Reservoir

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Reservoir Topics − Basics

Black Oil
A Critical
Dewpoint line
Pressure, psia
Point
Pressure path in reservoir →
A1 Liquid %
90
80
• Reservoir Management
Line 70 0
int 6
lepo S
50
40
bb
Bu
30
20
10
Separator Conditions
t line
poin
Dew
Temperature, °F
• Fluid Properties & PVT Analysis
• Reservoir Rocks Properties
Reservoirs
DP
Exponential
• Reserves & Recovery Methods
• Types of Flow, Flow Performance Relationships & Nodal
analysis.
Pressure, psi
Hyperbolic
• Pressure Measurements (SGS, PBU − PTA & MDT) Analysis &
Harmonic
dP Gas Wells Deliverability Tests
Time, hrs
• Downhole Production Problems

• Reservoir Simulation
1 2
Reservoir Management
• Oil & gas are un-renewable energy source so a good reservoir
management should be applied to maximize the recovery.
• Reservoir Management is an ongoing dynamic process of collecting,
analyzing, validating & integrating reservoir description data & performance
data into an optimal reservoir development & depletion plan.
• Of course, there is a GOOD, BAD & STUPID reservoir management.
Reservoir Management
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Main Roles & Tasks for Reservoir Engineer Reservoir Management Team
• Main task & responsibility of the reservoir engineer is to answer the • Reservoir & Petroleum Engineers must remember that their success is
following questions: anchored to a good understanding of other disciplines concerned with
their mission.
− How much oil & gas is originally in place, Original Hydrocarbon In
Place (OHIP)? • Successful reservoir management requires synergy & team efforts.
− What are the drive & the trapping mechanisms of the reservoir? • Involvement of work with an integrated team of geologists,
geophysicists, petrophysicists & engineers from other disciplines.
− What is the recovery factor & the optimum time scale for the
hydrocarbon recovery by the primary depletion, applying water/gas & • Teamwork divides the task & multiplies the success.
any of the enhanced oil recovery methods (EOR)?
− How can the recovery be increased economically?
− What will be the field development strategy & future production rate
from the reservoir?
− What cost-effective data (PVT, core & reservoir monitoring and
surveillance programs) is needed to answer these above questions?
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Reservoir Management Team Formation Evaluation

• Reservoir management is NOT ONLY a reservoir engineering or a reservoir What is Formation Evaluation (FE)?
geology work but in order to manage & develop a reservoir in an effective
way, a multi-disciplinary integrated team is formed which consists of: • Formation Evaluation (FE) is the process
of interpreting a combination of some
1. Management staff measurements recorded inside a wellbore
10 1
9 2 2. Reservoir Engineer to detect, evaluate & quantify the
hydrocarbon reserves inside the reservoir.
8 3 3. Production Engineer
• Formation Evaluation (FE) data provides
4 4. Operation Engineer reservoir engineers with the formations
7
5. Drilling Engineer geological & physical parameters
6 5 necessary to construct a fluid flow model
6. G & G staff for the reservoir.
7. Chemical Lab. Engineer • Formation Evaluation (FE) data can be
8. Economist gathered with wireline logging tools (open
hole log & MDT data) after finish drilling a
9. HSE
well & before running the casing or by
10. Contractor Representative logging while drilling tools.
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Formation Evaluation Reservoir Life Process

This is a Formation Evaluation Data Integration • During the life of the reservoir (range from a few years to many
Openhole logs MDT decades), a lot of subsequent operations is applied in order to exploit the
reservoir with a highly beneficial way.
• Reservoir life process is a long journey to have oil in hand.
• This journey can be summarized with the following reservoir life process.
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Reservoir Life Process Types of Production Agreements

Appraisal & • In the Production Contractual Agreement (PCA), the state as the owner of
Exploration Discovery hydrocarbon resources represented by the government or any of its
Delineation
During appraisal phase, National Oil Company (NOC) engages a Foreign Oil Company (FOC) as a
delineation wells might be
drilled to determine size of the
contractor to provide technical & financial services for exploration,
successful exploration & how development, operations & production.
Risky due to lack of information & uncertainty to most efficiently develop it.
Agreement Development & Production • Foreign Oil Company (FOC) acquires an entitlement to a stipulated share
of the hydrocarbon produced as a reward for the risk taken & services.
• The state, however, remains the owner of the hydrocarbon produced

To set the establishment of a
joint committee where both subject only to the contractor’s entitlement to its share of production.
parties are represented to define
who will monitor the operation
• The government or its NOC usually has the option to participate in
Primary Secondary Tertiary Abandonment different aspects of the exploration & development process.
Recovery Recovery
Water Recovery
injection well
Water
Oil
Permanently close the

Oil bank wells due to no economic
income in this phase
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Types of Production Agreements Production Phases

• There are some common types of contractual arrangements for 1. Production build up may exist depends on devolvement strategy.
petroleum exploration & development such as: 2. Peak oil production is the theorized point in time when the maximum
production rate is reached.
1. Joint Exploration & Development Agreements (EDA). 3. Plateau phase where production is maintained @ the desired
production rate (duration depends on economics of project).
2. Production Sharing Agreement (PSA). 4. Decline phase start when reservoir is not able to deliver the desired
production rate.
3. Joint Exploration & Production Sharing Agreement (EPSA). 5. Abandonment rate depends on size of project & operating costs.
4. Joint Development & Production Sharing Agreement (DPSA). Peak oil 2

production 3
4
1
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Production Phases
• For small fields, the plateau phase may be very short, while large
fields can stay several decades @ the plateau production level.
Peak oil Plateau

Fluid Properties
& PVT Analysis
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Adsorption & Absorption Boiling & Evaporation

• Adsorption & Absorption both are one of the most important physical or • In general, Boiling & Evaporation are the processes of converting the
chemical mass transfer processes by which one substance becomes liquids to vapor which are a direct function of pressure & temperature.
attached to another substance.
• Boiling process occurs on the ENTIRE MASS of the liquid when it is
• Adsorption is a surface phenomenon in which a component(s) from a gas heated @ a temperature GREATER than the boiling point of this liquid
phase or a liquid phase are attached to the surface of a solid phase that cause it turns to a vapor.
when gas phase or liquid phase is in contact to the solid phase.
• Evaporation or vaporization process occurs ONLY ON THE LIQUID
• Absorption is a process in which a component(s) from a gas phase move SURFACE when it is changed to a vapor @ a temperature BELOW its
& transfer into a bulk of a liquid phase when they are in contact. normal boiling point.
Absorption
Adsorption
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Condensation Saturated & Undersaturated Reservoir

• Condensation process is the opposite of vaporization process & occurs • Saturation pressure (Ps) is the pressure of a vapor @ which it is in
when a water vapor is cooled & turns to a liquid when be in contact equilibrium with its liquid (as steam with water).
with a solid surface.
Equilibrium Undersaturated Saturated
• Bubble point pressure (Pb) is the saturation pressure @ in case of

liquids @ which the first bubble of the gas is liberated from the oil.
• Dew point pressure (Pd) is the saturation pressure @ in case of gases
@ which the first droplet of the liquid is dropped out from the gas.
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Phase Diagram − Phase Envelop Phase Diagram − Phase Envelop

• Phase Diagram or Phase Envelop is a plot shows & describes the • The properties exhibited by any substance depend upon its phase,
variation in the composition of any substance under the variation in whether it is in solid, liquid or gaseous phase.
pressures & temperatures. • Substances can be classified into two types:
• It also shows the temperatures & pressures @ which the various phases − Pure or single component system such as water with its three cases
are in equilibrium. of phase existence, i.e., liquid, solid & gaseous (the water vapor).
• It is necessary to be able to predict phase changes as the temperature − Multicomponent system is the mixtures which consist of several pure
& pressure vary when fluids pass from the reservoir to the surface individual substances (components) such as hydrocarbons.
facilities, so that the appropriate subsurface & surface developments
plans can be made.
• This change in pressure & temperature result in two types of phase
change in the produced fluids in both reservoir & surface facilities:
− Liquid may condense from the produced gas.
− Gas may evolve from the produced liquid.
• Two phases reach the state of equilibrium (attains its minimum energy
level) when no changes variation of composition occur with time if the
system is left @ the prevailing constant pressure & temperature.
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Phase Behavior of a Pure Component Phase Behavior of a Pure Component

