Batch 2021/22

Amanullah Khan Ibrahimi

An Overview of Urban Flooding in Afghanistan

 Abstract

According to recent studies, the incidence of natural disasters with a negative impact on human
life and infrastructure is increasing throughout the world. Due to the increasing urban population,
urban flood is the leading natural hazard to the human being. This study discussed urban flooding
as a serious natural hazard and its devastating impact on Afghan cities. Afghanistan is highly
prone to various natural hazards due to its complex topography and varying climate. The arid
climate of Afghanistan mostly leads to seasonal flooding which results in several deaths and huge
economic losses. Urban flooding in the monsoon season is common in most cities of Afghanistan.
Several factors cause urban floods and makes them adverse. Poor drainage systems and increasing
informal urban settlement are the main reasons for making urban floods worse in Afghanistan.
Flood is the most deadly and prevalent natural hazard in country, causing average annual damage
of US$ 54 million and affecting around 100,000 people annually. This study has also discussed
the role of spatial planning in possible risk reduction due to urban floods and has provided several
strategies to overcome the urban flood. Rainwater harvesting, permeable streets and improved
drainage systems can significantly reduce the urban flood risk.

Keywords: Urban Flooding, Complex Topography, Climate Change, Informal Urban Settlement,
Introduction:

With the passage of time, Human beings are witness of several types of natural disasters. For
instance; earthquakes, floods, land sliding, drought etc. As shown from the name, natural disasters
are natural phenomena. However, with ongoing rapid and unplanned urbanization, human
activities are also playing role in happening of natural disasters like floods and land sliding. Since
the beginning of civilization, floods have significant impact both on rural and urban spaces. In the
beginning, people were trying to give floods a religious explanation and there was a common belief
among people that God is angry so we are facing such problems. However, now experts and
professionals are studying, researching and trying to overcome this in a well-managed way.
Urban spaces are the engine of growth where opportunities, knowledge and capital can come
together. Cities provide services, for example, health facilities, education, transportation,
employment opportunities, energy etc. In the most current Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) assessment report on impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability, the world's economic
losses due to inland flooding were placed third only after coastal flooding and food insecurity as
the world's most serious climate threats (Field et al, 2014). In urban areas, floods referred to as
urban flooding can disrupt activities, damage private and public properties and infrastructure,
contaminate water resources, erode streams and riverbanks cause loss of life and prevent daily
activities (Rahman and Rob, 2019). Urban areas can be affected significantly and huge economic
losses can result due to flooding as a result of heavy rainfall, the topography of the site, soil
characteristics and the permeability of the surface (Baky, Islam and Paul, 2019). Urban floods are
significantly different from rural floods because urbanization leads to developed catchment areas,
which increases the flood peaks by 1.8 to 8 and the flood volume by up to 6 times. As a result,
floods occur very rapidly due to faster flow times (NDMG, 2010). Flooding is a universal
phenomenon, and its occurrence and severity have been on the rise in many parts of the world
(Boudiaf, Dabanli and Åžen, 2020).
The predominantly arid climate of Afghanistan often leads to periodic flooding that causes
several deaths and the destruction of thousands of homes due to heavy rainfall, melting snow or a
combination of both. Floods account for 54.3% of disasters in Afghanistan, 26.5% of deaths, and
33.5% of losses to the economy between 1990 and 2014 (EDMAT, 2015). In 2012, a heavy
downpour in Kabul, Afghanistan's capital city, produced significant flash flooding in numerous
areas of the city, particularly the most populated districts 6th and 13th district (Hakimi, 2012). The
flood flooded the Kabul River, destroying several homes along the river's edge and damaging
drinking water supplies. In 2019, floods in eight provinces, including Kandahar, killed 20 people,
washed away thousands of houses, and forced many families who had previously been displaced
by drought to flee their homes for the second time (Janjua and Mc Veigh, 2019).
Several studies state that problem of urban flooding is projected to worsen. The first is the rising
number of urban dwellers; the world's population is getting more urbanized (Hammond et al,
2015). According to the United Nations (UN), the world's urban population has overtaken that of
rural regions, and the world's urban population is expected to increase both in absolute terms and
as a percentage of a growing world population. The world's population is expected to grow by 2.3
billion people between 2011 and 2050, from 7.0 billion to 9.3 billion. At the same time, the urban
population is expected to increase from 3.6 billion in 2011 to 6.3 billion in 2050. This reflects an
increase in the world population from 51% to 68 % (UNDESAD, 2012). As more people relocate
to cities, green areas ultimately become impermeable, increasing urban runoff, and as more people
reside in densely populated metropolitan areas, frequently on flood plains and low-lying coastal
regions, their exposure to flood threats increase (Hammond et al, 2015). Between 2018 and 2050,
Afghanistan's urban population is expected to grow by approximately 15% (Masood et al, 2018).
This will have a substantial impact on flooding frequency and intensity. Understanding Afghan
urban floods is consequently critical for the country's long-term development.
Due to four decades of war and lack of resources, enough studies have not been conducted
about urban floods in Afghanistan. In the coming sections, this paper will give a brief description
of geography, climate, hazardous, vulnerability and risk profile of Afghanistan. Furthermore, this
paper will discuss the recent floods damages happened in different cities of the country especially
in capital Kabul.

