logic controller
Source: https://svusrc.journals.ekb.eg/article_177078_b03f2bd1bfe747e5dc409ee5e8a4ebd9.pdf

3.3.1 Control objective
An ABS system works effectively when it contributes to a safe and quick immobilization of the
vehicle.
The control objectives of an Anti-Locking system, according to [41]
are the:
1. Reduction of the stopping distance

2. Advancement of stability
3. Enhancement of steerability during the braking
Stopping distances include the distance travelled while the driver notices an obstacle or a hazard
and applies the brakes (thinking/reaction distance), and while the vehicle comes to a full stop from
its initial speed (braking distance), as shown in the figure below. Factors that affect the stopping
distance are the vehicle’s mass, the initial velocity, and the braking force. We will describe some
scenarios. In the case of testing a heavy vehicle, the stopping distance is bigger than the case of
trying a small one. Moreover, a car with a high speed cannot stop quickly, affecting the stopping
distance. The braking force and the stopping distance work inversely. Maximization of the one
means minimization of the other. In all these situations, we think that the other affected factors are
constants. The minimum stopping distance can be achieved by achieving maximum frictional force.
This happens when the friction coefficient is near the peak fixed point for all the wheels of the
vehicle.
Figure 14 The relation between the reaction, braking and stopping distance
Source: https://onlineverkehrstheorie.ch/EN/30.htm
Let us consider a scenario where a vehicle is running on an iced road. The driver wants to
decelerate it and put the maximum braking force to achieve it. This maximum braking force is
applied to the two sides of the car (half left and half right). Although, a wheel may not have the
same friction as the other on the road, so by putting the same amount of braking force results in
instability. The anti-locking braking system could maintain the slip of both rear wheels at the level
where the lower of the two friction coefficients peaks and as a result the lateral force would not be
maximized, and the vehicle would be stable.

The steerability is affected by the characteristics of the tires. Forces of traction are produced when
there is a difference between the vehicle’s speed and the tire’s speed. This difference is referred as
slip, which is good to be near to a peak value. When this slip surpasses the peak value, then the
friction reduces, resulting in no steering situations.
3.3.2 Control methods
There is a variety of control methods used for a satisfactory performance of an ABS system. The
road conditions play a major role to the development of these methods.
The control of anti-locking systems, based on PID controllers, can be divided in [42]:
1. Adaptive
2. Classical
3. Intelligent
4. Nonlinear
5. Optimal
6. Robust
Each of the above types of control is based on a method. The mapping is shown in the next table.
Type of Control Method

Adaptive Gain Scheduling
Intelligent Fuzzy logic
Nonlinear Backstepping
Optimal Lyapunov
Robust Sliding Mode
Table 3 Methods for Control
Lyapunov method is called direct when the knowledge of the system’s time response is not
necessary.[43]
[44]presents the Lyapunov-based sliding mode controller (LSMC) design. It is about a construction
of a Lyapunov type function which aims at the stability of the abs control system. The design
includes uncertainties and has positive impact on the performance of the control system behavior.
In the article [45] , a wheel slip controller is developed via the gain scheduling approach. Moreover,
the Lyapunov theory is used to investigate the stability and robustness of the controller. The
Lyapunov function is also used in the[46], where the design of a wheel slip controller is presented
and the LQ-optimal control is used. Gain scheduling of PI-controllers for longitudinal slip control
are presented at the conference paper [47], where the digital implementation is done for a
laboratory ABS.
In [48], a robust sliding mode controller is designed. The objective is to keep the wheel slip in a
desired value. The Fuzzy logic approach is used in [49] where a controller characterized as fuzzy
robust backstepping is presented. An interesting work about the intelligent control of brake

systems can be found in the work[50], where a fuzzy model reference learning controller and
genetic adaptive controllers are developed. In [51] the reader can find an advanced control design
for ABS.