• This plot show how the isothermal pressure change (which is a common • This plot show how temperature affects fluid phase @ a constant
assumption for hydrocarbon production) affects fluid phase @ a constant pressure for a pure component system.
temperature for a pure component system.
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• A phase transition is the transition from one state of substance to another. • This is a pressure-temperature phase change diagram for a glass filled
There are three states of substance: liquid, solid, and gas. with one component (water) with its three cases of phase existence, i.e.,
liquid, solid & gaseous (the water vapor).
• This is a general simple pressure-temperature phase change diagram for
a substance that it state depends on pressure & temperature.
Liquid
water
Pressure
Ice
solid
water
Vapor
water
Temperature
25 26

• This is a typical pressure−temperature phase behavior for a pure • Labels on the graph represent the stable states of a system in
component system. equilibrium, i.e., either solid phase, liquid phase or vapor phase.
• The major features of a phase diagram are phase boundaries, triple
point & critical point.
Compressible liquid
Critical point
Triple point
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• Lines on the pressure-temperature (P−T) phase equilibrium diagram • Vaporization, melting & sublimation curves are all terms refer to a
represent the conditions of (P) & (T) where @ least two phases of ANY certain state of a substance which are related to the presence of
SUBSTANCE co-exist in equilibrium with each other. equilibrium conditions between phases (solid, liquid & vapor) on the
phase equilibrium diagram @ different temperatures & pressures.
• In other words, these lines define phase change points.
Compressible liquid Compressible liquid
Critical point Critical point

Triple point Triple point
29 30
Vaporization or Condensation Curve Melting or Freezing Curve

• Vaporization (or Condensation) curve or (Vapor pressure line) is the • Fusion (Melting or Freezing) curve is the line separate between solid &
line separate between liquid & vapor phases that represent transition liquid phases that represent transition between solid to liquid (Melting) &
between liquid to gas (Vaporization) & transition between gas to liquid transition between liquid to solid (Freezing).
(Condensation).

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Sublimation or Deposition Triple Point

• Sublimation (or Deposition) curve is the line separate between solid & • Triple point: it is a point on a phase diagram where the
vapor phases that represents transition between solid to gas vaporization, melting & sublimation curves are all
(Sublimation) & transition between gas to solid (Deposition). intersect @ which the three states of matter solid, liquid
& vapor phases all co-exist in a stable equilibrium.

33 34
Critical Point Phase Behavior of Multi Component

• Critical point: it is a point on a phase diagram that • For a multi-component system, as the pressure drops, the compositions
terminates the liquid/gas phase line & above it liquid of both liquid & gas phases change continuously.
do not convert to vapor because their densities being
• @ the bubble point pressure, the first gas appears & @ the dew point
equal makes them indistinguishable from each other.
vapor alone remains.
• One consequence of this behavior is that the pressure- temperature plot is
Compressible liquid no longer a simple curve as for the single pure component system but
instead, it is an envelope.
• P-T Phase Diagram or Phase Envelop is a graphical representation of
the physical states of a HYDROCARBON SYSTEM (either liquid or gas
or both together) under different conditions of temperatures &
Critical point
Triple point pressures.
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Phase Behavior of Multi Component Phase Behavior of Multi Component

• This is a hydrocarbon phase diagram for multi components system that • The various lines between the bubble point & dew point lines are labeled
has pressure plotted on Y-axis & temperature plotted on X-axis. with the percentage of liquid that shows the percentage of liquid & gas
stability in equilibrium @ these conditions of different temperatures &
• Phase envelope inside which the two phases coexist, is bounded by
pressures.
these two lines.
• Bubble point line define liquid • @ point (X), the fluid consists of
stability (liquid to be a gas). (60%) liquid & (40%) gas.
• Dew point line define gas • On the bubble point line, fluid is
stability (gas to be a liquid). (100%) liquid (i.e., 0% gas)
while on the dew point line, fluid
• The bubble-point line divides
is (0%) liquid (i.e., 100% gas).
the liquid stability region (only X
liquid present) from the mixed • The densities of vapor & liquid
liquid & gas region while the phases approach each other as
dew-point line divides the 100% Gas the temperature increases. 100% Gas
mixed liquid & gas region from • They become equal @ pressure
the gas stability region (only & temperature condition known
gas present). as the critical point.
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Phase Behavior of Multi Component Phase Behavior of Multi Component

• Both bubble point & dew point lines meet @ the CRITICAL POINT • This figure summarize the change in hydrocarbon phase behavior
where all properties differences between the two phases vanish & the under the change of pressures & temperatures.
two phases become indistinguishable (gas & liquid phases become
identical). All liquid
• Maximum pressure defined by

this envelope is known as the First gas bubble
Bubble point
CRICONDENBAR above which pressure
liquid & gas phases cannot
coexist.
Pressure
40% liquid
• Maximum temperature defined

X
by the envelope is known as the
Pressure
Dew point
Last drop of liquid pressure
CRICONDENTHERM above
which the liquid & gas phase
100% Gas
cannot coexist.
All vapor
Temperature Volume
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Classification of Hydrocarbon Reservoirs Classification of Hydrocarbon Reservoirs

• Based on P-T Phase Diagram (Envelop), reservoirs are classified as: • Oil Reservoirs: reservoir temperature < critical point temperature (Tc) of
the reservoir fluid.
Oil Reservoirs:
Black oil & Gas condensate Gas • Black Oil Reservoir: Black oil & Gas condensate Gas
Volatile oil & retrograde gas Volatile oil & retrograde gas
• Black oil reservoir & Volatile reservoirs
reservoir
reservoirs
reservoir
reservoirs
− Critical temperature of the reservoirs
oil reservoir 100% Liquid 100% Liquid
fluid > the initial temperature.
• Under-Saturated reservoir.
− During the production life of
• Saturated reservoir. the reservoir, no gas will be
produced.
− The lowest GOR and the
Gas Reservoirs:
lowest API.
• Dry Gas reservoir.
100% Gas 100% Gas
• Wet Gas reservoir.

• Retrograde
Gas−Condensate reservoir.
41 42

• Volatile Oil Reservoir: • In case of under-saturated oil reservoirs when an isothermal pressure
drop occurs from point (C) in the liquid region to point (C1) @ the bubble
− Critical temperature of the fluid is ≈ the initial temperature.
point line, gas begins to be liberated out of solution from the liquid.
− During the production, substantial amount of gas will be produced.
Black oil & Gas condensate Gas Black oil & Gas condensate Gas
Volatile oil & retrograde gas reservoir • Gas liberation & coming out of Volatile oil & retrograde gas reservoir
• Under-saturated Oil Reservoir: reservoirs reservoirs reservoirs reservoirs
solution increases reservoir
100% Liquid 100% Liquid
Oil is NOT completely saturated fluid compressibility that in
with gas that occurs when initial turns reduce liquid oil C
reservoir pressure (Pi) > bubble recovery from the reservoir. C1
point pressure (Pb). • Pressure maintenance is
• Saturated Oil Reservoir: used to prevent liquid oil
reservoirs from crossing the
Oil is completely saturated with bubble point line.
gas that occurs when initial 100% Gas 100% Gas
reservoir pressure (Pi) ≤ bubble

point pressure (Pb).
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• Dry & Wet Gas Reservoirs: reservoir temperature > cricondentherm • Dry Gas Reservoir:
temperature of the reservoir fluid. − Critical temperature of the fluid is less than the initial temperature.
− The compositions is mainly Methane (C1).
• Retrograde Gas−Condensate Black oil & Gas condensate Gas Black oil & Gas condensate Gas
Reservoirs:
Volatile oil
reservoirs
& retrograde gas
reservoirs
reservoir − Consider an isothermal Volatile oil
reservoirs
& retrograde gas
reservoirs
reservoir
A
100% Liquid reduction in pressure from 100% Liquid
Critical point temperature (Tc) reservoir pressure @ point (A)
< Reservoir Temperature < to the surface separator
cricondentherm temperature conditions point @ point (A1).
of the reservoir fluid.
− Gas still dry (no liquids)
during the lifetime of the
reservoir through reservoir
fluid production path (P-T) in
100% Gas 100% Gas
both conditions from the
A1
reservoir to surface
A2
separator conditions
45 46