Key Information of the region (Afghanistan)

Afghanistan is located at the crossroad of central and south Asia within 33°56'20.8'' N Latitude
and 67°42'35.8'' E Longitude. Afghanistan is bordered on the west by Iran, in north with
Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and China and the east by Pakistan. The current population
of Afghanistan is 38 million with a population growth rate of 2.33% in 2021. Kabul is the capital
city of Afghanistan located in the center of the country. Afghanistan's topography is mostly
dominated by tall, intimidating mountains which cover 75% of the area and arid deserts. The steep
mountain peaks are frightening, and for the most of year, they are covered with snow. The Hindu
Kush Mountain range, which stretches from northeast to southwest and separates Afghanistan into
several geographical areas, dominates the country's landscape. Climate, soil, terrain, vegetation,
and other geographical characteristics all have a role. This considerable geographic variability also
provides a wide range of living and agricultural situations (Amin and Schilz, 1976). Many Afghans
farm their crops and care for their livestock in the verdant valleys between the mountains. Fields
cover roughly 20% of the total land area.

Figure 1: Physical Geography of Afghanistan

Climate of Afghanistan

Afghanistan has four seasons spring, summer, autumn and winter. However, the dry continental
climate is dominating in the largest part of the country with hot and dry summers and cold winters.
In the south and east part of the country, temperature rise to 50oC in summer and 20oC in winter.
In mountainous areas temperatures drop to -25oC in winter. This mountain region receives a lot of
snow, and many settlements are cut off from the outside world for up to four months. The
precipitation is low in Afghanistan. Afghanistan has an average annual rainfall of 300 millimeters.
However, rainfall varies across the country depending on the region and altitude. The south is arid,
primarily desert-covered, and many regions are cold due to altitude. Because of the impacts of the
Indian monsoon, the far eastern section of the country receives more rain than the rest of the
country (Manawi et al, 2020). In the eastern part of the country, like Kunar and Nuristan have an
average rainfall of 1000mm.

Figure 2: Afghanistan Average Rainfall from 2006-2020

Hazardous Profile of Afghanistan

Afghanistan is highly prone to many natural hazards due to complex topography, varying
climate and arid to semi-arid conditions with clear varying temperatures in cold and warm seasons.
However, natural hazards like flooding are getting worse due to climate change and unplanned
urban growth. After Haiti, Afghanistan is the second country with low income which face a high
number of fatalities from natural disasters between 1980 and 2015. For every 1 million residents,
1150 people die due to natural hazards (GFDRR and WBG, 2017). Afghanistan faces serious
impacts of climate change and disasters which will impact growth prospects. Flooding is the most
dangerous and frequent natural hazard in Afghanistan which cause average annual damage of US$
54 million and about 100,000 people are negatively affected by flood annually (Khalid, 2018). For
example, in April 2014 a disastrous flood in northern provinces of the country affected almost
70,000 residents and caused damaged to public infrastructure, houses, and thousands of hectares
of agricultural land with standing crops (ADB, 2014). Despite the dry, low-precipitation climate,
flood danger is prevalent throughout Afghanistan. Although data is limited, there is enough
evidence to conclude that flooding kills at least 100 people per year and that Afghanistan is a
regional disaster hotspot (WBG, ADB, 2021).
Urban flooding in the major cities of Afghanistan is mostly caused by local heavy rainfall,
mountainous topography and inadequate drainage system. For example, the main cause of floods
in Kabul city is due to its geographical location surrounded by mountains. There are several other
reasons which play a key role in urban flooding in Afghan cities as follow:
• Lack of flood protection infrastructure and poor operation and maintenance of existing
infrastructure
• Land-use change in urban areas with lacking drainage systems for the runoff of surface water.
• Building construction on river banks without considering the flood risk.
• Rapid growing Informal settlement.
• Groundwater recharge limitation due to increase in concrete from the street pavement.
• Temperature is rising due to climate change which causes fast snowmelt.
Afghanistan is expected to warm faster than the rest of the world, with a possible temperature
change of 1.4°C–5.4°C by the 2080s and 2090s relative to the 1986–2005 baseline. The wide range
of probable temperature rises emphasizes the huge disparities in emissions pathways for the
twenty-first century (WBG, ADB, 2021).