Chapter 4 An ABS design case study
4.1 Modeling control systems in SIMULINK
A control system is a set of devices that control other devices or other systems. The determination
of the behavior of these devices is achieved by using control loops, where a process variable is
maintained at a specific point. Each system has an input and output element. There should be a
mathematical relationship between them. If the relationship can be represented by a single linear
proportionality, then the system is called linear control system. Otherwise, the system is called non-
linear control system. The [52] presents a nonlinear control of an ABS, which is based in
uncertainties of the tire-road friction. These systems must be accurate, sensitive and stable. There
are two types of control systems, the open and closed-loop control systems. The difference is that
closed loop systems uses a feedback block to make some changes to the output. This change makes
the closed loop systems more accurate that the open loop systems. However, this characteristic
makes this type of system more expensive and difficult to design. The affection of the output of
environmental conditions is inevitable.
Figure 15 A simple block diagram of a control system

Source: https://www.tutorialspoint.com/control_systems/control_systems_introduction.htm
A Hardware development process, which leads an idea to the production, consists of some
steps. First, the developer tries to design the system. Then, he/she simulates it. After that, the
deployment follows. To design the system, it is important to define it. You have to know the
answers to the questions listed below.
• Which is the system’s structure?

• Which are the system’s components?
• Which are the goals?
• What behaviors do you want to observe?
• Which is the necessary level of detail?
• Which are the inputs and outputs for each component?
• How are these components connected?
• Can you expand the system?
• What is the test data and success criteria?
Simulink is a tool, where block diagrams are designed, and related models are simulated. Simulink
can be used by fresh users easily, as it does not demand writing code experience. Simulink is used in
Agile Software Development.

4.2 ABS model building blocks
A model is a description of a system using mathematical equations and diagrams. It is characterized

by simplicity and abstraction. This Chapter focuses on the block diagrams of the model. A block
diagram is a visual representation of a model in the Simulink Editor. This means that it determines
the system's components-blocks and the signals that flow between them.
Simulink provides a set of block libraries for the users. We will present the functional blocks of the
system. The blocks that are used for the creation of a simple model are shown in [53]. It is very
important to understand the relationship among them. The connection of the blocks is indicated by
the lines between output ports and input ports.
The used blocks for the ABS system are:
• Gain (Multiply the input signal by a constant value)

• Integrator (Integrate the input signal)
• Outport (Designate a signal as an output)
• Sum (performs addition on its inputs)
• 1-D Lookup Table( contains data sets and data)
• Bus Creator(combines a set of input elements into a bus.)
• Subsystem (contains a subset of blocks within a model)
• Stop Simulation block (it is used when the input is nonzero)
The figure below represents the blocks which are used commonly in Simulink.
Figure 16 Commonly used blocks in Simulink

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Simulink-commonly-used-blocks_fig4_327164052

4.2.1 Variables and parameters
The presented model simulates the dynamic behavior of the vehicle under the certain situation of
hard braking and represents a single wheel. Moreover, the model contains another model which is
used for the vehicle’s wheel speed calculation. Before the hard braking, the vehicle has a speed that
corresponds to the initial angular speed of the vehicle’s wheels. Slip is zero when wheel speed and
vehicle speed are equal and slip equals one when the wheel is locked. A desirable slip value is 0.2.
[54]This means that the number of wheel revolutions equals 0.8 times the number of revolutions
under non-braking conditions with the same vehicle velocity, resulting in maximization of the
adhesion between the tire and road.
Before presenting the way of building an ABS model, it is important to gather, analyze and interpret
the terminology, and some useful parameters and expressions. Speed differs from velocity. Speed is
the time rate at which the vehicle is moving along a path, while velocity is the combination of rate
and direction of the vehicle’s movement. Relative slip is the relative motion between the vehicle’s
tire and the road surface where the vehicle is moving on. According to [55], we set the desired slip
to the value of slip at which the mu-slip curve reaches a peak value, this being the optimum value
for minimum braking distance. Ctrl is variable. This disconnects the slip feedback from the
controller, resulting in maximum braking. Friction is the force that resists motion when the surface
of one object meets the surface of another. [56] Ff is the frictional force acting on the
circumference of the tire. Ff is divided by the vehicle mass to produce the vehicle deceleration,
which the model integrates to obtain vehicle velocity. Torque is a measure of rotational power. A
vehicle with more torque, will provide more power to the wheels as they rotate. Brake torque is
essentially the power of the braking system. It is the force applied at the brake wheel to stop the
motion of the moving equipment. Angular speed is the speed of the object in rotational motion.
Distance travelled is represented as θ and is measured in radians. The time taken is measured in
terms of seconds. Therefore, the angular speed is articulated in radians per seconds or rad/s. Bang
bang controller is a feedback controller that switches abruptly between two states. To control the
rate of change of brake pressure, the model subtracts actual slip from the desired slip and feeds
this signal into a bang-bang control (+1 or -1, depending on the sign of the error).[57] Brake
pressure it is the force applied to the brake pedal in pounds multiplied by the pedal ratio divided by
the area of the master cylinder in square inches. Rate of change a value that results from dividing
the change in a function of a variable by the change in the variable velocity is the rate of change in
distance with respect to time.
Moreover, the following types are useful for the model building.
V Vv
ωv = =
R Rr
ωw
slip = 1 −
ωv

