Adult Learning Principles

The Adult Learning principles were generated after considerable research by Malcolm Knowles, a
leader in the field of adult education. The four key principles are:

> Readiness
> Experience
> Autonomy
> Action

Readiness

Experience
Adult
Learning

v
Principles

Action

Autonomy

Readiness:
Imagine the following scene. In one hand you have a pitcher filled with water. In the other you have a
glass with a lid. What happens when you try to pour water into the glass? Obviously, it spills over the
glass and your hand because the inside of the glass is closed off.

This physical example of wasted effort is analogous to a trainer trying to pour content into a closed
adult learner's mind. Not much enters. So what to do? How can we open the mind? The answer is
simple and straightforward. Adults come to a learning situation with their own priorities and attitudes.

They are ready to learn when they decide to open their minds and spirits to it. How can you get them
to do this, especially if they are determined not to do so? There is one truly effective way: show them
in a believable manner that what you have to offer

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 S Solves a problem or avoids one for them
S Provides an opportunity or increased status
S Includes professional or personal growth

You can't fill a glass with water if the glass has no opening. You can't fill a learner with skills,
knowledge, or new values and attitudes if his or her mind is blocked.

The readiness principle is simple: Always focus training on your learner's needs. Make your training
sessions respond to the learner's question: 'What's in it for me?'

When you can structure your training - whether live, online, or at a distance - so that meaningful
benefits are reinforced constantly, both explicitly and implicitly, your learners will open themselves to
what you are sharing with them.

Experience

Adult learners come to each learning event with their unique former knowledge. This is what we may
term as their experience. Adult learners possess a great deal more experience than do children. Some
of it facilitates learning, but it is also may act as inhibitor.

Adult learners learn if the training is pitched at their level and type of experience. If the training goes
over their heads or is outside of their experience base then you lose them. Once lost, they are difficult
to find again.

Treat adult learners as if they have little or no experience when they do, and you insult them and lose
them. It is critical to effective training that you acknowledge the rich store of experience your learners
posses - perhaps different from what you are training them on, but no less valuable - and exploit it.

Help them to contribute to their own and other people's learning. And be aware that some of their
previous experience can create resistance to new knowledge.

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Autonomy
Adult learners like to participate actively and contribute
towards their learning. But when we enter the learning
arena, particularly in formal classes, we often see a
return to traditional, school based, Trainer centred
models of instruction. Training, in its broadest sense,
requires a dynamic climate for adult learners to grow
and develop.

Adult learners understand best if they take charge of

their learning. After all, their value in the organization
and the marketplace depends on what they know and
are able to do. The more they charge, the greater the value they and their organization - acquire. The
more the learner does and contributes, the more the learner learns.

Adult learners want to be treated as independent, capable people. They require respect, even when
they make mistakes. Respect is an essential aspect of autonomy, especially in a learning context. It
enables the learner to try and to err without feeling threatened or put down. In many ways, adult
learners are more fragile and vulnerable than children. The fear of failure and accompanying loss of
face can be high.

Within even the most structured learning program, providing opportunities for learner participation
and contribution should be maximized.

Action
If the proof of the pudding is in the eating, then
the proof of the training is in its successful on the
job application. Adult learners in the work setting
participate in training to learn how to improve or
alter their performance on the job.

To ensure buy-in from the learners, their

attention must be focussed on immediate
application of what they are supposed to learn.

If they can't see how they can put it into action as

soon as they return to the job, their interest and
learning decrease.

The bottom line in the action principle is, "If you

don't use it, you lose it." Adult learners have to
be action driven because they face so many competing priorities in the workplace. Successful adult
learning must factor in the action orientation.

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Designing and Structuring any
Learning Session.
I. Universal Five step model
This model based on adult learning principles has been tested and used in hundreds of organizations
with demonstrable success. The five step model is an excellent model for creating terrific training
sessions.

Five step model for Structuring Training

i. Rationale

2. Objectives

ctivities

4. Fvaluation

Rationale
Provide a rationale. Explain why learners should learn whatever you are presenting to them. Early on
in any learning session, the learners require an explanation of why they should attend the session,
whether live, e-learning, video based, or in print. If the learner knows why she or he should learn
something and values it, the research suggests that learners have a higher probability of learning it.
This is directly tied to the readiness principle - the opening of the mind and spirit.

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In the rationale, the instructor informs the learners about what is in it for them and for others (eg;
customers, shareholders etc). The rationale either can provide an explanation or can lead the learners
to discover on their own why they should learn this.

Performance Objective
State the performance objective to the learners. Tell them clearly what they will be able to do by the
end of the session. If the learners know what they are supposed to learn, research suggests that
there's a better chance that they will learn it. The instructor states the objectives meaningfully in
terms of the learner and not in terms of the trainer or training system.

Which of these statements is more appropriate as an objective?

0 You will be able to convert a service call to a sales call.

01 will show you how to convert a service call to a sales call.

The first statement is more appropriate because it is expressed in terms of the learner. The second
states what the trainer will do and as such is not a suitable learner centred, performance based
objective.

The instructor also states the objective in concretely verifiable (measurable or observable) terms.
Select the item from these two options that you believe is a better performance objective:

0 You will state the four steps for transforming a service call to a sales call.

0 You will know the steps for converting a service call to a sales call.

The first objective is better because it uses a more verifiable verb, 'state' and names of specific number
of steps.

Activities
Create learning activities that lead to attaining the performance objectives. If learners do things that
lead directly to meeting the objectives, there's a better chance that they will attain those objectives.
This means that the trainer creates or selects only those activities that lead the learner directly to
meeting the objective.

Here is one of the key benefits of this model: It is lean and focussed. The rationale provides benefits
for the learner. The performance objectives state the contract between the trainer and the learners -
what they will be able to do and how well. Now, the activities cut out extraneous and frequently
disruptive noise. They will focus sharply on objective attainment, nothing less or more.

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Evaluation
Evaluate learner performance. Check to see whether learners have learned. If the learners are
assessed on what they are supposed to learn, they have better chance of learning it. It is important,
however, to evaluate in terms of the performance objective and not the person. The trainer verifies
the degree to which each learner has met each objective for the desired level of performance.