Figure 3:AFGHANISTAN: Natural Disaster Events Snapshot (31 January - 11 June 2016) Source: (OCHA)
Vulnerability profile

Given the frequency of risks and their impacts in Afghanistan, it's also important to evaluate
the vulnerability of infrastructure and homes. High levels of poverty, poorly maintained or broken
infrastructure, fast urbanization, unplanned development, and lack of accessibility all contribute
to urban and rural vulnerabilities across the country (UNDRR, 2020). Natural disasters have
affected 9 million people and killed over 20,000 individuals since 1980, with floods being the most
common and destructive threat in the country (GFDRR and WBG, 2017). Floods are a concern in
big cities due to poor drainage systems, and heavy rainfall, quick snowmelt, and a lack of
vegetation in hilly areas contribute to the risk of flooding.
Kabul is the most affected province by flood population-wise. An average of 2000 people
annually get affected by floods (World Bank, GFDRR, 2017). According to some studies, the
annual average total number of affected people by flooding is approximately 100,000 and
potentially cost almost US$500 million in Afghanistan. Due to climate change, the affected
number of people will be more than double by 2050. Flooding in April-May 2014 affected 90,000
people with a displacement of 20,000 people in the northern part of the country. This flood cost
over US$ 100 million in the shape of infrastructure, houses and agriculture damage (World Bank,
GFDRR, 2017).

Population living in Hazard Area

Figure 4:Afghanistan's population living in hazard area. Source (GFDRR)

 Economic loss in Hazard Area

Figure 5: Economic loss in hazard area. Source: (GFDRR)

Major Urban Flooding in Afghanistan

Due to climate change, the rainfall pattern is sometimes unpredictable and the proportion of
rainfall volume per unit time has been changed in many countries and a lot of rain happens in less
time. Such situations can cause serious disasters even in cities having proper sewerage and
drainage system. The heavy rain makes the drainage system inadequate which leads to floods and
watersheds. As mentioned earlier in this paper, Afghanistan is highly prone to natural disasters,
especially floods and watersheds. The most destructed year from flooding point of view was 2014
and its damages has been summarized in figure 6. The following table is showing the recent flood
disaster record.

Figure 6: Overview of Flood-Affected Areas in 2014. Source: (OCHA)

 Flood Incident Record 2012-2021
Year City/ Province Death Injuries Infrastructure loss (Economical
Loss)
July,2021 Takhar City, Kamdesh, 113 --- 173 houses, 30 shops, 7 bridges,
Nuristan standing crops on 360 hectares, 600
families displaced.

May,2021 Herat, Ghor, Wardak, 16 --- 44 homes destroyed, 197 damaged

Baghlan, Samangan, Khost,
Bamyan, Daikundi,
Badakhshan
August, Logar, Wardak, Kapisa, 145 167 390 houses destroyed, 483 severely
2020 Parwan, Kabul, Nuristan, damaged,
Kunar, Laghman and
Nangarhar
March- Nangarhar, Takhar, Kapisa, 13 17 288 houses destroyed, 583 houses
April 2020 Ghor damaged, 150 families displaced
May, 2019 Kabul, Parwan, Ghour, 24 11 221 houses destroyed 116 houses
Herat, Bamyan and Ghazni damaged
April 2020 Herat, Parwan,Kapisa, 16 --- 266 houses destroyed; 1000 families
Panjshir, Logar, Farah, displaced
Wardak, Badakhshan,
Jawzjan, Faryab, Kabul,
Zabul, Ghazni, Laghman
and Kunar
March Farah, Kandahar, Hilmand, 63 31 140 schools ,4874 houses destroyed,
2019 Hirat, Kapisa, Parwan, 7,567 houses damaged, approximately
Zabul and Kabul 30,000 people displaced.