Where,
ωv =vehicle speed divided by wheel radius. This equals the wheel angular speed if there is no slip
Vv = vehicle linear velocity
R r = wheel radius
ωw = wheel angular velocity
m*g/4 =the weight on the one wheel, where m= the vehicle mass
4.2.2 Vehicle’s wheel speed and relative slip
The figure below is the block diagram of the model, which refers to the Calculation of the vehicle’s
wheel speed. It consists of ten elements-blocks. These blocks are connected with signal lines. Signal
lines transfer data during a simulation from one block to another block.
Figure 17 Wheel speed calculation of the ABS control model
Description
The bang-bang controller takes as input signal the result subtraction of the actual slip from the
desired slip. Depending on the sign of the error, the result has the plus 1 or minus1. The plus sign
represents the on state and the minus represents the off state. This on/off rate passes through the
Hydraulic Lag block, which represents the delay that occurs in the hydraulic lines of the brake
system. The next block is about integration of the filtered rate. Note that the integrators are limited
in this model, in order to have positive speeds. The output of the Brake pressure block is the actual
brake pressure. This signal is multiplied by the piston area and radius with respect to the wheel (Kf).
The output signal is the brake torque applied to the wheel. The input block 2 represents the
accelerating torque of the road surface on the wheel. The model subtracts this from the brake
torque. This results to the net torque on the wheel. Then the model divides the net torque by the
wheel rotational inertia I. The output signal is the wheel acceleration. After its integration, the
output signal is the wheel velocity. [55]
The figure below is the block diagram of the model, which refers to the Calculation of the vehicle’s
relative slip. It consists of thirteen blocks.

Figure 18 Relative Slip calculation of the ABS control model
Description
The friction coefficient, mu, multiplied by the weight on the wheel, W, give as an output the
frictional force, Ff, acting on the circumference of the tire. Ff is divided by the vehicle mass to
produce the vehicle deceleration. [55]Then the model integrates it to obtain vehicle velocity. The
vehicle velocity divided by Rr outputs the vehicle angular speed. The vehicle velocity divided by s
outputs the Stopping distance. The removal of the stop block would indicate that one of the
assumptions made in the model was that the vehicle speed will never be zero. The model multiplies
the frictional force on the wheel by the wheel radius (Rr) to give the accelerating torque of the road
surface on the wheel, which is one of the inputs signs to the Wheel Speed block. Then a bar gathers
the outputs Wheel Speed, Vehicle Speed and Stopping distance together. This constitutes the input
signal to the next block, which is used for the calculation of the Actual Relative Slip. The u(1) is the
angular velocity of the wheel and (u(2) + u(2)==0)*eps is the velocity of the vehicle, according to the
slip ratio formula.

