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UPDATED TO 2024-2026 SYLLABUS

CAIE AS LEVEL
PSYCHOLOGY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE METHODOLOGY SYLLABUS
CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY

Strengths Weaknesses

1. Research Methods Valid representation of a

Difficult to replicate to test for
reliability as the event is
person’s behaviour
naturally occurring
1.1. Experiments
Each experiment consists of an experimental and control
An experiment is an investigation looking for a causal condition.
relationship in which an independent variable (IV) is An experimental condition is one or more of the situations
manipulated and is expected to be responsible for in an experiment which represent the different levels of
changes in the dependent variable (DV). the IV and are compared, either with one another or with
There are three types of experiments: the control condition.
Laboratory experiments: A research method in which A control condition is a situation in which the IV is absent.
there is an IV, DV, and strict controls. This looks for a This is compared to the experimental condition(s).
causal relationship and is conducted in a setting which
is not the usual environment for the participant with
1.2. Self-Reports
regard to the behaviour they are performing.
Field experiments: This is conducted in a setting which
Self-reports consist of two main types — questionnaires
is the normal environment for the participant with
and interviews.
regard to the behaviour they are performing. The
Questionnaires are a research method that involves
researcher has control over a few variables, but it
asking questions, mainly written, to gain information from
difficult to control all variables.
the participants.
Natural experiments: An investigation looking for a
There are four types of questionnaires:
causal relationship in which the IV cannot be directly
Likert scales: questions asking whether the participant
manipulated by the experimenter. Instead, they study
likes or dislikes something.
the effect of an existing difference or change. This is
Rating scales: questions that require the participant to
not a true experiment as the experimenter cannot
represent their answer on the numerical scale
manipulate the levels of the IV.
provided to them.
Laboratory experiments:
Open questions: questions which allow the participant
to give detailed answers without any restrictions.
Strengths Weaknesses
Closed questions: questions which allow the
High levels of standardization
Artificial Environment hence it participant to respond using a few, stated responses
hence it can be replicated
lacks ecological validity without the opportunity to expand on their answers.
easily to test for reliability
Interviews are a research method using verbal questions
High levels of control hence asked directly to the participants.
researches can be more Participants may show There are three types of interviews:
confident that the IV is directly demand characteristics Structured: an interview with questions in a fixed order
affecting the DV which may be scripted. Consistency might also be
required in the interviewer’s posture, voice, etc., and
Field experiments: hence these are highly standardized.
Semi-structured: an interview with a fixed list of
Strengths Weaknesses questions, however, the interviewer could add more
Situational variables are questions if required to clarify or get details on any
Realistic setting hence high difficult to control so it is previous answers.
ecological validity tough know if the IV is Unstructured: an interview in which most questions
affecting the DV depend on the respondent’s answers. A list of topics
Limited demand Issues in breaking ethics since may be provided that need to be covered for the
characteristics so behaviour the participants do not know interview.
is more likely to be natural that they’re taking part in a
and valid study Strengths Weaknesses
Questionnaires Participants are more
Natural experiments: likely to give truthful Participants may give
answers as it does not socially desirable
Strengths Weaknesses involve talking to answers
High ecological validity someone face to face
Difficult to know whether the
because the IV is naturally
IV caused an effect on the DV
occurring

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Strengths Weaknesses records a range of behaviours, which is usually confined

A large sample can to a pilot study to refine the behavioural categories.
A naturalistic observation is a study conducted by
answer the
Too many closed watching the participants’ behaviour in their normal
questionnaire in a
questions may force environment without interference from the researcher in
short time span which
an answer that does either social or physical environment. A controlled
should increase the
not reflect the observation is one which is conducted by watching the
representativeness
participant’s opinion participants’ behaviour in a situation in which the social or
and generalizability of
physical environment has been manipulated by the
the findings
researcher.
Lots of open Participants may be
General:
questions will make less likely to give
participants reveal truthful answers as Strengths Weaknesses
Interviews reasons as to why they are face to face
If the participants are aware
they behave in a with the interviewer
of the observation, they may
particular way or have or because of social- If participants are unaware of
not act ‘naturally’ but show
a particular opinion desirability the observation taking place -
more socially desirable
increases ecological validity
behaviour. This can reduce
1.3. Case Studies the validity of the findings
It may be difficult to replicate
A detailed investigation of a single instance, usually a As behaviours are ‘counted’, the study if it is naturalistic as
person, family or institute, that produced in-depth data data can be analysed many variables cannot be
specific to that instance. statistically with minimal bias controlled which reduces the
reliability
Strengths Weaknesses
As researchers are focused Participant observation:
As the research is focused on
on one individual, they can
one person, the case is
collect rich, in-depth data Strengths Weaknesses
unique which makes
which adds validity to the High ecological validity as the
generalisations difficult There are ethical problems of
findings participants are observed in a
informed consent
Attachments may be formed real-life setting
between researcher and As the observers become
High ecological validity as participant which may reduce The presence of an outsider
involved with the group, they
participants are studied in objectivity of data collected can change the behaviours of
are more likely to understand
their everyday lives and analysis of it. This could the group members. This
the motives and reasons for
reduce the validity of the lowers the validity of the
behaviours which increases
findings. findings
the validity of the findings