Jawzjan, Badghis, Kabul,

Badakhshan, Bamyan, 12,967 families affected, 2,863
2014 669 ---
Takhar, Faryab, Balkh, families displaced
Ghor, Baghlan, Sarpul,

2013 All 34 Provinces 353 --- Destruction and damage of houses,

public infrastructure, schools

Destruction and damage of houses,

2012 All 34 Provinces 274 ---
public infrastructure, schools
Table 1:Major Urban Flood in Afghanistan 2012-2021

Figure 7: (a) A view of Urban Flood in Kabul, Afghanistan (b) A view of urban flood in Charikar, Afghanistan
Institutional Framework of Disaster Management

The National Disaster Management Commission, which is led by the Second Vice President
and includes representatives from key ministries, is the apex body in Afghanistan's disaster
management system. The National Commission is the main organization in charge of establishing
national policy direction for disaster risk reduction and emergency response (NDMP, 2010).
Members of the National Commission represent key sectors that play an important role in disaster
management. The Afghanistan National Disaster Management Authority (ANDMA), which also
serves as the National Commission's Secretariat, is the main implementing organization at the
national level. Province-level Disaster Management Committees/Commissions (PDMCs) serve
as the provincial counterparts to the National Commission. The PDMCs serve as a critical
connection between the national disaster management process and the subnational disaster
management processes at the provincial, district, and municipal levels (NDMP, 2010). The
National Commission has the following responsibilities and the executive Authority:
• Determining the major directions for disaster preparedness and management.
• If a serious tragedy strikes the country, a meeting will be called.
• Declare a national emergency in the country and, when appropriate, declare it over.
• To take steps to save lives and eliminate disaster-causing factors.
• Using the available resources from the respective government ministries and departments
• Using the available resources from the respective Government Ministries and Departments,
take actions to prevent, relieve, recover, and rehabilitate.
• Distribute funds from the National Emergency Fund to the affected agencies and province
governments.
The institutional Framework for disaster management is shown as bellow:
Main National In- Collaborated Institutions
Supervision
charge Institution Governmental Private
National Disaster
Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation
Management Council NGOs
and Development
(NDMC)
Afghanistan National
National Environmental
Disaster Management
Protection Authority
2nd Vice Authority (ANDMA)
President Ministry of Energy and Water
Ministry of Urban Development
Ministry of Education
Ministry of Public Health
Ministry of Agriculture and
Livestock

The detail structural of responsible authorities for disaster management from the national
level to district level is shown in the given figure:
Figure 8: Afghanistan Institutional Structure of disaster Management

Traditional strategies to combat flooding in Afghanistan

The residents of the area are the first people who try to combat when a flood happens. People try to
avoid the entrance of floodwater in their houses. In a high-risk area, related municipalities distribute sand
fill bags to keep floodwater away. Local Shora (council) is creating awareness about the flood in their
community to avoid construction near rivers and risky water bodies. The Local community is cultivating
as much land as possible. This is playing a key role in reducing flood risk in remote areas.

Figure 9: Use of sand fill bags to stop water entrance into houses.

Spatial planning role in possible risk reduction

Spatial planning can play a key role in risk reduction caused by flood. Planning is important in
defining and implementing infrastructure and design standards. Infrastructure and design may help
adapt urban systems and improve their resistance to the effects of climate change (Solomon, S.,
Manning, M., Marquis, M., & Qin, D. , 2007). Spatial planners can have a beneficial and strategic
role in developing urban resilience to combat climate change effects by introducing and promoting
various planning and design standards with adoptive qualities (Sanchez-Rodriguez, 2009). There
are several strategies by which we can minimize the urban flood risks.
1. Rain water harvesting
Rainwater harvesting is the collection of rainwater from surfaces where it falls and storing it
for later use. Water is collected from building roofs and stored in a tank for this purpose. These
strategies will lessen flood damage by encouraging additional rooftop rainwater collection systems
for optimal groundwater recharge. An alternative strategy can be digging of small water-absorbing
well on the lawn of houses. This rainwater should be channeled to the small well (60cm radius)
where this water will be absorbed by the ground gradually. This strategy can also help in keeping
the water table stable.
2. Green Roofs
The term "green roof" refers to a roof that is covered with plants. Larger green roofs in urban
areas can capture more rainfall and limit the spread of heavy rain into the ground. Furthermore, a
green roof absorbs heat and act as an insulator for building. This kind of roofs can minimize the
demand of heat for cooing and heating purposes of heat.
3. Permeable Street Surfaces

As cities and suburbs continue to grow in size, more and more non-permeable pavement is
constructed. Non-permeable surface runoff is not a natural phenomenon. Permeable pavements
assist in the restoration of natural hydrologic balance and the reduction of runoff volume by
trapping and slowly releasing precipitation into the ground rather than allowing it to flow into
storm drains and into receiving waterways as effluent.