Feedback
Provide feedback in terms of the performance objectives. Let learners know if they've got it right.
Correct them when they go astray. If learner receives information on how well they are learning, they
tend to learn better.

If learner receives information on how well they are learning, they tend to learn better. For this reason,
learners must receive feedback throughout the training session. The feedback must always be given
in terms of the performance objective and not the person. Generally, the best time to give feedback
is directly after the evaluation.

If evaluation causes anxiety, which is frequently the case with adult learners, don't keep them
guessing. Provide sufficient, immediate feedback to reduce stress and encourage learning.

Most important feedback comes in two forms: corrective, which explains to the learners how they can
attain the objective, and confirming, which informs the learners that they have attained the objective.
Corrective feedback always must be stated positively and encouragingly.

II THE ADDIE Instructional

Design Model
The ADDIE Instructional Design model provides a step-by-step process that helps training specialists
plan and create training programs. The ADDIE design model revolves around the following five
components:

Analysis

Design

Development

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Implementation

Evaluation

These five stages of the ADDIE Model encompass the entire training development process, from the
time someone first asks, 'What do people need to learn?" all the way to the point where someone
actually measures, "Did people learn what they need?"

THE ADDIE ANALYSIS PHASE

Great training programs don't come together by accident. They require planning and analysis.
Carpenters utilize the old adage, "measure twice; cut once." Even though carpenters are talking about
wood and we're talking about training, we share a common goal- do it right the first time. So we could
change the carpenter's old adage to fit the ADDIE methodology. "Analyze fully, design once."

Skipping the Analysis phase may lead to development of a course that may not address the company's
needs. It may be too easy for the participants or too hard to comprehend as the course has not taken
into account the needs of this particular audience.

If you rush to development, you may not catch those errors until you launch the course. At that point,
it can be very costly to fix or redesign the course. In essence, the training needs analysis is time well -
spent.

Steps in Analysis Phase:

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1. Instructional Goals

2. Instructional Analysis

3. Learner Analysis

4. Learning Objectives

ADDIE Instructional Design Phase

Once a training specialist has written the course's learning objectives and confirmed them with the
client, it's time to begin the instructional design phase. During the design phasQ, the training specialist
plans what the course should look like when it's complete.

At the end of the instructional design phase, the training specialist produces an instructional design
document for the course. In many ways, this document is similar to an architect's blueprints or a
software engineer's design document.

The instructional design document describes the course content, but it doesn't contain the course
content -just like a blue print isn't a house and a software design document isn't the actual software.

During the instructional design phase, the training specialist reviews the course's learning objectives
and considers the following questions:

How should the content be organized?

How should ideas be presented to learners?

What delivery format should be used?

What types of activities and exercises will best help learners?

How should the course measure learner's accomplishments?

The answers to these questions help the training specialist produce the instructional design document.
This document describes the course structure and its instructional strategies.

During the instructional design phase, the training specialist does not create course content. The
actual course content and training materials will be created during the training development phase.

The Designs steps include:

1. Design Assessments

2. Choose a course format

3. Create an Instructional strategy

ADDIE DEVELOPMENT PHASE

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The development phase in the ADDIE model of instructional design addresses the tools and processes
used to create instructional material. This stage includes: Story Boards, developing power point slides,
audio, all multimedia elements and handouts.

The development phase is the process of authoring and producing the materials needed to meet the
objectives.

THE ADDIE Development Phase includes:

1. Create a Sample

2. Develop the course materials

3. Conduct a Run - through

The program development team can include writers, trainers, editors, graphic designers, usability
experts etc. Some people may be needed for the entire course development process, while other
people may be called in to accomplish just a few specific tasks.

ADDIE IMPLEMENTATION PHASE

The Addie model provides a systematic methodology to plan, develop, and test the course before it
launches. If you follow the ADDIE Model, you'll have a high degree of confidence about the course
when it's ready to launch:

The course meets important business goals

The course covers content that learners need to know

The course reflect the learners existing capabilities

Additionally, you'll have reviewed the course's content for accuracy and completeness. You'll have
conducted a pilot test to ensure that learners will actually master the skills they need to achieve the
courses learning objective.

The Implementation Phase has the following steps:

1. Train the Instructor

2. Prepare the Learners

3. Arrange the Learning Space

The implementation phase of the ADDIE model is where the 'rubber hits the road'. It is conceivable
that a well designed multimedia product could fail if instructors and learners are not prepared and/or
the learning tools are not put into place. It is important that a solid groundwork is laid for the smooth
and satisfactory implementation of any instructional materials.

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ADDIE EVALUATION PHASE
In the ADDIE model, evaluation is a systemic process that determines the quality and effectiveness of
the instructional design as well as the final product. Evaluation is an ongoing activity conducted at
each phase of the ADDIE model.

Evaluation consists of two parts: Formative and Summative.

Formative evaluation is part of each proceeding phase and determines effectiveness and quality of
each stage. Summative evaluation consists of tests for criterion related referenced items and provides
opportunity for feedback from the users and assesses learner outcomes.

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••i

Kirkpatrick's Four Levels of Evaluation

Assessing training effectiveness is critical. Donald Kirkpatrick developed a four-level model of
evaluation

Results

Behavior

Learning

Reaction

1 - Reactions: Measures how participants have reacted to the training.

2 - Learning: Measures what participants have learned from the training.

3 - Behaviour: Measures whether what was learned is being applied on the job.

4 - Results: Measures whether the application of training is achieving results.

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Each successive level of evaluation builds upon the evaluations of the previous level. Each successive
level of evaluation adds precision to the measure of effectiveness but requires more time consuming
analysis and increased costs.

Level 1 Evaluation - Reactions:

This level measures how participants in a training program react to the training. Every program should
at least be evaluated at this level to answer questions regarding the learners' perceptions and improve
training. This level gains knowledge about whether the participants liked the training and if it was
relevant to their work. Negative reactions reduce the possibility of learning.

Evaluation tools:

• Program evaluation sheets

• Face-to-face interviews

• Participant comments throughout the training

• Ability of the course to maintain interest

• Amount and appropriateness of interactive exercises

• Ease of navigation in Web-based and computer-based training

• Participants' perceived value and transferability to the workplace

This type of evaluation is inexpensive and easy to administer using interaction with the participants,
paper forms and online forms.