1.4. Observations Non-participant observation:

A research method that involves watching human or Strengths Weaknesses

animal behaviour. It can be difficult to make
An observer can be overt/covert or they can be Participants behaviour will not detailed observations and to
participant/non-participant observers. be affected by observation produce qualitative data that
Overt observers are when the participants know who the because the observer is out of allows understandings as to
researcher is and that they are being observed. A covert sight why the behaviours are
observer could be present in the group of participants occurring
observing them but they do not know who it is. Researchers’ observations
A participant observer is one who watches from the are more likely to be objective
perspective of being part of the social setting of the as they are detaching from
participants. A non-participant observer does not become the people they are observing
involved in the situation being studied.
An observation can be structured/unstructured or Structured observation:
naturalistic/controlled.
A structured observation is a study in which the observer Strengths Weaknesses
records only a limited range of behaviours. An
unstructured observation is one in which the observer

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Strengths Weaknesses No correlation refuters to a situation where no definite

trend occurs and the two mentioned variables do not
The sampling of observed
The behavioural checklist behaviour tends to be appear to be related to each other.
allows objective quantitative restricted and does not give
Strengths Weaknesses
data to be collected which can an idea of the reasons as to
why the behaviours are The researchers easily Issues of causality because
then be analysed statistically
occurring establish a cause and effect there could be a third variable
relationship affecting the changes

Unstructured observation: Correlations are restricted to

Correlations do not require
research that are quantitative
any manipulation so can be
Strengths Weaknesses and so they cannot be used to
used where experiments are
Observers may easily be measure why behaviours are
They can generate in-depth, unethical or impractical
drawn to eye catching occurring
rich quantitative data that can
behaviours and hence may
help explain why behaviours
not fully represent all the 1.6. Hypotheses and Aims
are occurring
behaviours
An aim tells you the purpose of the investigation. It is
Naturalistic observation: generally expressed in terms of what the study intends to
show. It is written before the experiment is carried out
Strengths Weaknesses and does not predict the outcomes.
As participants are unaware A hypothesis is a testable statement predicting a
that they are being watched, Very little control over difference between levels of the IV in an experiment or a
they should behave more extraneous variables which relationship between variables in a correlation.
naturally, removing the makes it difficult to draw a An alternative hypothesis is the testable statement which
chances of demand cause and effect relationship predicts the difference or relationship between the
characteristics variables in a particular investigation.
Replication may be difficult as There are three types of hypothesis.
High ecological validity as the there cannot be a totally A directional (one-tailed) hypothesis is a statement
observation takes place in a standardised procedure, predicting the direction of a relationship between
natural setting hence making it difficult to variables.
test for reliability A non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis is a
statement predicting only that one variable will be
Controlled observation: related to the other, not the direction of the
relationship.
Strengths Weaknesses A null hypothesis is a testable statement stating that
As the set-up is controlled, the any difference or correlation in the results is due to
An artificial situation can chance.
observers can be more
easily influence participants’
confident about what is
behaviour
causing the behaviours 1.7. Variables
Less chance of extraneous
Low ecological validity as the Independent variable (IV): the factor under investigation in
variables affecting
setting is artificial an experiment which is manipulated to create two or
participants’ behaviour
more conditions and is expected to be responsible for
changes in the DV.
1.5. Correlations Dependent variable (DV): the factor in an experiment
which is measured and is expected to change under the
A research method which looks for a causal relationship influence of the IV.
between two measured variables. A change in one Operationalization is the definition of variables so that
variable is related to a change in the other, although, the they can be accurately manipulated, measured or
changes cannot be assumed to be causal. None of the quantified and replicated.
variables are manipulated, they are only measured.
A positive correlation is a relationship in which the
increase in one variable accompanies an increase in the
1.8. Experimental Design
other.
This is the way in which participants are allocated to the
A negative correlation is a relationship in which the
different levels of the IV.
increase in one variable accompanies a decrease in the
other.