4. Improved drainage system

In urban flood risk areas, a better drainage system can help to reduce the impact of flooding.
Water and sewerage discharge channels may be kept clean and free by segregating sewage and
rainwater discharge drains. Rainwater infiltration into the earth is also improved by proper
discharge. As a result, the groundwater may be refilled, which is important because the water table
is dropping every day. Furthermore, sophisticated technology for identifying broken pipes, as well
as routine maintenance of water and sewage lines, can assist in resolving the issue before it
becomes larger and more problematic for city dwellers.
Further strategies can also be considered by related planning authorities especially in case of
flood events;
• Improvement of public awareness about risk management
• Installing an early public warning system
• Better land use planning and taking standard setbacks from rivers for locating structures.
• Risk assessment and mapping to identify regions at risk of urban floods, as well as the
frequency, severity, and effect.
• Enforce urban planning building codes in risky areas.
• Building codes should be updated to include more flood-resistant buildings in flood risk areas.
• Technical flood protection measures (e.g., construction or improvement of dikes, flood
protection walls, retention ponds, river dams, barrages for low-lying developments).
 For the adaptation of long-term solution, urban planning related authorities and professional
urban planner should focus on sustainable land use planning (Shalaby and Aboelnega, 2017). In
order to mitigate climate change in urban areas, following measure can help;
• Identification of climate-proof sites as well as alternative urban development sites.
• Land use regulations and building codes are used to control the types of land use and
development in urban areas.
• Retrofitting and constructing settlements that are adaptable to climate change disaster
circumstances (e.g., building elevation).
• Relocation of urban residents who are at danger from climate change.
• Engineering measures and climate-proof infrastructure building (for example, the construction
and upgrading of embankments).

Conclusion

Flooding is a global problem that has been increasing intensively day by day in many places of
the world. The Flood caused by excessive rainfall, the geography of the site, soil characteristics,
and the permeability of the surface can have a substantial impact on urban areas, resulting in
enormous economic losses. The predominantly arid climate of Afghanistan often leads to periodic
flooding that causes several deaths and the destruction of thousands of homes due to heavy rainfall,
melting snow or a combination of both. The Afghan people have become more vulnerable to
dangers as a result of the last 4 decades of conflict, which has increased the impacts of disasters.
Flooding is the most frequent and dangerous natural hazard in Afghanistan. Floods in the last
twenty years have resulted in a big cost to the government of Afghanistan and these floods have
killed, injured and displaced a big number of people. Flood accounts for over 50% of natural
disasters in Afghanistan and approximately 35% of economic loss and one-fourth of deaths are
due to flood ( (EMDAT, 2015). Kabul, Herat and Charikar have faced worse floods in 2012 and
2019 which has killed hundreds of people and more than 100,000 were displaced, over 2,000
thousand houses were destroyed and 6000 houses were damaged.
With the help of international organizations, Afghanistan has an institutional framework to
mitigate natural disasters and respond to them on time. The National Disaster Management Plan
(NDMP) of Afghanistan aims to standardize the country's disaster management systems. This plan
has introduced clear and identifiable rules and responsibilities for each responsible authority, for
example; responsible ministries, National commission, Afghanistan National Disaster
Management Authority (ANDMA) along with other provincial and district level authorities
working under them. However, these plans and rules will be fruitful when responsible ministries
and organizations will implement them by taking practical action to minimize the disaster risks.
Flood risk mitigation can be aided by spatial design. By introducing and promoting various
planning and design standards with adopting features, spatial planners may play a valuable and
strategic role in improving urban resilience to resist climate change effects. Several measures may
be used to reduce the danger of urban flooding. Rain harvesting, a green roof, permeable streets
and a proper drainage system can help to minimize significantly the urban flood occurrence in
cities. If municipalities maintain the drainage system and keep them clean with the cooperation of
local communities, stormwater will move fluently to the nearby rivers and water bodies and will
help in avoiding floods in cities. In addition to this, responsible authorities should prevent to
locating and settling in areas that are prone to flood risk.
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