Level 2 Evaluation - Learning:

Level 2 evaluations are conducted before training (pre-test) and after training (post-test) to assess the
amount of learning that has occurred due to a training program (Figure 2).

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Figure 2 - Level 2 Evaluation Showing Results of Pretest and Post Test Level 2 evaluations assess the
extent learners have advanced in knowledge, skills or attitude. Level 2 evaluation methods range from
self-assessment to team assessment to informal to formal assessment.

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PRE-TEST POST-TEST

Evaluation tools:

• Individual pre- and post-training tests for comparisons

• Assessment of action based learning such as work-based projects and role-plays

• Observations and feedback by peers, managers and instructors

Level 3 Evaluation - Transfer:

Evaluations at this level attempt to answer the question

of whether the training has been transferred back to the
job. This evaluation is typically performed three to six
months after training.

The evaluator would ask questions such as "Are the newly

acquired knowledge, skills or attitude being used in the
environment of the learner"?

This evaluation represents the truest assessment of a

program's effectiveness but is costly. It is often impossible
to predict when changes in behavior will occur.

Careful planning decisions are needed for this level of evaluation in terms of when to evaluate, how
to evaluate and how often to evaluate.

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Evaluation questions:

• Did the trainees put their learning into effect when back on the job?

• Were the relevant skills and knowledge used

• Was there noticeable and measurable change in the activity and performance of the trainees
when back in their roles?

• Was the change in behaviour and new level of knowledge sustained?

• Would the trainee be able to transfer their learning to another person?

• Is the trainee aware of their change in behaviour, knowledge, skill level?

• Did the representative open each telephone customer dialog using his or her name and
department?

• Was the representative able to describe to you and categorize the customer's objections as
either misinformation or valid?

• Did the representative use the appropriate model answer in response to each objection?

• Did the representative close each sales call with a request for purchase?

• If the prospect did not make a purchase, did the representative end the call with specific
future action steps?

• Did the representative complete call history records that include summaries of who, what,
where, when, and why?

Evaluation tools:

• Individual pre- and post-training tests or surveys

• Face-to-face interviews

• Observations and feedback from others

• Focus groups to gather information and share knowledge

Level 4 Evaluation- Results

This evaluation measures the success of the training program in term that executives and managers
can understand such as increased production, increased sales, decreased costs, improved quality,
reduced frequency of accidents, higher profits or return on investment, positive changes in

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management style or in general behaviour, increase in engagement levels of direct ports and
favourable feedback from
ItwwfaUt customers, peers and
dowXJt subordinates. For example,
. w0riaL»M». ^ /pit« m dto after training in April 2005, the
^"•w .^^
I riecdabcttcrway to
sales continued to increase
>^
^Nte^.
m^^isiif^ tt^yIls* »**» .,j*r^
^
throughout 2005.

I However, Level 4 evaluations

are difficult to measure and
correlate with training. For
example, the increase in sales

could be attributed to several factors such as training and product promotions.

Evaluations:

• Quality training. Measure a reduction

in number of defects.

• Safety training. Measure reduction in

number or severity of accidents.

• Sales training. Measure change in

customer retention, sales volume, and
profitability on each sale after the
training program has been implemented.

• Management training. Measure

increase in engagement levels of direct-
reports.

• Technical training. Measure reduction

in time to complete tasks, forms and
reports; reduced calls to the help desk; or
improved use of software or systems.

• Other: Measure changes in staff turnover, number of complaints, growth, attrition, wastage,
failures, non-compliance, quality ratings, achievement of standards and accreditations and
customer retention.

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Instructional Methodologies
Lecture:
Lecture is a valuable part of a Trainer's instructional repertoire if it is not used when other methods
would be more effective. If the presenter is knowledgeable; perceptive, engaging, and motivating,
then lecture can stimulate reflection, challenge the imagination, and develop curiosity and a sense of
inquiry. Criteria for the selection of the lecture method should include the types of experiences

Participants will be afforded and the kinds of learning outcomes expected. Because lecture is Trainer-
centred and Participant activity is mainly passive, the attention span of Participants may be limited.
Many Participants, because of learning style preferences, may not readily assimilate lecture content.
In addition, lectured content is often rapidly forgotten.

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Explicit Teaching
What is Explicit Teaching? Explicit teaching involves directing Participant attention toward specific
learning in a highly structured environment. It is teaching that is focused on producing specific learning
outcomes.

Topics and contents are broken down into small parts and taught individually. It involves explanation,
demonstration and practise. Participants are provided with guidance and structured frameworks.
Topics are taught in a logical order and directed by the Trainer.

Another important characteristic of explicit teaching involves modelling skills and behaviours and
modelling thinking. This involves the Trainer thinking out loud when working through problems and
demonstrating processes for Participants. The attention of Participants is important and listening and
observation are key to success.

What is its purpose?

Explicit teaching is useful for introducing topics and specific skills. It provides guided instruction in the
basic understanding of required skills, which Participants can then build on through practice,
collaboration, repetition, hands on activities and developmental play.

How do I do it?

Explicit instruction is a sequence of supports:

1. setting a purpose for learning

2. telling Participants what to do

3. showing them how to do it

4. guiding their hands-on application of the new learning.

Explicit instruction begins with setting the stage for learning, followed by a clear explanation of what
to do (telling), followed bymodeling of the process (showing), followed by multiple opportunities
for practice (guiding) until independence is attained. Explicit instruction moves systematically from
extensive Trainer input and little Participant responsibility initially — to total Participant responsibility
and minimal Trainer involvement at the conclusion of the learning cycle.

Drill & Practice

What is Drill & Practice?

As an instructional strategy, drill & practice is familiar to all educators. It "promotes the acquisition of
knowledge or skill through repetitive practice." It refers to small tasks such as the memorization of
spelling or vocabulary words, or the practicing of arithmetic facts and may also be found in more
sophicated learning tasks or physical education games and sports. Drill-and-practice, like
memorization, involves repetition of specific skills, such as addition and subtraction, or spelling. To be

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meaningful to learners, the skills built through drill-and-practice should become the building blocks
for more meaningful learning.

What is its purpose?