• Wet Gas Reservoir: • Retrograde Gas−Condensate Reservoir:
− Critical temperature of the fluid is less than the initial temperature. − Reservoir temperature is such that it falls between the critical point
− It is dry gas in the reservoir as @ point (A). temperature (Tc) & the cricondentherm temperature of reservoir fluid.
− But when pressure reaches

Black oil &
Volatile oil
Gas condensate Gas − It is called retrograde Black oil &
Volatile oil
Gas condensate Gas
& retrograde gas reservoir & retrograde gas reservoir
the dew point pressure value, reservoirs reservoirs A because the reservoir fluid reservoirs reservoirs
then there will be a liquid 100% Liquid production path (P-T) then has 100% Liquid B
condensate dropped out a complex history.

from gas inside the reservoir B1
− To understand this retrograde
that is may be accumulated performance let’s consider an
& remains immobile without isothermal pressure drop
recovered. from point (B).
− Or may be moved inside the − Initially, @ the initial reservoir
reservoir, separated in the 100% Gas
pressure (Pi) @ point (B), it is 100% Gas
tubing & produced @ the A1 a dry gas (vapor phase) in the

surface separator conditions A2 reservoir that expands as the
as @ point (A2). pressure & temperature drop.
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• Retrograde Gas−Condensate Reservoir: • Retrograde Gas−Condensate Reservoir:
− This occurs until the reservoir fluid production path (P-T) path crosses − If we pressurize the system, liquid will vaporize & vapor not
the dew point pressure (Pd) line @ point (B1). condense that is opposite to the normal trend & expected behavior.
− @ this point (B1), amounts of Black oil & Gas condensate Gas − This is called an isothermal Black oil & Gas condensate Gas
Volatile oil & retrograde gas reservoir Volatile oil & retrograde gas reservoir
liquids start condense from reservoirs reservoirs retrograde condensation. reservoirs reservoirs
the vapor phase instead of 100% Liquid B − An isobaric retrograde 100% Liquid B
expanding when pressure is condensation also exists as a
decreased. B1 scientific phenomenon but B1
− If reservoir pressure reduce does not occur in the

further below the dew point predominantly isothermal
pressure (Pd) during the conditions of hydrocarbon
production, then reservoir fluid reservoirs.
production path (P-T) path go 100% Gas
− @ the surface separator 100% Gas
below the dew point pressure conditions as @ point (B3),
(Pd) line below point (B1) condensate produced @ the
B3
where the condensed liquid surface results from a vapor
may reevaporate. existing in the reservoir.
49 50

• These figures summarize the 5 different hydrocarbon reservoir fluids • These figures summarize the 5 different hydrocarbon reservoir fluids
on the P-T phase diagram. on the P-T phase diagram.
Volatile oil V 1 Critical
Black Oil point
Dewpoint line

2
A Critical
Pressure, psia
Dewpoint line
Pressure, psia
Point
90
% Liquid
ne
A1
t li
90 0 Liquid %
in
po
60
8 0
50
e
le
Lin 7 0
bb
t
40
oin 6
Bu
lep S
50
30
bb
40
Bu 3
20
30
20
10
10
Separator Conditions line Separator

oint line
Dewp oint
Dewp
Temperature, °F
Temperature, °F
Retrograde Gas Condensate Pressure path

in reservoir
G Dry Gas
1 R 1 G
Wet Gas 1
Pressure path in reservoir → Pressure path to Separator →
2
R1 Pressure path to Separator →
Pressure, psia
Pressure, psia
e
 Pressure path in reservoir

lin
ne
Pressure, psia
t li
t
 Pressure path in reservoir

oin
in
Critical po
wp
point ew
De
D
ne
Critical
t li
% Liquid point
in
% Liquid % Liquid
300
po
4
le
20
15 R2
ne
bb
2 2 Pressure depletion in the reservoir

t
Pressure depletion in the reservoir

t li
oin
Bu
3
G1 G1
in
lep
po
10
30
25
5
w
1
bb
De
Low pressure at the surface separator

50
Bu
25
Separator G2 Low pressure @ the surface separator

1
5 0 Gsep.
Temperature, °F Temperature, °F Temperature, °F
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Classification of Hydrocarbon Reservoirs PVT Analysis

• This table summarizes the compositions of the 5 reservoir fluids. • PVT is referring to Pressure-Volume-Temperature measurements for the
• Note that moving from dry gas to black oil, there is a decrease in (𝐂𝟏 ) hydrocarbons during the production life of the reservoir.
component, increase in (𝐂𝟕+ ) components, significant decrease in GOR & • PVT data is the core information for many calculations in reservoir &
increase in the specific gravity of (𝐂𝟕+ ) components, indicating that petroleum engineering such as:
greater fractions of denser hydrocarbons are present in the (𝐂𝟕+ ).
‒ Provides data for field evaluation over exploration & development
phases & for surface facilities design & well flow calculations.
‒ Simulate reservoir fluid behavior during the production process to
predict future reservoir performance.
‒ Material balance calculations to calculate the Hydrocarbon Initially In
Place (HIIP), drive mechanisms indices & the recovery factor.
• PVT data comes from laboratory experiments reports & many published
known PVT correlations.
• PVT tests are performed in the laboratory by changing the pressure,
volume & temperature in order to determine some properties of fluids
for a given field such as for example Oil, Gas & Total (two phase)
Formation Volume Factors, Gas in solution or Gas Oil Ratio (GOR).
53 54
Oil Formation Volume Factor (βo) Oil Formation Volume Factor (βo)
• Oil Formation Volume Factor (OFVF) or (βo) measured in “res. bbl/STB” • This is a typical shape for the Oil Formation Volume Factor (OFVF) or (βo)
is a ratio between the oil volume @ the reservoir conditions (Vres) to its behaviour with pressure.
volume @ standard conditions (Vsc).
2.0 Saturated Under-saturated
1.8 𝐕𝐨 @ res. cond.