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An independent measures design is an experimental Strengths Weaknesses

design in which a different group of participants is used
The sample may be smaller
for each IV level. If the IV is naturally occurring, the
as trying to find a large
researcher must use it.
sample of people matching
A repeated measures design is an experimental design in similar traits may be difficult.
which participants perform at every IV level. It cannot be This may mean the findings
used if the IV is naturally occurring. It also uses may lack external validity.
counterbalancing (ABBA design).
A matched pairs design is an experimental design in
which participants are arranged in pairs. Each pair is 1.9. Controlling of Variables
similar in important ways to the study, and one member
performs at a different level of the IV. It is essential to control variables to be certain about the
Independent measures design: findings of a study.
An extraneous variable is a variable which either acts
Strengths Weaknesses randomly, affecting the DV in all levels of the IV, or
As participants take art on systematically, affecting only one level of the IV (called a
only one condition, they are confounding variable), so can obscure the effect of the IV,
There may be participant making the results difficult to interpret.
less likely to guess the aim of
variables affecting the DV A situational variable is a confounding variable caused by
the study, hence reducing the
rather than the IV an aspect of the environment.
effects of demand
characteristics Participant variables are another confounding variable
More participants are caused by the individual differences of participants.
There are no order effects Control is a way to keep any potential extraneous
required for this type of
that can reduce the validity of variables constant. These are required to ensure that the
design as compared to
the findings results of the study are reliable.
repeated measures

Repeated measures design: 1.10. Types of Data

Strengths Weaknesses There are two types of data: qualitative and quantitative.
There is a chance of demand Qualitative data is descriptive, in-depth data indicating the
Eliminates any participant quality of a psychological characteristic.
characteristics as participants
variables as all of them take
may work out the aim or
part in all conditions Strengths Weaknesses
change their behaviour.
In-depth, detailed accounts
Order effects can affect the
given in the words of
Fewer participants are findings of the study and Interpretation of data could
participants are collected. It
needed as compared to reduce its validity. This could be subjective as these are
can be argued that using
independent measures be overcome using words rather than numbers
qualitative data is not
counterbalancing.
reductionist

Matched pairs design: As the data comes directly

Strengths
Matching participants as
closely as possible on
measurable traits may help
control for individual
differences affecting the
results.
This design is better suited
when a repeated measures
design may not work due to
an order effect that may
affect results.
There may be researcher bias
from the participant, we can
- the researcher may only
Weaknesses understand why the
select data that fits into the
participant thinks, feels or
hypothesis or aim of the study
acts in a particular way
Trying to match participants’
similar traits is very time- Quantitative data is the numerical data about the quantity
consuming. of a psychological measure.
Strengths Weaknesses
Trying to match people
As the data are numerical, it As the data are numerical,
exactly is impossible as there
allows easier comparison and they miss out on why
will always be individual
statistical analysis to take participants chose the
differences from one person
place. answers that they did
to another. Therefore, the
study may lack internal
validity if these differences
affect the IV rather than the
experimental condition.

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Strengths Weaknesses Strengths Weaknesses

Numerical data are objective Using quantitative data can Researchers may
and scientific, so there is a be seen as reductionist as it gain a ‘perfect
minimal chance of involves researchers reducing sample’ but still have
psychologists miscalculating complex ideas and the problem that
the data and drawing invalid behaviours to a number or participants will not
conclusions. percentage. take