Drill and Practice activities help learners master materials at their own pace. Drills are usually
repetitive and are used as a reinforcement tool. Effective use of drill and practice depends on the
recognition of the type of skill being developed, and the use of appropriate strategies to develop these
competencies. There is a place for drill and practice mainly for the beginning learner or for Participants
who are experiencing learning problems. Its use, however, should be kept to situations where the
Trainer is certain that it is the most appropriate form of instruction.

Compare and Contrast

What is Compare & Contrast?

Compare and Contrast is used to highlight similarities and differences between to things. It is a process
where the act of classification is practiced. It is effectively used in conjunction with indirect
instructional methods, but can also be used directly to teach vocabulary signals, classification,
nomenclature and key characteristics. It is often presented in either written text paragraphs or a chart.
Its most common use is as a graphic organizer of content.

What is its purpose?

Compare and Contrast is used to help Participants distinguish between types of ideas or group like
ideas. It can be used to help Participants identify language cues, clarify thinking and define ideas.
It can also be used to facilitate indirect instruction through concept formation or concept attainment.

Problem Solving

What is Problem Solving?

There are two major types of problem solving - reflective and creative. Regardless of the type of
problem solving a class uses, problem solving focuses on knowing the issues, considering all possible
factor and finding a solution. Because all ideas are accepted initially, problem solving allows for finding
the best possible solution as opposed to the easiest solution or the first solution proposed.

What is its purpose?

The process is used to help Participants think about a problem without applying their own pre-
conceived ideas. Defining what the problem looks like is separated from looking at the cause of the
problem to prevent premature judgment. Similarly, clarifying what makes an acceptable solution is
defined before solutions are generated, preventing preconceptions from driving solutions. Some
people argue that problem solving is the art of reasoning in its purest form. In the classroom, problem

18 | P a g e
solving is best used to help Participant understand complex ethical dilemmas, think about the future
or do some strategic planning.

Reflective Problem Solving follows a series of tasks. Once you have broken the Participants into
groups, the Participants define the problem, analyse the problem, establish the criteria for evaluating
solutions, propose solutions and take action.

Define the Problem: List all the characteristics of the problem by focusing on the symptoms, things
affected, and resources or people related to defining the problem. In the end, pair down the thinking
to a clear definition of the problem to be solved.

Analyze the Problem: Use the evidence you collected in step one to decide why the problem exists.
This step is separate from defining the problem because when the steps are done together it is
possible to prejudge the cause.

Establish Criteria: Set a clear objective for the solution. If the problem is too hard, break the objectives
into two categories - musts and wants. Don't discuss solutions yet, just what criteria a solution must
meet.

Propose Solutions: Brainstorm as many different solutions as possible. Select the one that best meets
the objectives you stated as a part of the criteria for a solution.

Take action: Write a plan for what to do including all resources you will need to complete the plan. If
possible, implement the plan.

Creative Problem Solving uses the same basic focus, but the process is less geared towards solutions
and more towards a focus on brainstorming. The focus is on creating ideas rather than solving a clear
existing problem. Sometimes the problem is pre-defined, and the group must focus on understanding
the definition rather than creating it.

Orientation: Similar to defining the problem, orientation also focuses on being sure the group is
prepared to work together. The group might take the time to agree upon behaviors or ways of saying
things in addition to setting the context and symptoms of the issues. The group generates a series of
headings or topics that group must address.

Preparation and Analysis: Decide which headings are relevant or irrelevant. The group focuses on
similarities and differences between ideas and works on grouping them into like categories. The group
asks how and why a lot, and focuses on the root cause of the problem in a way that is similar to
analyzing the problem.

Brainstorm: The group generates as many potential solutions as possible. At this point, all ideas are
considered to be good ones.

Incubation: Before deciding which solution is the best, the group should leave the problem for as much
time as reasonable. Often several days or a week is ideal depending on the ages of the Participants.

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Leave enough time to develop distance but not long enough for Participants to lose the gist of their
earlier work.

Synthesis and Verification: Start by establishing the criteria for a good solution, then look at all the
brainstormed solutions and try to combine them to create the solution with the greatest numbers of
positives and the smallest numbers of negatives.

Case Studies:
What are Case Studies?

Case studies are stories or scenarios, often in narrative form, created and used as a tool for analysis
and discussion. They have a long tradition of use in higher education particularly in business and law.
Cases are often based on actual events which adds a sense of urgency or reality. Case studies have
elements of simulations but the Participants are observers rather than participants. A good case has
sufficient detail to necessitate research and to stimulate analysis from a variety of viewpoints or
perspectives. They place the learner in the position of problem solver. Participants become actively
engaged in the materials discovering underlying issues, dilemmas and conflict issues.

What is its purpose?

Used as a teaching tool, case studies are tools for engaging Participants in research and reflective
discussion. Higher order thinking is encouraged. Solutions to cases may be ambiguous and facilitate
creative problem solving coupled with an application of previously acquired skills. They are effective
devices for directing Participants to practically apply their skills and understandings. A proponent of
case use, Prof. John Boehrer, states that cases move "much of the responsibility for learning from the
Trainer on to the Participant, whose role, as a result, shifts away from passive absorption toward active
construction" Participants learn to identify delineate between critical and extraneous factors and
develop realistic solutions to complex problems.

Sample Case Study

CASE STUDY: STRESS FOR SUCCESS

(This case study was written by Charlotte B Milligan, Training Director, American Business
Management Publications, Inc.)

A case study

Sally: Mary, Hello! How are you? I have been thinking about you a lot lately. We never get together
anymore and I miss you. This morning I put you right at the top of my to-do list and made calling you
a number one priority.

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Mary: Thanks for calling, Sally. I've been so-so. Frankly, I've been a little depressed and so tired lately.
I never seem to get everything done. Between the house, my job, and my family, there just aren't
enough hours in the day. I've been getting up an hour earlier to catch up, and I'm still behind. I feel
like such a failure.

Sally: I am so glad I called today. We need to talk more than I imagined. I can't wait to share some of
the exciting new things that I've learned that have made my life so much easier. From the sound of
your voice, I think some of these things will help you. I feel it is important that we stay in touch. We
need to take care of ourselves. That includes keeping our special friendship going. Can we make a date
for a nice lunch for one day this week? Well plan to go somewhere special. We deserve to treat
ourselves. That is one of the new things I've learned to do. I've made a list of all the things I find
pleasurable and I pick at least one and do it every day.