bo, res bbl/STB
𝛃𝐎 =
𝐕𝐨 @ stand.cond.
1.6
(b o)
1.4
𝐕𝐨 @ res. cond.
𝛃𝐎 =
𝐕𝐨 @ stand.cond. 1.2
Pb = 4200
1.0
𝒓𝒆𝒔. 𝒃𝒃𝒍 0 2000 pb
4000 6000
𝛃𝐨 = = Pressure, psig
𝑺𝑻𝑩
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Gas Formation Volume Factor (βg) Gas Formation Volume Factor (βg)
• Gas Formation Volume Factor (GFVF) or (βg) measured in “ft3/scf” is • BUT from Equation of State (EOS) → PV = znRT
defined as volume of free gas @ reservoir conditions that can produce
V nzRT/P Psc T z 𝐓𝐳
(1 scf) of gas @ surface standard conditions OR it is volume of (1 scf) of 𝛃𝐠 (ft3/scf) = = = = 0.0283
Vsc znRT/P @ sc P Tsc zsc 𝐏
gas that will occupy as free gas when it is brought to reservoir conditions.
• Mathematically, it is a ratio between the free gas 𝐓𝐳 𝐓𝐳
volume @ reservoir conditions (Vg-res) to its 𝐕𝐠 @ res. cond. 𝛃𝐠 (ft3/scf) = 0.0283 𝛃𝐠 (res. bbl/scf) = 0.00504
volume @ the standard conditions (Vg-sc). 𝛃𝐠 = 𝐏 𝐏
𝐕𝐠 @ stand. cond.
• Reciprocal of gas formation volume factor (βg) is known as gas expansion
Free gas factor (Eg) that is often used to reduce risk of misplacing decimal point
1 as (βg) is less than (0.01).
𝒇𝒕𝟑
𝛃𝐠 = = 𝐏 𝐏
3 𝒔𝒄𝒇 𝐄𝐠 (scf/ft3) = 𝟑𝟓. 𝟑𝟕 𝐄𝐠 (res. bbl/scf) = 𝟏𝟗𝟖. 𝟒𝟏
1 Tz Tz
3
• Both gas formation volume factor (βg) & gas expansion factor (Eg) are
used to calculate the volume which a subsurface quantity of gas will
Solution gas occupy @ surface conditions when gas sales contracts are negotiated
Stock tank oil & gas is subsequently sold.
57 58
Gas Formation Volume Factor (βg) Gas Oil Ratio (GOR)

• This is a typical shape for the Gas Formation Volume Factor (GFVF) or • There are 3 types of Gas Oil Ratio (GOR), all are expresses in “scf/STB”.
(βg) behaviour with pressure.
• Solution GOR. i.e., gas solubility (Rs).
• Instantaneous GOR.
0.0009 Saturated Under-saturated • Cumulative GOR (Rp).
0.0007
bg, ft3/scf
(b g) 0.0005
𝐕𝐠 @ res. cond.
0.0003 𝛃𝐠 = 𝐕
𝐠 @ stand. cond.
Pb = 4200
0.0001
0 2000 4000 6000
Pressure, psig
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Gas in Solution or Gas Solubility (Rs) Gas in Solution or Gas Solubility (Rs)
• Gas in solution (Rs) or gas solubility that measure the tendency of the • This is a typical shape for gas in solution (Rs) behaviour with pressure.
gas to dissolve in or evolve from the oil with changing pressure.
• Gas solubility (Rs) in crude oil increases with the increase of pressure
• Solubility of gas in oil is a function of pressure, temperature & the until it reaches the saturation pressure (Pb). Gas solubility (Rs) is
compositions of both gas & oil. constant @ any pressure above saturation pressure (Pb).
• It is defined as a ratio between the SURFACE total gas volume @ 2000 Saturated Under-saturated
standard conditions to the standard tank barrel oil volume.
𝐕𝐠 𝟏 1500
Rs, scf/STB
𝐕𝐠 𝟐 𝐕𝐠 = 𝐕𝐠 𝟏 + 𝐕𝐠 𝟐 𝐑𝐬 =
𝐕𝐨 @ stand. cond.
(Rs) 1000
𝐑𝐬 = 500
𝐕𝐨 @ stand. cond.
Pb = 4200
𝐑𝐬 𝒔𝒄𝒇 0
= 0 2000 4000 6000
= 𝑺𝑻𝑩 Pressure, psig
61 62
Gas in Solution or Gas Solubility (Rs) Instantaneous GOR

• Gas solubility (Rs) decreases as the temperature increases. • Instantaneous GOR @ any time is defined as the ratio between the
TOTAL gas volume (free gas & solution gas) produced @ standard
• @ constant pressure & temperature, gas solubility (Rs) in crude oil will
conditions to the standard tank barrel oil volume produced.
decrease with the decrease of specific gravity of gas (gg).
• As long as the evolved gas remains immobile, i.e., gas saturation (Sg) is
• @ constant pressure & temperature, gas solubility (Rs) in crude oil will less than the critical gas saturation (Sgi), then the Instantaneous GOR
increase with the increase of APIo gravity of the crude oil. equal to Gas in Solution or Gas Solubility (Rs) → GOR ≥ Rs.
• Gas solubility (Rs) is dependent on the type of gas liberation processes.
GOR = Rs
i.e., flash liberation process produces much bigger gas solubility as
Rs Qo + Qg
compared to differential liberation one. GOR =
Qo
krg
GOR = Rs + kro
μo βo
μg βg k rg μo βo
GOR = Rs +
k ro μg βg
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Instantaneous GOR Total Formation Volume Factor (βt)

• Cumulative GOR (Rp) is defined as the ratio between the cumulative • Total (two phase) Formation Volume Factor (TFVF) or (βt) measured in
total gas produced (Gp) to the cumulative oil produced (Np). “res. bbl/STB“ is a ratio of TOTAL LIQUID volume (oil + dissolved gas)
@ reservoir conditions divided ONLY by its resulting stock tank oil @
standard conditions.
Cumulative total gas produced Gp
𝐑𝐩 =
Cumulative oil produced
=
Np 𝛃𝐭 = βo + [βg * (R sb − R s )]
Rsb → is the gas in solution (solution GOR) @ bubble point pressure (Pb)
• This Cumulative GOR (Rp) should be distinguished from the

Instantaneous GOR. +
1
1 2
3 𝒓𝒆𝒔. 𝒃𝒃𝒍
𝛃𝐭 = =
2
4
𝑺𝑻𝑩
4 Stock tank oil
65 66
Total Formation Volume Factor (βt) Oil Viscosity

• This is a typical shape for the total Formation Volume Factor (FVF) or (βt) • Oil Viscosity (mo):
behaviour with pressure.
‒ VISCOSITY is the INTERNAL RESISTANCE of fluid to flow. By anther
words, how much force (energy) is required to cause fluid to flow.
2.0 Saturated Under-saturated ‒ Higher viscosity values correspond to low flow rates.
‒ Viscosity is measured in centipoise (cp) = dyne*sec / cm2
1.8
βt = βo
bo, res bbl/STB
βt ‒ Typical crude oil viscosity is (0.5) to (1.5) cp.

1.6 𝛃𝐭 = βo + [βg * (R sb − R s )] ‒ EXTERNAL RESISTANCE to flow is called a FRICTION.
(b t) βo
1.4
1.2
Pb = 4200
1.0
0 2000 pb
4000 6000
Pressure, psig
67 68
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Oil Viscosity Oil Viscosity

• Oil Viscosity (mo): • Oil Viscosity (mo):
‒ Depending on pressure, crude oil viscosity can be classified into ‒ This is a typical oil viscosity plot with pressure.
three categories:
‒ Below bubble point pressure, it is drastically increases with
o Dead Oil Viscosity (mod): it is crude oil viscosity @ standard pressure decreases due to gas comes out of solution until reaches
pressure & temperature. the dead oil viscosity (mod) @ the atmospheric pressure.
o Saturated Oil Viscosity (mob): it is crude oil viscosity @ any mod
pressure less than or equal to the bubble point pressure @
reservoir temperature.
mob
mo
Oil viscosity
o Under-Saturated Oil Viscosity (mo): it is crude oil viscosity @ a
pressure above the bubble point pressure @ reservoir
Atmospheric
temperature. pressure
Bubble point
pressure
Pressure
69 70
Oil Viscosity Oil Density