1.11. Sampling of Participants 1.12. Validity

A population is a group sharing one or more Validity is the extent to which the researcher is testing
characteristics from which a sample is drawn. what they claim to be testing.
A sample is a group of people selected to represent the Internal validity is how well an experiment controls
population in a study. confounding variables. This allows the researcher to be
The sampling technique is the method used to obtain the more confident about the causal relationship.
participants for a study from the population. There are Ecological validity is the extent to which the findings in one
three types of sampling techniques. situation would generalise to other situations. This is
Opportunity sampling is when the participants are influenced by whether the situation represents the real
chosen because they are available at the time and world effectively and whether the task is relevant to real
place where the research is taking place. life.
Volunteer (self-selected) sampling is when Mundane realism is the extent to which a task represents
participants are invited to participate in studies via the real-world situation.
advertisements or emails. Face validity is a measure of validity indicating whether a
Random sampling is when all population members are measure appears to test what it claims to.
allocated numbers, and a fixed amount of these are Concurrent validity is when a test correlates well with a
chosen unbiasedly, for example, by picking out measure that has previously been validated.
numbers from a hat. Generalizability is defined as how widely the findings of a
study apply to other settings and populations.
Strengths Weaknesses Demand characteristics are features of an experiment
Large numbers of that give away the aims. This could cause participants to
participants can be Researchers are change their behaviour and hence reduce the validity of
obtained relatively unlikely to gain a wide the study.
Opportunity
quickly and easily variety of participants Objectivity is an unbiased viewpoint that is not affected by
Sampling
because researchers to allow for an individual’s feelings, beliefs or experiences, so should
use people who are generalisation be consistent between different researchers. This would
around increase the validity of the study.
Participants are more Researchers are Subjectivity is a personal viewpoint which may be biased
likely to participate if unlikely to gain a wide by one’s feelings, beliefs or experiences and may differ
they have already variety of participants between researchers. Since this is not consistent, it may
Volunteer volunteered so the to allow for reduce the validity of the study.
Sampling drop-out rate should generalisation
be lower, making because participants 1.13. Reliability
generalisations will only be of a
stronger certain type This is the extent to which a procedure, task or measure is
Random Obtaining details of consistent.
Sampling the TP to use to draw Internal reliability refers to whether the procedures are
Researchers can standardised so that each participant experiences the
the sample may be
generalise the target same thing.
difficult - a
population (TP) with External reliability is the extent to which the results of a
representative
more confidence procedure can be replicated from one time to another,
sample cannot be
guaranteed gaining consistent results.
Inter-rater/inter-observer reliability refers to the extent to
which two researchers interpreting qualitative responses
will produce the same records from the same raw data.
There are two methods to test the reliability of a study:
the split-half method and the test-retest method.