Chapter 5 Experimental results
5.1 Braking With/Without ABS
In order to run the Simulation, you have to follow some steps. Open the MATLAB and input the
command openExample('simulink_automotive/ModelingAnAntiLockBrakingSystemExample'),
which you can found easily in the formal site of MathWorks. Then, on the simulation tab you can
click Run to run the simulation. During the simulation, ABS is turned on.
By clicking Run, we have the following results. Note that the desired slip is already fixed to 0.2.
Figure 19 Vehicle speed and wheel speed behavior
The graph shows the vehicle angular velocity and corresponding wheel angular velocity. The y axis
(vertical) is referred to the speed(rad/sec) and the x axis (horizontal) to the Time(sec). What you
can see is that during the braking, the wheel speed is below the vehicle speed, which is going to
zero in 14,0069 seconds.
The next graph is referred to the slip. The y axis (vertical) has the values of the Normalized Relative
Slip and the x axis (horizontal) is referred to the Time(sec). We observe successive oscillations in the
slips. At the 13,0149 second, where the Normalized relative slip is equal to 0.138813, the slip has
exponential growth, which results reaching the unit in 13,6269 seconds, as the graph below shows.

Figure 20 Relative slip characteristics with ABS
By adding a scope block to the stopping distance, we have the following result, which indicates the
stopping distance(ft) per time(sec). The stopping distance increases and reaches the point
(x,y)=(13.986, 7.207e+02) , which means that in 13.986 second, the stopping distance is 7.207e+02
ft.
By pressing the cursor measurements icon on the tool line, we can take exact measurements of the
graph.
Double click on the visualize signal near to yout is leading to the next screen.
Figure 21 Yout wheel velocity graph

In this screen you can infer that
• the green color represents the Wheel speed (Ww)

• the blue color represents the vehicle speed (Vs)
• the red color represents the stopping distance (Sd)
• the yellow color represents the slip (slp)
You can choose which of them you want to include and compare to the diagram. For example, by
clicking the Wheel speed and the Vehicle speed, the following figure will appear.
Figure 22 Yout wheel velocity and vehicle speed graphs
Regarding the Wheel Speed, the braking starts at the point where the Wheel speed is equal to 70.4
m/s. Until the point (x, y) = (6.5, 34.6) the graph is descending and at this point a slight oscillation
starts until the point (x, y) = (13.7, 0). At the period 13.6-14.0 sec, the graph stabilizes with the
wheel speed ends up equaling zero.
The next diagram combines the Stopping distance and the Slip values. The value of slip, which is
visualized with the purple color, is low at each period of time during the braking, as the ABS is
turned on.

Figure 23 Yout Stopping distance and slip graphs
Moreover, in the Workspace you can find the parameters used.
Figure 24 Workspace’s parameters of ABS model
Now we want to study the vehicle behavior without ABS. In order to do this, we can set the model
variable ctrl = 0 at the command line of MATLAB. By setting this variable, we achieve the
disconnection of the slip feedback from the controller and as a consequence the maximum possible
braking. We leave the desired slip at the value of 0.2, as follows.

Figure 25 Ctrl block for ABS activation
After this modification, we can run the simulation. Essentially, this will model the braking without
ABS. The results are shown in the next figures.
Figure 26 Vehicle speed and wheel speed behavior without ABS
Figure 27 Wheel speed behavior at the moment of wheel blockage

The maximum braking described, is obvious observing the sharp decrease of the blue curve
represented in the figure of Vehicle speed and wheel speed above. The wheel speed, according to
the red curve, stays equal to zero at 6.86093 second, which means that the wheels are blocked. The
braking after that point, is applied in a less than optimal part of slip curve. That is, when slip equals
unit, as the slip plot shows, the tire is skidding so much on the pavement that the friction force has
dropped off.
Figure 28 Relative slip characteristics without ABS
The curve of slip has rapid exponential growth, which results reaching the unit at 6.86093 sec.
Figure 29 Relative slip characteristics without ABS at 6.86 sec

The plot below shows the distance traveled by the vehicle for the two cases, the hard braking with
(red curve-Run2) or without ABS (blue curve-Run1). An interesting observation is that without ABS,
the vehicle skids about an extra 100 feet, taking about three seconds longer to come to a stop.
Figure 30 Stopping distance with ABS and without ABS
The plot below shows the vehicle speed for the two cases, the hard braking with or without ABS.
The blue curve represents the vehicle speed with ABS and the red is about the case without ABS.
Figure 31 Vehicle speed with or without ABS
The plot below shows the wheel speed for the two cases, the hard braking with or without ABS. The
red curve represents the wheel speed without ABS and the blue curve represents the speed with
ABS.