• Oil Viscosity (mo): • Oil Density (r) is defined as the mass per unit volume, lbm/ft3.
‒ Oil viscosity is function of the temperature, pressure, specific • When the pressure decreases above the bubble point pressure, the
gravity, gas solubility & composition. solution gas-oil ratio remains constant. As a result, the single-phase oil
‒ Oil viscosity is a strong function of temperature (it decreases as starts expanding, becoming relatively less dense, until the pressure
temperature increases). reaches the bubble point pressure.
High
• On the other hand, when the pressure decreases below the bubble point
pressure, more gas is liberating from the liquid phase, making the oil
much denser.
Oil viscosity
Low
20 40 60 80 100
Temperature
71 72
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Oil API Gravity Oil API Gravity

• Oil API Gravity is another presentation of • In fact, there is a clear REVERSE RELATIONSHIP between oil viscosity
the density, high API gravity indicate light 141.5 & oil API gravity.
(low-density) crude oil while low API API = − 131.5
γo
gravity indicate heavy (denser) crude oil.
• This is a typical API vs. sp. gravity.
− APIo + APIo
+ Viscosity − Viscosity
73 74
Oil Compressibility Oil Compressibility

• Oil Compressibility (Co) measured in (psi-1) is defined as a change in • Compressibility is a source of energy for fluid flow in the reservoir (it is
the unit volume (DV) per unit change in pressure (DP) @ specific the dominant drive mechanism in the under-saturated reservoirs).
temperature (T).
• Above bubble point pressure
(under-saturated condition), oil is
−1 𝜕Vo −1 𝜕βo a single-phase liquid (consisting
𝐂𝐨@𝐓 = V 𝜕P @T
= V 𝜕P @T of oil & dissolved gas) so, oil
compressibility (Co) is low & a
weak function of pressure.
V: Initial volume before compression.
𝜕V, 𝜕b o & 𝜕P: change in volume, oil formation volume factor & pressure. • But @ & below the bubble point
pressure (saturated condition),
• Assuming oil compressibility (Co) does not change with pressure gas comes out of solution
Above bubble point pressure,
between conditions 1 & 2 then causing a sharp increase in oil
compressibility (Co) is low
compressibility (Co) that becomes
V2 1 a much stronger function of
𝐂𝐨@𝐓 = Ln ∗ pressure.
V1 P1 − P2
75 76
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Gas Viscosity Measurements Gas Viscosity Measurements

• Unlike oil, gases viscosity increases as Temperature increases. • Experimentally, direct measurement of gas
 (m )
i =n
• This is due to the increase in the frequency of the gas intermolecular viscosity (mg) in the lab is difficult since it yi MWi
gi
requires a very sensitive sensors.
collisions @ higher temperatures (i.e., molecules move closer together
mg = i =1
 (y )
& collide more frequently). • Instead, if gas composition & the viscosities i =n
• Gases viscosity increases as Pressure increases. of gas components are known, the mixing i MWi
rule can be used to determine gas viscosity. i =1
• Typical gas viscosity is (0.01) cp “crude oil viscosity is (0.5) to (1.5) cp”.
Gas
• Also, there are some correlations based on different gas properties are
Gas viscosity
commonly used to estimate gas viscosity.

Viscosity
A
μg = A1 ∗ 10−4 exp A2 ρg 3
Liquid
Temperature Pressure
77 78
Gas Compressibility Factor (z) Gas Compressibility Factor (z)

• Gas compressibility factor or gas deviation factor (z‐factor) is NOT the • This is gas compressibility factor (z‐factor) performance vs pressure @
same as gas compressibility (Cg). constant temperature.
• The gases are divided into ideal (perfect) gas & real (non-ideal) gas. • z-factor for an ideal gas @ standard conditions (60 °F & 14.7 psia) is (1).
• For an ideal gas @ low pressure: • For an actual (non-ideal) gas, z-factor is greater or less than one,
− Volume of gas molecules is insignificant. depending on the pressure & temperature.
− Attractive & repulsive forces between molecules are ignored.
− Maintain their energy when they collide with each other.
• @ high pressures & low temperatures this is not true since, under these
conditions, volume of the molecules themselves is no longer negligible
& the molecules, being more closely packed, exert appreciable attractive
forces on each others.
• z‐factor is defined as the ratio between the REAL (non-ideal) gas volume
to the IDEAL gas volume @ specific pressure (P) & temperature (T).
Real volume of gas @ specified P&T
𝐳=
Ideal volume of gas @ the same P&T
79 80
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Gas Compressibility Factor (z) Gas Compressibility Factor (z)

• z-factor is measured in the lab using the Burnett apparatus. • Pseudo reduced pressure (Pr) = P / Pc
• If the gas compressibility factor • Pseudo reduced temperature (Tr) = T / Tc
(z‐factor) measurement is not
• (P), (Pc) & (Tc) are the gas pressure, pseudo critical pressure &
available, so it can be estimated
pseudo critical temperature respectively for a mixture of gases.
from correlations or this z-factor
chart that depends mainly on both • The law of corresponding states expressed that all pure gases have the
pseudo-reduced temperature (Tr) same z-factor @ the same reduced temperature (Tr) & pressure (Pr).
& pseudo-reduced pressure (Pr). • (Pc) & (Tc) are not the actual critical temperature & pressure of the gas
mixture but are used to be distinguished from those of pure
components.
• (Pc) & (Tc) can be calculated by a summation of weighted average of
critical temperature & pressure of each component mole fraction (yi)
in the gas (Kay’s Rules).
𝑛 𝑛
𝑷𝒄 = ෍ 𝑦𝑖 ∗ 𝑃𝑐𝑖 𝑻𝒄 = ෍ 𝑦𝑖 ∗ 𝑇𝑐𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
81 82
Gas Compressibility Factor (z) Gas Compressibility

Just to remember that: • Gas usually is the most compressible fluid in the reservoir.
• There are some correlations available to calculate the pseudo critical • The isothermal gas compressibility (Cg) is NOT the same as Gas
pressure (Pc) & the pseudo critical temperature (Tc) using gas specific compressibility factor or gas deviation factor (z‐factor).
gravity (gg) as shown below.
• Gas compressibility (Cg) is defined as the −1 𝝏𝑽𝒈
change in relative volume per unit 𝑪𝒈 =
pressure drop @ a constant temperature. 𝑽𝒈 𝝏𝑷 @𝑇
• This value changes for different gases due to the size of the molecules
& their reactions to pressure & temperature.
• (𝝏z / 𝜕P) can be obtained from the slope of the (z) vs (P) curve.
83 84
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Gas Specific Gravity (gg) Gas Specific Gravity (gg)

• Gas specific gravity (gg) is defined as the ratio of density of gas (rg) @ • This table summarizes a gas composition analysis @ separator
temperature (T) & pressure (P) to density of air (ra) @ same (T) & (P). conditions of (P = 1050 psig & T = 90o F).
• To calculate gas sp. gr., we need first to calculate the apparent molecular
• Gas specific gravity (gg) is also defined as the ratio 𝐌𝐖𝐚 weight of the gas mixture (MWa) as follow.
of the apparent molecular weight (MWa) of the gas γg = yi MWi
to that of the air. 𝟐𝟗
Components
Components
Components Mole
Mole%
Mole % Molecular
% Molecular Weight
MolecularWeight
Weight yi MWi
n
• Air (79% N2 & 21% O2) molecular weight = (28.97) but it is usually Methane
Methane
Methane 68.22
68.22
68.22 16.043
16.043
16.043 ===68.22
68.22
68.22***16.043
16.043
16.043
taken as ≈ (29) so gas specific gravity (gg) is given by:

𝐌𝐖𝐚 = ෍ yi MWi = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟐 Ethane
Ethane
Ethane 11.8
11.8
11.8 30.07
30.07
30.07 ===11.8
11.8
11.8***30.07
30.07
30.07
Propane
Propane
Propane 5.46
5.46
5.46 44.097
44.097
44.097 ===5.46
5.46
5.46***44.097
44.097
44.097
i=1
iso-Butane
iso-Butane
iso-Butane 0.83
0.83
0.83 58.123
58.123
58.123 ===0.83
0.83
0.83***58.123
58.123
58.123
• The apparent molecular weight (MWa) of any n-Butane
n-Butane
n-Butane 1.74
1.74
1.74 58.123
58.123
58.123 ===1.74
1.74
1.74***58.123
58.123
58.123
n
gas mixture can be calculated from the gas iso-Pentane
iso-Pentane
iso-Pentane 0.72
0.72
0.72 72.15
72.15
72.15 ===0.72
0.72
0.72***72.15
72.15
72.15
composition by knowing the molecular 𝐌𝐖𝐚 = ෍ yi MWi • Gas sp. gr. (gg): n-Pentane
n-Pentane
n-Pentane 0.74
0.74
0.74 72.15
72.15
72.15 ===0.74
0.74
0.74***72.15
72.15
72.15
Hexanes
Hexanes
Hexanes 1.07
1.07
1.07 87
87
87 ===1.07
1.07
1.07***87
87
87
weight for each component in the gas using i=1 Heptanes
Heptanes
Heptanes 1.09
1.09
1.09 96
96
96 ===1.09
1.09
1.09***96
96
96
this equation. 𝐌𝐖𝐚 𝟑𝟏.𝟐
γg = = = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟕𝟖 Octanes Plus
OctanesPlus
Octanes Plus 5.44
5.44
5.44 158
158
158 ===5.44
5.44
5.44***158
158
158
𝟐𝟗 𝟐𝟗 Hydrogen Sulhide
HydrogenSulhide
Hydrogen Sulhide 000 34.08
34.08
34.08 ===000***34.08
34.08
34.08
Carbon Dioxide
CarbonDioxide
Carbon Dioxide 2.42
2.42
2.42 44.01
44.01
44.01 ===2.42
2.42
2.42***44.01
44.01
44.01
• (yi) is the mole% of the component (i) to the total gas composition. Nitrogen
Nitrogen
Nitrogen 0.47
0.47
0.47 28.0134
28.0134
28.0134 ===0.47
0.47
0.47***28.0134
28.0134
28.0134
100
100% % 31.2
31.2
85 86
Gas Specific Gravity (gg) PVT Properties vs. Pressure

• As pressure increases, so does gas specific gravity (gg) & gas density, but • These PVT plots summarize the variation of the PVT properties as a
the relationship is non-linear since the dimensionless gas compressibility function of pressure @ a given temperature.
(z-factor) also varies with pressure.
87 88
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Avogadro’s Gas Law Amonton’s Gas Law

• Avogadro's law stated that under the same conditions of pressure (P) • Amonton observed that for a fixed mass of gas with a constant volume
& temperature (T), equal volume (V) of different IDEAL gases contain (V), gas pressure (P) varies LINEARLY with gas temperature (T). This
the same number of molecules or moles (n). means that if gas temperature (T) increases by a certain factor, gas
pressure (P) increases by the same factor when gas volume (V) is
• The volume occupied by one mole of gas is the same for all gases,
constant.
according to Avogadro’s law.
Low (P) Medium (P) High (P)
• It is about 22.4 liters (0.791 cubic foot) @ standard pressure & @ constant (n) & (V)
temperature (1 atmosphere & 0 °C) for one gram-mole & it is about 379
standard cu ft @ standard pressure & temperature (14.7 psia & 60 °F) for
one lb-mole.
naV → V = constant * n Low (T) Medium (T) High (T)
PaT → P = Const. * T
𝐕𝟏 𝐕𝟐
= 𝐏
𝐧𝟏 𝐧𝟐 = Const.
𝐓
89 90
Boyle’s Gas Law Charles’s & Gay-Lussac Gas Law

• Boyle observed that for a fixed mass of gas (i.e., for a constant number • Charles & Gay-Lussac observed that for a fixed mass of gas (i.e., for a
of moles, “n”) @ constant temperature (T), pressurizing the gas will constant number of moles, “n”) that is confined @ constant pressure (P),
decrease its volume & vise versa. volume (V) varies LINEARLY with temperature (T). If the temperature
increases by a certain factor, gas volume increases by the same factor.
• This means that the product of any gas pressure (P) & its corresponding
gas volume (V) @ constant temperature (T) will be a constant.
• VaT → V = Const. * T 𝐕
= Const.
𝐏𝐕 = Const. @ constant (n) & (V) 𝐓
@ constant pressure (P)
Volume Volume
(V1) (V2)
@ constant (n) & (V)

Volume (V)
Volume (V)
Pressure (P) Pressure (P)
Constant (T) Constant (T)
Temperature (T1) Temperature (T2)
91 92
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General Gas Law General Gas Law

• The general form of gas law is concluded by 𝐏𝐕 • Example: how many moles of gas are in 600 ml Pepsi bottle (assume
→ = Const. that the room temperature is 22o C)?
combining the three gas laws together 𝐓
• If (n) lb-moles of gas are involved, then the relationships result-in the
IDEAL GAS LAW (which is valid @ low pressure) which is NOT the
𝐏𝐕 = nR𝐓
conditions of the hydrocarbon reservoir gases.
1 atm ∗ 0.6 Liter = n ∗ 0.08206 L. atm/mole. K ∗ (295 K)
𝐏𝐕 = nR𝐓 n = 0.025 moles
P: Pressure of the gas, psi
V: Volume of the gas, ft3
n: Number of moles in the gas (379.4 ft3 of any
ideal gas @ 14.7 psia & 60°F is one mole).
R: Universal gas constant = 8.314 J/mol. K
T: Temperature of the gas, Rankin
93 94
Equation of State (E.O.S) Equation of State (E.O.S)

• Just remember that: • To generalize the equation to be applied for REAL GASES, gas deviation
• The ideal gas law ( 𝐏𝐕 = nR𝐓) is valid @ low pressure however @ factor (z) or gas compressibility factor was introduced to the ideal gas
typical reservoir (P & T), this assumption is no longer valid & behavior of equation (𝐏𝐕 = nR𝐓) that gives the simplest form of the equation of state
hydrocarbon reservoir gases deviate from the ideal gas law. (z-factor @ standard conditions “60 °F & 14.7 psia” is equated to “1”).
• The gases are divided into ideal (perfect) gas & real (non-ideal) gas.
• For an ideal gas @ low pressure:
− Volume of gas molecules is insignificant. 𝐏𝐕 = znR𝐓
− Attractive & repulsive forces between molecules are ignored.
− Maintain their energy when they collide with each other. • This is the Equation Of State (E.O.S) in the simplest form which is an
• @ high pressures & low temperatures this is not true since, under these analytical expression relating (P) to (T) & (V) based on physical gas laws.
conditions, volume of the molecules themselves is no longer negligible
• In PVT analysis, we measure the properties @ different pressure steps,
& the molecules, being more closely packed, exert appreciable attractive
but we do not know anything about the behavior of these properties @ the
forces on each others.
points between these pressure steps or even outside the range of the
• z‐factor is defined as the ratio between the REAL (non-ideal) gas volume
measurements.
to the IDEAL gas volume @ specific pressure (P) & temperature (T).
• E.O.S is used to model the fluid systems to predict fluid properties &
Real volume of gas @ specified P&T
𝐳= phase behavior changes when subjected to different pressures &
Ideal volume of gas @ the same P&T temperatures outside the measurement range used in the laboratory.
95 96
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Equation of State (E.O.S) Tuning of The Equation of State (E.O.S)