Mary: You must be better organized than I am. I just don't have time to do something pleasurable for
myself. I'm such a mess.

Sally: Mary, It doesn't have to take a lot of time. It can be something as simple as buying a candy bar
you like and eating it. Or taking a bubble bath after the kids are in bed.

Mary: Sally, don't you feel guilty doing that?

Sally: No. Now when can we go to lunch?

Mary: I don't know when I can do it. I drop all the kids off at school at 8 a.m on my way to my part
time job; I'm trying to keep my hand in at the law office while the kids are small. I'd feel guilty wasting
all that education, just sitting home. Then, I have to pick up Johnny at 12.45 every day from
kindergarten. I drop him off at my mother's while I go to the office for a few hours to do John's billing
and accounting. He depends on me, so he can go to lunch with some of his business friends. He's so
busy this time of the year. I have an evening meeting at least two nights a week because I'm running
the scouting bazaar this month. They couldn't find anyone else to do it. The kids were going to be so
disappointed. I just couldn't say no when they asked me.

Sally: Mary, stop a minute. Take a deep breath. You are running a mile a minute. No wonder you are
exhausted and overburdened. If you can't say no to all those other requests, I must insist that you are
not to say no to me. This lunch is going to be a most important one for you. I am going to teach you
how to say 'No'. It can change your life. It has mine.

Mary: But, how can I possibly make time? I don't have anyone to help me. I do everything for
everyone. Everyone depends on me.

Sally: That is another thing we are going to talk about. For now, I have a suggestion, so that we can
get this plan started. First, does your mother drive?

Mary: Yes, but I hate to ask her for help. She has her hands full with Dad. I try to help her as much as
I can.

Sally: Marry, please listen! Just try my suggestion. What do have to lose? First, Talk to John about our
luncheon date. Ask him which day would be most convenient for him to stay in the office for lunch. If
necessary negotiate another time do the billing for that day. Then, call your mother and ask her if she

Zljpage
can pick up Johnny at school at 12.45 and take him home with her on that day. Of course, you will
have to make a to-do list of all the things that you have committed to this week that you can't delegate,
re-schedule or cancel before you know which day will be best for you.

Mary: I don't know, sally. I hate to ask people to do my jobs.

Sally: Mary, why are they your jobs? One of the things I've learned is that I can delegate some of my
jobs to other people at work and at home. It isn't necessary for me do everything myself. It wasn't
easy at first. Everyone was used to me doing all the jobs. I had to practice how to delegate, that is,
giving some of the less important jobs to other people to do. I had to practice just saying 'No'. The
hard part was figuring out what was important to me and what wasn't. That is another part of changing
this hectic merry-go round life. I really had to look at all the roles I play in life. Are they all necessary?
What does being a 'Momm/ mean? What does being a wife mean? I've started redefining my roles
and it has worked wonderfully well. I'll tell you exactly how to go about it when we meet for lunch. I'll
call you tomorrow morning to set up a definite date. Can't wait to see you. Bye.

Reflective Discussion

What is Reflective Discussion?

Reflective discussions encourage Participants to think and talk about what they have observed, heard
or read. The Trainer or Participant initiates the discussion by asking a question that requires
Participants to reflect upon and interpret films, experiences, read or recorded stories, or illustrations.
As Participants question and recreate information and events in a film or story, they clarify their
thoughts and feelings. The questions posed should encourage Participants to relate story content to
life experiences and to other stories. These questions will elicit personal interpretations and feelings.
Interpretations will vary, but such variances demonstrate that differences of opinion are valuable.

What is its purpose?

• to use questions to stimulate reflection and extend comprehension

• to challenge Participants' thinking by inviting them to interpret, infer, summarize, form
conclusions and evaluate selections
• to extend personal responses by considering the views of others
• to share personal thoughts, feelings and images evoked by literature selections, films,
_illustrations and experiences

How do I do it?

• Pose a question to initiate discussion.

• This question should be an inferential or open-ended question to which there is no single
correct answer.
• This question should require Participants to make an inference or assumption, or to interpret
what they have observed, heard or read.
• The first question should reveal Participants' understanding of the main theme, message or
purpose of the selection.

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 • Additional questions posed by Trainer and Participants should serve to clarify and extend
personal interpretations.
• Discussions should encourage Participants to relate events and characters to other selections
and to life experiences.
• Resulting questions, concerns or issues may be resolved by rereading passages or viewing
films a second time.

Concept Formation

What is Concept Formation?

Concept formation provides Participants with an opportunity to explore ideas by making connections
and seeing relationships between items of information. This method can help Participants develop
and refine their ability to recall and discriminate among key ideas, to see commonalities and identify
relationships, to formulate concepts and generalizations, to explain how they have organized data,
and to present evidence to support their organization of the data involved.

What is its purpose?

In this instructional method, Participants are provided with data about a particular concept. These
data may be generated by the Trainer or by the Participants themselves. Participants are encouraged
to classify or group the information and to give descriptive labels to their groupings. By linking the
examples to the labels and by explaining their reasoning, the Participants form their own
understanding of the concept.

Concept formation lessons can be highly motivational because Participants are provided with an
opportunity to participate actively in their own learning. In addition, the thinking process involved
helps them create new and expanded meaning of the world around them as they organize and
manipulate information from other lessons and contexts in new ways.

How do I do it?

Concept formation involves the recognition that some objects or events belong together while others
do not. Participants are provided with data about a particular concept and are encouraged to classify
or group the data. Once the objects have been grouped according to a particular categorization
scheme, the grouping is given a label. This type of strategy could be used when identifying different
terminology of computer software applications. Trainers may ask Participants to identify and list a
number of items found in a setting, group the items that belong together using common
characteristics, label the groupings, and rearrange and relabel items into subgroups, if Participants
feel that is possible. The Trainer is the initiator of the activity and guides Participants as they move
cooperatively through the task.

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What are Concept Maps?

A concept map is a special form of a web diagram for exploring knowledge and gathering and sharing
information. Concept mapping is the strategy employed to develop a concept map. A concept map
consists of nodes or cells that contain a concept, item or question and links. The links are labeled and
denote direction with an arrow symbol. The labeled links explain the relationship between the nodes.
The arrow describes the direction of the relationship and reads like a sentence.

rare
s*^ ^

What is its purpose?