Figure 32 Wheel speed with or without ABS
The plot below shows the slip for the two cases, the hard braking with or without ABS. The blue
curve represents the slip with ABS and the red one represents the slip in the case without ABS.
Figure 33 Slip with or without ABS
You can view the code in ModelingAnAntiLockBrakingSystemExample.m to see how this is done.
For example, the following screenshot is about the initialization of the data. The user can change
the values.
Figure 34 Initialization of the data

5.3 Sensitivity analysis
Sensitivity analysis is about evaluating the way that parameters and states of the ABS model
influence the model output. [58] [59]
This mathematical tool is useful because it can offer effective decision making and more reliable
predictions. Moreover, it can indicate areas for improvement.
The methodology is simple. The user needs to change one variable at a time (containing stable the
others) and interpret the results. So, it is important to determine the inputs and the outputs of the
system and the included controller. The input of the ABS controller is the desired slip of value 0.2
and the outputs are the vehicle speed, wheel speed, stopping distance, and the relative slip. The
predetermined input values of the model’s parameters are listed in the Workspace of MATLAB.
Below there is a figure with the Name of each parameter, the value, the size, and the class. The
matrixes of mu and slip have been shown above at the 3.2.3.
Name Value Size Class

ctrl 1 1×1 double
g 32.1800 1×1 double
I 5 1×1 double
Kf 1 1×1 double
m 50 1×1 double
PBmax 1500 1×1 double
Rr 1.2500 1×1 double
TB 0.0100 1×1 double
V0 88 1×1 double
mu 1×21 double 1×21 double
slip 1×21 double 1×21 double
Table 4 ABS model's parameters
The unit of each variable, presented above, is shown in the next table.
Variable Description Unit

g Gravitational constant ft/s2
V0 Vehicle’s initial velocity ft/s
Rr Wheel radius ft
m Mass of vehicle Ibs
Tbmax Maximum Braking Torque ibf
TB Hydraulic Lag sec
I Moment of Inertia ft 4
Table 5 Description and Units of ABS model's variables

In this work we will change the values of the above parameters:
1. Slip
2. Mass of vehicle
3. Initial velocity of the vehicle
4. Radius of the vehicle’s tire
Slip Tuning
In order to maximize the coefficient of friction we need to regulate the wheel slip ratio to an
estimation of around 0.2. This maximizes the adhesion between the tire and road and minimizes
the stopping distance. What happens when the desires slip is different from the suggested 0.2
value? We want to control the value of the desired slip and see the results relating with the graph
of slip. To do this, we will use a subsystem made of Dashboard blocks. For this example, we used an
Edit and a Slider block.[60] The y axis represents the values of normalized relative slip and x axis
represents the time(sec). This technique uses interactive dashboard and highlights the relation
existence between the variables. In all cases, the ABS is activated, which means that the Ctrl is
unequal to zero. (Ctrl ≠0).
The results of the simulation are shown below.
Figure 35 Desired Relative Slip 0.1

It can be observed that, when the desired relative slip is equal to 0.2, the normalized relative slip
reaches the 1.0 at 13.6 sec, which is the best time shown in the next table. Remember that when
the slip is equal to one, the vehicle’s motor is stationary. So, in this case, the vehicle is immobilized
faster.
Desired relative slip Normalized relative slip Time(sec)

0.1 1.0 15.9
0.15 1.0 14
0.2 1.0 13.6
0.25 1.0 15.5
Table 6 Vehicle's immobilization time for different relative slip values
Regarding the graphs, we observe that when the desired relative slip is equal to 0.2, the graph of
the slip’s function contains smooth oscillations at the period between 6-13.5 sec approximately.
Later the increasing of the graph is not so sharp than other cases.
Changing the mass of vehicle

We consider that the Run1 has the values shown in the Table 4 and we change only the value of the
vehicle’s mass in the next two Runs.