• There are many forms & modifications introduced to the EOS to make it • Equations of State (EOS) is used to model fluid properties & to predict
more accurate such as that for: fluids behavior, especially for mixtures containing heavy hydrocarbons.
• In the lab there is no accurate characterization of the plus components
𝑎 𝑅𝑇 𝑎 such as (C10+) since it require more detailed specific lab work.
1. Van Der Waal’s equation. 𝑃+
𝑉2
𝑉−𝑏 = 𝑅𝑇 → 𝑃= − 2
𝑉−𝑏 𝑉 • So, there are some components (C11 − C30) in the sample without being
able to split between each component, i.e., what is the percentage of each
component in the sample.
𝑅𝑇 𝑎𝑇
2. Peng-Robinson equation. 𝑃= − • As a result, unfortunately, the constants (a & b) & hence the properties
𝑉−𝑏 𝑉 𝑉+𝑏 +𝑏 𝑉−𝑏
that are predicted by equations of state might not be accurate.
• Constant (a) counting for the inter-molecular 27𝑅2 𝑇𝑐2 • So, the procedure for tuning Equations of State (EOS) was developed
attraction forces between the molecules. 𝑎= that results in improving prediction for such conditions.
64𝑃𝑐
• Constant (b) counting for volume reduction in the • We use the Equations of State (EOS) with some computer program to
𝑅𝑇𝑐
molecule size & signifies the effective volume 𝑏= make this split by changing some parameters & the constants (a & b) to
8𝑃𝑐 fit with the measured lab data.
occupied by the gas molecules.
• Each gas type has its own specific values of (a & b).
97 98
Tuning of The Equation of State (E.O.S) Different Sampling Methods

• Understanding what data are appropriate for tuning purpose is a critical
step in equation of state fluid characterization.
• Generally, measured lab data were used to tune E.O.S by adjusting
their parameters.
• These figures show the comparison between the measured data in the
lab & the tuned results for the equation of state to be used in the model.
100
Experimental data
Surface Sample Bottom Hole Sample (BHS) MDT Sample
liq total), %
Tuned data
80
• When bottomhole flowing • When pressure @ sampling • After drilling reservoir
), %
pressure ≤ saturation pressure. point ≥ saturation pressure.

/Vtotal\V
section & before

running the casing.
fraction (Vliq(V
60
• No need for W/L tools in the • Direct collection of the desired
Liquidfraction,
borehole but it requires surface sample. • Collect fluid sample

40 separator to be connected to the • Can maintain full pressure of directly from formation.
well to collect oil & gas samples. sample. • Fluid sample from any
Liquid
20
• Large fluid fluids volumes can be • Avoids use of surface desired depth intervals
collected. separators (surface metering can be collected.
0
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 • Fluids recombined in the lab uncertainties). • Not affected by fluid
Pressure, psi
Pressure, psia
based on the producing GOR. • Avoids recombination errors. segregation in the well.
• Easy & less expensive.
99 100
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PVT Analysis Methods Classical (Routine) PVT Analysis

• PVT analysis is classified based on the purpose of the analysis as follows: 1. Composition measurements test.
Classical (Routine) PVT Analysis Advanced PVT Analysis 2. Flash Liberation test.
1. Composition measurements test. − Minimum Miscibility Pressure (MMP) tests.
3. Multi stages separator test.
2. Flash Liberation test. 1. Swelling test.
4. Relative volume test or Constant Composition Expansion (CCE) test or
3. Multi stages separator test. 2. Slim Tube test. Constant Mass Expansion (CME) test.
4. Relative volume test or Constant 3. Vanishing Interfacial Tension (VIT) test.

5. Differential Liberation (Vaporization) Expansion (DLE) test.
Composition Expansion (CCE) test or
Constant Mass Expansion (CME) test. 4. Rising Bubble Apparatus (RBA) test. 6. Oil viscosity test.
5. Differential Liberation (Vaporization) − Scale Deposition tests 7. Constant Volume Depletion (CVD) test.
Expansion (DLE) test.
1. Asphaltene formation test.
6. Oil viscosity test.
2. Waxes & paraffin’s formation test.
7. Constant Volume Depletion (CVD) test.
3. Hydrates formation test.
101 102
1− Composition Measurements Test 1− Composition Measurements Test

• Composition measurements is conducted to determine how much light & • Gas sample is injected to the Gas Chromatograph (GC) followed by a
heavy components are in the fluid which is important to determine: carrier gas (Helium or Nitrogen).
− Market value of the hydrocarbons (light components is more expensive). • As temperature (T) increases, the lighter components separate & move
together with the carrier gas to the Flame Ionization Detector (FID).
− How the hydrocarbon be refined & processed.
• Liquid compositional description is carried out in two steps:
− Presence of any corrosive non-hydrocarbon gases (CO2, N2 & H2S)
that require special non-corrosive production/transportation equipment. − Up to (C10 & N2 & Co2): using the capillary column chromatography.
• Composition of hydrocarbon fluids is done by the Gas Chromatograph − From (C10 to C20+): using a mini distillation apparatus.
(GC) analysis technique equipped with Flame Ionization Detector (FID).
103 104
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1− Composition Measurements Test 2− Flash Liberation Test

50 Scfd
COMPONENT Mole %
Composition of the stock tank gas
Weight % Molar Density LNG
Composition of the stock tank oil
Mole % Weight % Molar Density Mole % Weight %
• Flash
Molar Density
liberation test is a SINGLE STAGE
Composition of recombined separator oil
Nitrogen 0.147 0.114