Concepts maps can be used to:

• Develop an understanding of a body of knowledge.

• Explore new information and relationships.
• Access prior knowledge.
• Gather new knowledge and information.
• Share knowledge and information generated.
• Design structures or processes such as written documents, constructions, web sites, web
search, multimedia presentations.
• Problem solve options.

How can I do it?

1. Select
o Focus on a theme and then identify related key words or phrases.
2. Rank
o Rank the concepts (key words) from the most abstract and inclusive to the most
concrete and specific.
3. Cluster
o Cluster concepts that function at similar level of abstraction and those that interrelate
closely.
4. Arrange
o Arrange concepts in to a diagrammatic representation.
5. Link and add proposition
o Link concepts with linking lines and label each line with a proposition.

Suggestions:

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 • Use a top down approach, working from general to specific or use a free association approach
by brainstorming nodes and then develop links and relationships.
• Use different colors and shapes for nodes & links to identify different types of information.
• Use different colored nodes to identify prior and new information.
• Use a cloud node to identify a question.
• Gather information to a question in the question node.

Concept Attainment
What is Concept Attainment?

Concept Attainment is an indirect instructional strategy that uses a structured inquiry process. It is
based on the work of Jerome Bruner. In concept attainment, Participants figure out the attributes of
a group or category that has already been formed by the Trainer. To do so, Participants compare and
contrast examples that contain the attributes of the concept with examples that do not contain those
attributes. They then separate them into two groups. Concept attainment, then, is the search for and
identification of attributes that can be used to distinguish examples of a given group or category from
non-examples.

What is its purpose?

Concept attainment is designed to clarify ideas and to introduce aspects of content. It engages
Participants into formulating a concept through the use of illustrations, word cards or specimens
called examples. Participants who catch onto the idea before others are able to resolve the concept
and then are invited to suggest their own examples, while other Participants are still trying to form
the concept. For this reason, concept attainment is well suited to classroom use because all thinking
abilities can be challenged throughout the activity. With experience, participants become skilled at
identifying relationships in the word cards or specimens. With carefully chosen examples, it is possible
to use concept attainment to teach almost any concept in all subjects.

Advantages:

• helps make connections between what Participants know and what they will be learning
• learn how to examine a concept from a number of perspectives
• learn how to sort out relevant information
• extends their knowledge of a concept by classifying more than one example of that concept
• Participants go beyond merely associating a key term with a definition
concept is learned more thoroughly and retention is improved

Advantages:

• helps make connections between what Participants know and what they will be learning
• learn how to examine a concept from a number of perspectives
• learn how to sort out relevant information
• extends their knowledge of a concept by classifying more than one example of that concept

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 • Participants go beyond merely associating a key term with a definition
concept is learned more thoroughly and retention is improved

How do I do it?

Steps of Concept Attainment:

1. Select and define a concept

2. Select the attributes
3. Develop positive and negative examples
4. Introduce the process to the Participants
5. Present the examples and list the attributes
6. Develop a concept definition
7. Give additional examples
8. Discuss the process with the class
9. Evaluate

A Math example:

• First the Trainer chooses a concept to developed, (i.e. Math facts that equal 10)
• Begin by making list of both positive "yes" and negative" no" examples: The examples are put
onto sheets of paper or flash cards.
• Positive Examples: (Positive examples contain attributes of the concept to be taught) i.e. 5+5,
11-1,10X1, 3+4+4,12-2,15-5, (4X2)+2, 9+1
• Negative Examples: (for examples choose facts that do not have 10 as the answer) i.e. 6+6,
3+3,12-4, 3X3, 4X4,16-5, 6X2, 3+4+6, 2+(2X3), 16-10
• Designate one area of the chalkboard for the positive examples and one area for negative
examples. A chart could be set up at the front of the room with two columns - one marked
YES and the other marked NO.
• Present the first card by saying, "This is a YES." Place it under the appropriate column, i.e. 5+5
is a YES
• Present the next card and say, "This is a NO." Place it under the NO column, i.e. 6+6 is a NO
• Repeat this process until there are three examples under each column.
• Ask the class to look at the three examples under the YES column and discuss how they are
alike, (i.e. 5+5,11-1, 2X5) Ask "What do they have in common?"
• For the next tree examples under each column, ask the Participants to decide if the examples
go under YES or NO.
• At this point, there are 6 examples under each column. Several Participants will have identified
the concept but it is important that they not tell it out loud to the class. They can
howevershow that they have caught on by giving an example of their own for each column.
At this point, the examples are Participant-generated. Ask the class if anyone else has the
concept in mind. Participants who have not yet defined the concept are still busy trying to see
the similarities of the YES examples. Place at least three more examples under each column
that are Participant-generated.

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 • Discuss the process with the class. Once most Participants have caught on, they can define
the concept. Once they have pointed out that everything under the YES column has an answer
of 10, then print a new heading at the top of the column (10 Facts). The print a new heading
for the NO column (Not 10 Facts).

How can I adapt it?

This activity can be done on the chalkboard, chart paper or overhead projector to a large or small
group. It also works well as one-on-one work. Rather than starting with the Trainer's concept, use a
Participant's concept. Concept attainment can be used to introduce or conclude a unit of study.

Variations on the Concept Attainment Model

• Present all of the positive examples to the Participants at once and have them determine the
essential attributes.
• Present all of the positive and negative examples to the Participants without labeling them as
such. Have them group the examples into the two categories and determine the essential
attributes.
• Have the Participants define, identify the essential attributes of, and choose positive examples
for a concept already learned in class.
• Use the model as a group activity.

Assessment and Evaluation Considerations

Have the Participants:

• write the definition from memory.

• determine positive and negative examples from a given group.
• create their own examples of the concept.
• "think aloud"
• write a learning log
• do an oral presentation
• create a web, concept map, flow chart, illustrations, KWL chart, T chart

Independent Study
What is Independent Study?

Independent study refers to the range of instructional methods which are purposefully provided to
foster the development of individual Participant initiative, self-reliance, and self-improvement. While
independent study may be initiated by Participant or Trainer, the focus here will be on planned
independent study by Participants under the guidance or supervision of a classroom Trainer. In
addition, independent study can include learning in partnership with another individual or as part of
a small group.