Number of Run m
1 50
2 25
3 75
Table 7 Mass values for each Simulation Run
After changing the value of mass into the workspace, we run the simulation three times for the
three values of vehicle’s mass, respectively. We used the Data Inspector tool. The results are shown
in the next figures.
Firstly, we compare the wheel angular velocity for the cases that the vehicle has the masses shown
at the table above.
Figure 39 Wheel speed behavior for different vehicle's masses
When the vehicle has mass 25 Ibs, the graph of wheel angular velocity is the blue curve at the left
side. In all cases, the initial wheel angular velocity is the same. The wheel angular velocity is equal
to zero ft/s at the 4.7 sec. As the vehicle’s mass is increasing, the wheel angular velocity needs
more time to become zero.

When the mass of the vehicle is 50 Ibs, the second curve shows that the wheel angular velocity gets
zero ft/s at a 6.5 sec.
When the vehicle mass is equal to 75 Ibs, the wheel angular velocity is equal to zero
ft/s at 9.09 sec.

In the next figure, the comparison is about the vehicle speed. Similarly, the heavier vehicle stops
slower that the vehicle with smaller mass.
Figure 42 Vehicle speed behavior for different vehicle's masses
In all cases the initial vehicle speed equals the initial wheel angular velocity. At 16.2 sec the vehicle
with the mass of 25 Ibs is immobilized. At the same time, the vehicles with bigger masses have not
reached the zero ft/s velocity yet.
Figure 43 Vehicle speed behavior for different vehicle's masses

At 16.8 sec the velocity of the vehicle of 50Ibs is 0 ft/s, while the velocity of the heavier vehicle is
3.4 ft/s.
The next figure will show us how the mass of the vehicle affects the stopping distance.
Figure 44 Stopping distance behavior for different vehicle's masses
The heavy vehicle of 75 Ibs shows the biggest stopping distance, which differs 66.5 ft from the
stopping distance of the immediately smaller vehicle. The stopping distance of the vehicle of 25 Ibs
is equal to 739.5 ft at the 16.1 sec.
At the figures below, the comparison is about the slip value.
Figure 45 Slip behavior for different vehicle's masses

The blue curve which refers to the vehicle with the mass of 25 Ibs, is increasing quicklier than the
others and reaching the 1.0 value of slip at 4.7 sec. The green curve, which refers to the vehicle
with the mass of 50 Ibs is reaching the 1.0 value of slip at 6.4 sec. Similarly, the orange curve is
reaching the 1.0 value of slip at 9.1 sec.
Figure 46 Slip behavior for different vehicle's masses
Changing the V0 of the vehicle
In this case we leave the mass of the vehicle equal to 50 kg. Instead of changing the mass, we will
try three values for the initial vehicle’s velocity V0, as shown in the next table.
Number of V0
Run
1 88
2 44
3 132
Table 8 Initial vehicle’s velocity values for each Simulation Run
We run the simulation three times for the three values of vehicle’s mass respectively. We used the
Data Inspector tool. The results are as follows.

Figure 47 Wheel speed behavior for different vehicle's initial velocity
The initial angular velocity of the vehicle’s wheel in all cases is

the same. At the case of the vehicle with the higher initial velocity (look the green curve), its
wheel’s angular velocity needs more time to reach zero than in the other cases. This time equals
the 7.44 sec, as shown at the following figure.
Figure 48 Wheel speed behavior for different vehicle's initial velocity
The blue curve intersects the y-axis at the point (6.83,0), so the wheel velocity of the vehicle with
the smallest initial velocity reaches the zero at 6.83 sec.

At the next figure, we observe that each curve starts from different point, which represents the
vehicle speed. We observe that the vehicle with the higher initial speed needs more time to stop.
Figure 49 Vehicle speed behavior for different vehicle's initial velocity
Figure 50 Vehicle speed behavior for different vehicle's initial velocity
At the next figures, we compare the stopping distance of the vehicles with different initial
velocities. The vehicle with the higher initial velocity has the bigger stopping distance relating with
the vehicles in the other cases.