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The split-half method involves the results of the first half
of the questionnaire or interview to be the same as the
results of second half when the questions are the same in
both halves but presented in different a manner.
The test-retest method is a way to measure the
consistency of a test or task by using it twice and then
comparing the results of each time to check how similar
they are.
1.14. Data Analysis
Measures of Central Tendency: a mathematical way to
determine the typical or average score from a data set.
This includes the mean, median and mode.
Mean is calculated by adding all the scores in a data set
and dividing them by the number of scores in the data set.
Median is the middle score of a data set when it is ranked
in order (ascending order).
Mode is the most frequent score in a data set.
Measures of spread: a mathematical way to describe the
variation or spread within a data set. This includes the
range and the standard deviation.
The range is between the most significant and negligible
values with an addition 1.
Standard deviation calculates the average difference
between each score and the data set's mean.
The normal distribution is an even spread of a
symmetrical variable about the mean, median and mode.
It forms a bell-shaped curve and is symmetrical.
Bar charts are graphs used for data in discrete categories
and total or average scores. There are gaps between the
columns as the data is not related linearly.
A histogram is used to illustrate continuous data.
A scatter graph is a way to display data from a
correlational analysis.
2. Ethical Guidelines
2.1. Introduction
Ethical Issues: Problems in research that raise concerns
about the welfare of participants
Ethical Guidelines: Pieces of advice that guide
psychologists to consider the welfare of participants and
broader society
2.2. Ethical Guidelines in Relation to
Human Participants
Based on the British Psychological Society’s (BPS) Code of
Human Research Ethics (2014)
Privacy: An ethical guideline related to avoiding the
invasion of the participant’s personal physical space
Debriefing: An ethical procedure giving all participants a
full explanation of the aims and potential consequences of
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the study at the end so that they live in the same
psychological state that they arrived in
Protection: Participants should not be exposed to any
greater physical or psychological risk than they would
expect in their day-to-day life
Informed consent: An ethical guideline stating that
participants should know enough about a study to decide
whether they want to agree to participate
Right to withdraw: An ethical guideline relating to ensuring
that participants know that they can remove themselves
and their data from the study at any time.
Deception: An ethical guideline is that participants should
not be deliberately misinformed about the aim or
procedure of the study. If unavoidable, the study should
be planned to minimise the distress risk, and participants
should be thoroughly debriefed.
Confidentiality: An ethical guideline stating that
participants’ results and personal information should be
kept safely and not released to anyone outside the study
2.3. Ethical Guidelines in Relation to
Animal Participants
Based on the British Psychological Society’s guidelines for
Psychologists working with animals (2012)
Replacement: Researchers should consider replacing
animal experiments with videos or computer simulations.
Species and strain: Psychologists should choose a species
that is scientifically and ethically suitable for the intended
use. Knowledge of the animal’s previous experience is
also essential.
Numbers: According to the Animal Scientific Procedures
Act (1986), psychologists should always use the smallest
number of animals that still accomplish the research aims
and goals. These could be calculated via a pilot study and
statistical programs.
Procedures: Psychologists should consider research that
enriches rather than harms. Procedures that may cause
discomfort, injury, stress, etc., need a Project Licence,
which can be gained after a cost-benefit analysis.
Pain and distress: Research causing physiological or
psychological pain or distress should be avoided.
Whatever procedure is used, any adverse effects on
animals must be recognised and assessed, and
immediate action taken wherever necessary.
Housing: Isolation & crowding should be avoided. Caging
should recreate aspects of the natural environment that
are important to the welfare of the animal and must take
into account the social behaviour of the species.
Reward, deprivation and aversive stimuli: The researcher
should consider the animal’s usual eating and drinking
habits and metabolic requirements. When using
deprivation and aversive stimuli, the researcher should
ensure that there is no alternative way of motivating the
animal that is consistent with the aims of the experiment
and that the levels of deprivation are no greater than that
needed to achieve the experiment's goals.
CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY

Anaesthesia, Analgesia & Euthanasia: Animals should be

3.3. Nature versus Nurture
protected from pain relating to surgery and euthanized if
suffering lasting pain. Procedures that are likely to cause Nature refers to the extent to which behaviour, feelings or
pain and discomfort should be performed only on animals
thinking results from innate genetic factors.
that have been adequately anaesthetised, and analgesics
Nurture refers to the extent to which behaviour, feelings
should be used before and after such procedures to
or thinking results from environmental influences such as
minimise pain and distress whenever possible. learning or other people.

3. Issues and Debates Strengths

If we find out which
Weaknesses

behaviours are on which side It is not always easy to

3.1. The Application of Psychology to of the debate, that can help to separate out what is nature
explain human behaviour and what is nurture
Everyday Life
more clearly
The practical use of a theory, or the findings of a study to If behaviour is seen to be
If there is an interaction
help improve processes or people’s lives, for example, in purely down to nature
between both sides, then that
terms of bettering physical or mental health, safety, (genetics), this can be very
is useful, too
production at work or sales by a company. socially sensitive
Conducting useful research: Studies might be unethical to
gain more valid results.
Strengths Weaknesses
It can be used to improve Studies might be unethical to
human behaviour gain more valid results
3.4. The Use of Children in
Studies need to be high in Psychological Research
ecological validity to be of
more use to society, but this Giving consent is important for children under 16 & a risk
can be quite difficult if they assessment must take place
are conducted in a laboratory. Refer to Ethical guidelines for human participants
(Chapter 2 card 2)

3.2. Individual and Situational

3.5. The Use of Animals in
Explanations
Psychological Research
The extent to which a person’s beliefs or behaviours are
Refer to Ethical guidelines for animal participants
controlled by factors, such as their personality or
physiology, unique to them (individual explanation) or by (Chapter 2 card 3)
factors in the setting, such as the people or place
(situational explanation).

Strengths Weaknesses
If we find out which
It is not always easy to
behaviours are on which side
separate individual and
of the debate, that can help to
situational factors
explain human behaviour
If there is an interaction
Studies might be unethical to
between both sides, then that
gain more valid results
is useful, too
Studies need high ecological
validity to be of more use to
this debate, but this can be
difficult if it is a laboratory
experiment.

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Psychology

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