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Computer Assisted Instruction
Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) refers to instruction presented on a computer.

What is its purpose?

Computer programs can allow Participants to progress at their own pace and work individually or
problem solve in a group. Computers provide immediate feedback, letting Participants know whether
their answer is correct. If the answer is not correct, the program shows Participants how to correctly
answer the question. Computers offer a different type of activity and a change of pace from Trainer-
led or group instruction. Also, computer-assisted instruction moves at the Participants' pace and
usually does not move ahead until they have mastered the skill.

How do I do it?

Typically CAI programs incorporate functions such as:

• Assessing Participant capabilities with a pre-test

• Presenting educational materials in a navigable form
• Providing repetitive drills to improve the Participant's command of knowledge
• Providing game-based drills to increase learning enjoyment
Assessing Participant progress with a post-test
• Routing Participants through a series of courseware instructional programs.
• Recording Participant scores and progress for later inspection by a courseware instructor.

Journal Writing
What is Journal Writing?

Journal writing is a learning tool based on the ideas that Participants write to learn. Participants use
the journals to write about topics of personal interest, to note their observations, to imagine, to
wonder and to connect new information with things they already know.

What is its purpose?

Using journals fosters learning in many ways. Participants who use journals are actively engaged in
their own learning and have the opportunity to clarify and reflect upon their thinking. When
Participants write in journals, they can record such things as ideas and feelings, special words and
expressions they have heard, interesting things that have happened to them or information about
interesting people. Journal writing offers Participants opportunities to write without fear often
associated with marking. Every journal entry is individualized.

How do I do it?

Journals can be used throughout the day, at different times of the day and for different purposes.

1. Decide what type of journal you want to use in your classroom. Think about the purpose of
the journal and how will you use it.

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 2. Prepare materials. Your Participants' journals may be looseleaf notebooks or folders.
Individual pages should be contained in some way so that they are not lost over time.
3. Model initial entries. Using an overhead projector or classroom chart, work together to write
a sample response. Participants can copy the class response in their own journal or write one
of their own.
4. Schedule time for regular journal use. Participants are all engaged in the act of writing and
this enables individuals to generate ideas, observations and emotions.

While you should not grade or correct the writing in journals - only finished pieces should be used for
grading -you could comment on your Participants' writing. Offer suggestions, constructive remarks,
questions, and encouragement whenever possible. Sometimes Participants will respond to the
Trainer's comments.

One of the biggest problems with writing journals is that some Participants use them simply as a way
to record the day's events. They slip into the routine of writing diary entries without reflection or real
purpose. You can reduce this by encouraging your Participants to write about a variety of topics and
take what they feel are the better entries and develop them into finished pieces.

Journals offer Participants the opportunity to reflect on their world and expand their awareness of
what is happening in their lives. For many Participants journals become a rich source of ideas for
writing.

Learning Logs
What are Learning Logs ?

Learning logs are a simple and straightforward way to help Participants integrate content, process,
and personal feelings. Learning logs operate from the stance that Participants learn from writing
rather than writing what they have learned. The common application is to have Participants make
entries in their logs during the last five minutes of class or after each completed week of class. The
message here is that short, frequent bursts of writing are more productive over time than are
infrequent, longer assignments.

How do I do it?

The most valuable result of learning logs is that as Participants write to learn, they also learn to
recognize their own and other's good work. Both learning logs and journals assist the learning process.
Journals are free flowing , subjective relying on opinion and personal experience. Learning logs are
concise, objective factual and impersonal in tone.

Logs can include problem-solving entries from mathematics or science, observations from lab
experiments, questions about lectures or readings, lists of books Participants have read or would like
to read and homework assignments.

The following questions could be used to guide Participants in making thoughtful entries in their
learning logs:

• What did I do in class today?

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 • What did I learn?
• What did I find interesting?
• What questions do I have about what I learned?
• What was the point of today's lesson?
• What connections did I make to previous ideas of lessons?

Experiential Learning

What is Experiential Learning?

Experiential learning is inductive, learner centered, and activity oriented. Personalized reflection
about an experience and the formulation of plans to apply learning to other contexts are critical
factors in effective experiential learning. The emphasis in experiential learning is on the process of
learning and not on the product.

Experiential learning can be viewed as a cycle consisting of five phases, all of which are necessary:

• experiencing (an activity occurs);

• sharing or publishing (reactions and observations are shared);
• analyzing or processing (patterns and dynamics are determined);
• inferring or generalizing (principles are derived); and,
• applying (plans are made to use learning in new situations).

Debates

What is Debating?

Debating is a structured contest of argumentation in which two opposing individuals or teams defend
and attack a given proposition. The procedure is bound by rules that vary based on location and
participants. The process is adjudicated and a winner is declared.

What is its purpose?

The intent of the strategy is to engage learners in a combination of activities that cause them to
interact with the curriculum. Debate forces the participants to consider not only the facts of a situation
but the implications as well. Participants think critically and strategically about both their own and
their opponent's position. The competitive aspects encourage engagement and a commitment to a
position.

Debates require Participants to engage in research, encourage the development of listening and
oratory skills, create an environment where Participants must think critically, and provide a method
for Trainers to assess the quality of learning of the Participants. Debates also provide an opportunity
for peer involvement in evaluation

How can I adapt it?

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Debating can be employed as an instructional strategy wherever the circumstances are open to
opposing points of view.

Assessment and Evaluation

The nature of the debating process sets up a fairly clear group of criteria for evaluation. Debates may
be used as assessment tools or be the summative activity in course of study. Evidence of research,
understanding of procedures and indication of critical thinking are aspects for evaluation. Dunbar
suggests that the adjudicator (the Trainer) can assess six categories. These are: analysis, reasoning,
evidence, organization, refutation, and delivery. A team may lose the debate but still have been very
successful in their efforts.

Brainstorming

What is Brainstorming?

Brainstorming is a large or small group activity which encourages Participants to focus on a topic and
contribute to the free flow of ideas. The Trainer may begin by posing a question or a problem, or by
introducing a topic. Participants then express possible answers, relevant words and ideas.
Contributions are accepted without criticism or judgement.

Initially, some Participants may be reluctant to speak out in a group setting but brainstorming is an
open sharing activity which encourages all participants to participate.