Figure 51 Stopping distance behavior for different vehicle's initial velocity
The stopping distance of the vehicle with the higher initial velocity is 148.6 ft more than the
stopping distance of the vehicle of which stopping distance is represented by the purple curve.
Figure 52 Stopping distance behavior for different vehicle's initial velocity
The stopping distance of the vehicle with the smaller initial velocity equals to 264.0 ft at the 9.6 sec.

At the next figures, we compare the results based on the slip estimation.
Figure 53 Slip behavior for different vehicle's initial velocity
We observe that the slip curve of the vehicle with the higher initial velocity needs more time to
reach the 1.00. This time is 7.4 sec. The vehicle with the smaller initial velocity reaches the 1.00
value at 6.1 sec. The green curve reaches the 1.00 value of slip at 6.9 sec.
Figure 54 Slip behavior for different vehicle's initial velocity

Changing the R of the vehicle’s tire
In this case we leave the mass of the vehicle equal to 50 kg and its initial velocity equal to 88. We
will try three values for the tire radius, as shown in the next table.
Number of R
Run
1 1.25
2 0.75
3 1.75
Table 9 Wheel’s Radius for each Simulation Run
The results of the simulation are listed below.
Figure 55 Wheel speed behavior for the different wheel’s radius
The green curve, which represents the wheel angular velocity of the vehicle with the smaller Radius
(0.75 ft), reaches the 0 ft/sec quicklier than the other cases, at 5.7 sec. The angular velocity of the
vehicle with the bigger Radius 1.75 ft/sec, which is represented by the blue curve, needs more time
to reach the 0 ft/sec. It needs 8.42 sec.

Figure 56 Wheel speed behavior for the different wheel’s radius
The following figures are about the vehicle speed.
Figure 57 Vehicle speed behavior for the different wheel's radius
We observe that the vehicle with the bigger initial velocity 117.3 ft/sec and the smaller wheel
Radius 0.75 ft , which is represented by the blue curve, stops quicklier at 15.3 sec. The vehicle with
the smaller initial velocity 50.3 ft/sec and the bigger wheel Radius 1.75 ft, which is represented by
the red curve, needs 2.3 sec more than the vehicle represented by the blue curve.

Figure 58 Vehicle speed behavior for the different wheel's radius
The stopping distance is bigger for the vehicle with the bigger wheel Radius, which is represented
by the yellow curve and reaches the 88.6 ft at the 17.6 sec. The vehicle with the smaller wheel
Radius 0.75 ft stops at 15.3 sec and has passed through the distance of 675.0 ft until its
immobilization, as shown below.
Figure 59 Stopping distance behavior for the different wheel's radius

The figures below are about the slip curves.
Figure 60 Slip behavior for the different wheel's radius
The blue curve which represents the slip of the vehicle with the smaller wheel Radius reaches the
1.0 value quicklier than the others, at 5.7 sec. The vehicle with the bigger wheel Radius, which is
represented by the red curve, needs 2.7 sec more to reach the 1.0 value of slip.
Figure 61 Slip behavior for the different wheel's radius

Chapter 6 Conclusions and future work prospects
This study highlights the significance of using ABS on the vehicles.

Some important conclusions are listed below:
• ABS has lots of advantages like the reduction of the stopping distance and the increasement of
the vehicle stability and steering.
• A System’s Modeling assists in studying its operation under various conditions. Observing its
behavior in different situations can result in important conclusions which could assist in the
improvement of the system’s performance or in the development of a new system with
beneficial characteristics.
• A key element-variable of the model of Anti-locking braking system is the slip, the detection of
which contributes to vehicle localization and assists avoiding hazardous conditions.
• With the ABS active, the wheel is prevented from locking. Having the wheel slip around the
optimal value 0.2 provides a higher friction force between wheel and road. This results in the
reduction of the braking distance and the insurance of better stability and steering of the
vehicle.
• Increasing vehicle mass, wheel Radius, and initial velocity increase the stopping time and
distance.
• For the improvement of the vehicle’s anti-locking braking performance, more research is
needed.
The presented model can be modified by replacement or addition of some appropriate blocks. For
example, it can be modified by:
• using of a control algorithm in the place of the ABS controller.
• using a real time model to send the wheel speed to the controller, which then would send
the brake action to the model.
and provides:
• generation of C code for testing the concept in a vehicle, which offers testing early in the
development cycle.
• the possibility of testing an actual ABS controller.
• useful results about the braking performance.
Some ideas for future work would be the following:

• The modification of the presented Anti-locking system model, to fit the case of another
braking type such as the electric braking which would be useful for the performance
improvement of F1 Tenth racing cars.
• The design of an ABS controller that performs better than the existence ones.
• The optimization of existed braking algorithms and the development of new ones.
• The testing and comparison of different tire models in the presented model of ABS.

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ARISTOTLE UNIVERSITY OF THESSALONIKI

SCHOOL OF SCIENCES - DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATICS

Anti-Lock Braking System

Supervisor: Prof. Panagiotis Katsaros, AUTH

Thessaloniki, July 2022

Master of Science Thesis Anthoula Tsironi

Master of Science Thesis Anthoula Tsironi

Master of Science Thesis Anthoula Tsironi

Master of Science Thesis Anthoula Tsironi

Master of Science Thesis Anthoula Tsironi

Figure 1The Architecture of the ABS system ......................................................................................... 5

Master of Science Thesis Anthoula Tsironi

Master of Science Thesis Anthoula Tsironi

Master of Science Thesis Anthoula Tsironi

Master of Science Thesis 1 Anthoula Tsironi

1.2 Thesis objective

Master of Science Thesis 2 Anthoula Tsironi

1. Describe the basics of an Anti-locking system.

1.3 Thesis structure

The present work consists of five chapters.

Master of Science Thesis 3 Anthoula Tsironi

Master of Science Thesis 4 Anthoula Tsironi

There are four types of ABS: The one-channel/one-sensor, Two-channel/four-sensor, three-

Figure 1The Architecture of the ABS system

Master of Science Thesis 5 Anthoula Tsironi

2.1.1 Anti-lock braking

2.1.2 Sensors – actuators

Master of Science Thesis 6 Anthoula Tsironi

Figure 2 ABS wheel speed sensor

Master of Science Thesis 7 Anthoula Tsironi

Figure 4 Hydraulic Actuator

Master of Science Thesis 8 Anthoula Tsironi

1. Mechanical Brake System

The brakes can be categorized as:

1. Leading shoe type

Master of Science Thesis 9 Anthoula Tsironi

Figure 5 Disc brake construction

Figure 6 Drum brake construction

Master of Science Thesis 10 Anthoula Tsironi

1. Reverse current braking or Plugging counter-current braking

Figure 7 The structure of an Electric braking system

Master of Science Thesis 11 Anthoula Tsironi

3.1.1 Kinematic bicycle model

L: The length between the axes on the vehicle

θ: The heading angle of the vehicle

v: The wheel speed

γ: The steering angle of the wheel

The output signal 𝜃̇ is the rate of change of heading.

Master of Science Thesis 12 Anthoula Tsironi

Figure 8 Bicycle model of a four-wheel car

3.1.2 Single-wheel model

The input signals to the system are:

j: The wheel inertia

Master of Science Thesis 13 Anthoula Tsironi

The illustration of the model can be seen in the next figure.

Figure 9 The Single-wheel model

3.2 Tire models

Master of Science Thesis 14 Anthoula Tsironi

3.2.1 The Pacejka tire model

The general form of the Magic Formula, given by Pacejka, is:

y = D sin [C arctan {Bx − E (Bx − arctan (Bx))}]

Tire forces are defined as 𝑌(𝑋) = 𝑦(𝑥) + 𝑆𝑉

Y: 𝐹𝑥 (longitudinal force), 𝐹𝑦 (lateral force) or 𝑀𝑧 (aligning torque),