By expressing ideas and listening to what others say, participants adjust their previous knowledge or
understanding, accommodate new information and increase their levels of awareness.

Trainers should emphasize active listening during these sessions. Participants should be encouraged
to listen carefully and politely to what their classmates contribute, to tell the speakers or the Trainer
when they cannot hear others clearly and to think of different suggestions or responses to share.

What is its purpose?

• to focus Participants' attention on a particular topic

• to generate a quantity of ideas
• to teach acceptance and respect for individual differences
• to encourage learners to take risks in sharing their ideas and opinions
• to demonstrate to Participants that their knowledge and their language abilities are valued
and accepted
• to introduce the practice of idea collection prior to beginning tasks such as writing or solving
problems
• to provide an opportunity for Participants to share ideas and expand their existing knowledge
by building on each other's contributions

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It is important for the Trainer to:

• Establish a warm, supportive environment.

• Emphasize that a quantity of ideas is the goal.
• Discourage evaluative or critical comments from peers.
• Encourage and provide opportunity for all Participants to participate.

Discussion

What is Discussion?

A discussion is an oral exploration of a topic, object, concept or experience. All learners need frequent
opportunities to generate and share their questions and ideas in small and whole class settings.
Trainers who encourage and accept Participants' questions and comments without judgement and
clarify understandings by paraphrasing difficult terms stimulate the exchange of ideas.

What is its purpose?

• to help Participants make sense of the world

• to stimulate thought, wonder, explanation, reflection and recall
• to provide opportunities for Participants to clarify and expand their ideas and those of others
• to promote positive group interaction and conversation
• to demonstrate questioning techniques

How can I do it?

• Open-ended Discussions:
o Open-ended discussions begin with a sincere question (to which there is no one
correct or concise answer) posed by Trainer or Participant.
o All listeners consider the question.
o Incorporate pauses after Participants' responses to encourage extended or different
responses.
o Clarify Participants' responses when necessary.
o Establish Participant-Participant dialogues during the discussion whenever possible.
o Respect Participants' questions and their responses.
o Model the role of sensitive listener, collaborator, mediator, prompter, learning
partner and questioner.

• Guided Discussions:
o Guided discussions begin with Trainer-posed questions that promote the exploration
of a particular theme, topic or issue.
o Through discussion, Participants should achieve a deeper understanding of the topic.
o After some time is spent on Trainer-directed questioning, Participants should be
encouraged to facilitate discussions by continuing to formulate and pose questions
appropriate to the topic of study.

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 • Talking Stick Circles or Discussions:
o Talking stick circles or discussions can be used to encourage Participants to reflect on
experiences or discuss feelings.
o The Participants gather in a circle.
o The participant holding an assigned object or the talking stick has the option of
speaking while other circle participants listen.
o Once speakers have shared their comments and opinions, they pass the stick or object
to the person next to them.
o Talking circles can be used with a large group or small groups, or with inner-outer
circle formations.

Instructional Skills
What are Instructional Skills?

Instructional skills are the most specific category of teaching behaviors. They are necessary for
procedural purposes and for structuring appropriate learning experiences for students. A variety of
instructional skills and processes exist.

Explaining
The teacher spends much classroom time explaining or demonstrating something to the whole class,
a small group, or an individual. Student resource materials typically do not provide extensive
explanations of concepts, and students often need a demonstration in order to understand
procedures.

Some explanations are given to help students acquire or deepen their understanding of a concept,
while others help students understand generalizations. Concerning the former, the teacher must
select an appropriate concept definition and appropriate examples and nonexamples. Regarding the
latter, Shostak (1986) suggests that an explanation can show:

• a cause and effect relationship (for example, to show the effect of adding an acid to a base);
• that an action is governed by a rule or law (for example, to show when to capitalize a noun);
• a procedure or process (for example, to show the operation of solving a mathematical
equation); or,
• the intent of an activity or process (for example, to show the use of foreshadowing in drama).

Demonstrating
The teacher spends much classroom time explaining or demonstrating something to the whole class,
a small group, or an individual. Student resource materials typically do not provide extensive
explanations of concepts, and students often need a demonstration in order to understand
procedures.

33 | P age
Much student learning occurs through observing others. A demonstration provides the link between
"knowing about" and "being able to do." Research reveals that demonstrations are most effective
when they are accurate, when learners are able to see clearly and understand what is going on, and
when brief explanations and discussion occur during the demonstration

Questioning

Among the instructional skills, questioning holds a place of prominence in many classrooms. When
questioning is used well:

• a high degree of student participation occurs as questions are widely distributed;

• an appropriate mix of low and high level cognitive questions is used;
• student understanding is increased;
• student thinking is stimulated, directed, and extended;

Good questions should be carefully planned, clearly stated, and to the point in order to achieve specific
objectives. Teacher understanding of questioning technique, wait time, and levels of questions is
essential. Teachers should also understand that asking and responding to questions is viewed
differently by different cultures.

The teacher must be sensitive to the cultural needs of the students and aware of the effects of his or
her own cultural perspective in questioning. In addition, teachers should realize that direct
questioning might not be an appropriate technique for all students.

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Questioning Technique

The teacher should begin by obtaining the attention of the students before the question is asked. The
question should be addressed to the entire class before a specific student is asked to respond. Calls
for responses should be distributed among volunteers and non-volunteers, and the teacher should
encourage students to speak to the whole class when responding. However, the teacher must be
sensitive to each student's willingness to speak publically and never put a student on the spo

Levels of Questions

While the need for factual recall or comprehension must be recognized, teachers also need to
challenge students with higher level questions requiring analysis, synthesis, or evaluation. The
consideration of level is applicable at all grade levels and in all subject areas. All students need the
opportunity to think about and respond to all levels of questions. Teacher probes or requests for
clarification may be required to move students to higher levels of thinking and deeper levels of
understanding.

Wait Time

Wait time is defined as the pause between asking the question and soliciting a response. Providing
additional wait time after a student response also allows all students to reflect on the response prior
to further discussion. Increased wait time results in longer student responses, more appropriate
unsolicited responses, more student questions, and increased higher order responses. It should be
noted that increased wait time is beneficial for students who speak English as a second language or
English as a second dialect.

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