Weight
28.02
g/cc
0.804
bbl/MMscf Weight g/cc
0.058 0.013
SEPARATOR
Weight
28.02
g/cc
0.804
test which is conducted to
Non-hydrocarbon gases Carbon Dioxide 1.655 2.016 44.01 0.809 0.648 0.226
simulate the separation process of a
44.01 0.809
85 FO & 2500 psia
Hydrogen Sulphide 2.538 2.393 34.08 0.797 0.994 0.268 34.08 0.797
Lighter hydrocarbon
Methane
Ethane
40.241
16.596
17.866
13.810
16.04
30.07
0.300
0.357
0.023
0.233
0.002
0.038
16.04
30.07
0.300
0.357
15.781
6.644
2.005
1.582
surface production separator.
16.04
30.07
0.300
0.357
components Propane 16.008 19.535 44.09 0.507 105.0 1.271 0.304 44.09 0.507 7.045 2.461 44.09 0.507
80 Bbls
iso-Butane 3.409 5.484 58.12 0.562 26.6 0.802 0.253 58.12 0.562 1.824 0.840 58.12 0.562
n-Butane
Neopentane
8.361 13.449 58.12 0.583 62.8 3.123 0.985 58.12 0.583 5.176 2.383
• In the lab, oil sample is only subjected to
58.12 0.583 100 Res. Bbls
iso-Pentane
0.045 0.089 72.15 0.597 0.4 0.015 0.006 72.15 0.597 0.027 0.015 72.15 0.597
100oF
n-Pentane
2.586
3.095
5.163
6.179
72.15
72.15
0.623
0.630
22.6
26.7
2.616
4.325
1.024
1.693
72.15
72.15
0.623
0.630
2.604
3.843
1.488
2.196
ONE SUDDEN desired pressure drop @
72.15
72.15
0.623
0.630 4500 psia
Hexanes, C6 total
n-Hexane
2.546
0.944
6.019
2.251
85.4
86.2
0.664
0.663
24.7 7.720
4.079
3.581
1.907
85.5
86.2
0.665
0.663
5.693
2.850
3.854
1.946 certain specific temperature that causes
85.5
86.2
0.665
0.663
iso-Paraffins 1.481 3.533 86.2 0.661 3.313 1.549 86.2 0.661 2.595 1.771 86.2 0.661
Naphthenes 0.121 0.234 70.1 0.748 0.328 0.125 70.1 0.748 0.247 0.137 gas to be liberated out of solution, but the
70.1 0.748 100 Res. Bbls
Heptanes, C7 total 1.439 3.759 94.4 0.718 14.3 9.037 4.716 96.2 0.708 6.060 4.609 96.0 0.709
n-Heptane 0.285 0.790 100.2 0.687 3.434 1.867 100.2 0.687 2.200 1.746 gas remains in equilibrium with the oil
100.2 0.687
100 FO
iso-Paraffins 0.613 1.700 100.2 0.689 3.223 1.752 100.2 0.688 2.200 1.746 100.2 0.688
Naphthenes 0.427 1.021 86.5 0.763 1.870 0.881 86.8 0.765 1.305 0.897 throughout the test.
86.8 0.765
4500 psia
Aromatics 0.114 0.247 78.1 0.883 0.510 0.216 78.1 0.883 0.355 0.220 78.1 0.883
Octanes, C8 total 0.927 2.766 107.9 0.745 10.1 9.135 5.371 108.4 0.743 5.919 5.079 108.3 0.743
n-Octane
• Then
0.205 0.649 114.2 0.707 2.627 1.628 114.2 0.707 1.678 1.518 114.2 0.707
iso-Paraffins 0.296 0.939 114.6 0.707 2.665 1.657 114.6 0.707 1.737 1.576 114.6 measure
0.707 the fluids outlet
Naphthenes 0.260 0.757 105.2 0.770 2.177 1.253 106.1 0.770 1.426 1.197 106.0 0.770
Aromatics
Nonanes, C9 total
0.165 0.422 92.1 0.872 1.666 0.833 92.1 0.872 1.078 0.787 compositions for both oil & gas to
92.1 0.872
0.403 1.342 120.3 0.767 4.8 8.147 5.341 120.8 0.766 5.113 4.893 120.8 0.766
n-Nonane
iso-Paraffins
0.085
0.138
0.300
0.490
128.3
128.3
0.723
0.722
2.183
2.456
1.519
1.709
128.3
128.3
0.723
0.723
1.361
1.548
1.382
1.572
determine which components of the fluid
128.3
128.3
0.723
0.723
Naphthenes
Aromatics
0.062
0.118
0.205
0.347
118.9
106.2
0.792
0.873
1.168
2.340
0.765
1.348
120.7
106.2
0.792
0.874
0.735
1.469
0.702
1.236
mixture feed are in the liquid phase &
120.6
106.2
0.792
0.874
Heavier hydrocarbon Decanes plus, C10+ 0.004 0.016 134.0 0.782 0.1 53.553 76.686 263.9 0.877 32.572 68.088
which are in vapor phase.
263.9 0.877
components Sum 100.000 100.000 297.8 100.000 100.000 100.000 100.000
Mean molecular weight: 36.13 184.3 126.2
Gas gravity: 1.248
105 106
3− Multi Stages Separator Test (MSST) 3− Multi Stages Separator Test (MSST)
• Multi Stages Separator Test (MSST) is conducted to: • To conduct the Multi Stages Separator Test (MSST), a sample of reservoir
liquid is placed in the laboratory PVT cell & brought to reservoir
− Determine the impact of separator conditions on the produced fluid
temperature & bubble point pressure (Pb).
physical properties.
• Then it is subjected to a sequence of flash liberation separation stages
− Give an indication of oil shrinkage & GOR when fluids produced to
@ DIFFERENT CONDITIONS of pressures (P) & temperatures (T).
surface.
− Provide the essential laboratory information (volume, formation
volume factors, COR & specific gravities of both liberated GAS &
LIQUID) necessary to determine the appropriate number & the
optimum surface separation conditions for the surface separators
in the multi separation system.
− Maximize the stock-tank oil production & recovery by keeping the light
hydrocarbons in the liquid phase.
• Starting point for the test is the bubble point pressure (Pb).
• @ every stage, there will be separated liquid & separated gases as a
result of the pressure & temperature reduction @ each stage.
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3− Multi Stages Separator Test (MSST) 3− Multi Stages Separator Test (MSST)
• @ any flash stage, LIQUID expelled from the PVT cell is then flashed • This is a typical lab PVT cell for the Multi Stages Separator Test (MSST).
either to be the feed for the next flash separation stage @ different
separation conditions of pressure & temperature OR is directly flashed
to the stock tank conditions.
• @ each separation stage measure volumes, specific gravities &
compositions of both separator GAS & remaining LIQUID.
V1 V2 VSTO
Vapor Vapor STO

Gas L1 Gas L2 Gas LSTO
Liquid Liquid
𝐕𝟏+𝐕𝟐+𝐕𝐒𝐓𝐎
Oil
Stage#1
Oil
Stage#2 Oil
𝐆𝐎𝐑 =
Well stream
𝐋𝐒𝐓𝐎
Saturated volume
or Reservoir (Lsat)
𝐋
Gas 𝛃𝐎 = 𝐋 𝐬𝐚𝐭
Gas
Gas 𝐒𝐓𝐎
Oil Oil Oil Oil
109 110
4− Relative Volume Test 4− Relative Volume Test

• Relative volume test is also called Constant Composition Expansion (CCE) • In the lab, a hydrocarbon fluid sample (oil or gas) is placed in a visual PVT
test or Constant Mass Expansion (CME) test since there is NO fluids cell @ the reservoir temperature (constant temperature test).
removed from PVT cell, therefore composition of the total hydrocarbon
• Then pressurize the sample @ a pressure more than the initial reservoir
mixture in the cell remains fixed @ the original composition.
pressure which is always above the bubble point pressure (Pb).
• This test is conducted to simulate the initial condition of the reservoir P1 >> Pb P2 > Pb P3 = Pb P4 < Pb P5 < P4 < Pb
• Pressure is reduced in steps by
until reaching a pressure value below the expected saturation pressure
removing mercury from the cell.
by using many successive flash liberation tests.
V1 = Vb
V1 V2
V4
• Change in the total hydrocarbon
• @ the beginning of the test, PVT cell initially contain pure liquid @ V5
volume (Vt) is measured for each
unknown value of the saturation pressure.
pressure reduction.
• But we know that there is a drastically change in the total sample Hg Hg Hg
• @ each pressure step, calculate Hg
volume below & above the saturation (bubble point) pressure due to
the relative volume (Vrel.) which is Hg
change in the compressibility of the sample fluid as a result of the
defined as the ratio between the
liberated gas volume comes out of solution below the saturation pressure.
total sample volume (Vt) @ any
• This liberated gas below the saturation pressure cause a clear change in pressure to that @ the saturation Vt
the Pressure − Volume (P − V) relationship trends below & above the pressure (Vsat.). Vrel. =
Vsat.
saturation pressure. • Relative volume (Vrel.) @ the saturation pressure = (1).
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4− Relative Volume Test 4− Relative Volume Test

• Plot the measured relative volumes vs. the applied pressure @ each • This is the Relative Volume Test for a gas sample.
step to construct the pressure−volume (P−V) relationship.
• Saturation pressure (Psat.) & saturation volume (Vsat.) are estimated @
the intercept point between the two different trends directly below &
above the saturation pressure.
• Above the saturation pressure,
Relative volume − Pressure relationship
the change in volume is due to 4
liquid compressibility which is 3.5

@ Saturation Pressure:
− Change in slope of pressure
nearly constant. 3
vs. volume curve occurs.
Relative volume
2.5
• Once a gas phase forms @ the 2
− Vrel = 1
saturation pressure, there will be 1.5
an obvious change in the slope 1
due to high gas compressibility 0.5
compared to liquid. 0
2620
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Pressure, psi 1st step 2nd step 3rd step 4th step
113 114
4− Relative Volume Test 5− Differential Liberation Expansion (DLE) Test

• This are the results of a Relative Volume Test. • Differential Liberation Expansion (DLE) or vaporization test is conducted
to simulate & study the behavior of the oil & the liberated gas comes
out from the oil in the reservoir BELOW the saturation pressure @ a
CONSTANT TEMPERATURE (almost reservoir temperature).
• Differential liberation test is started @ the bubble point pressure
because above the bubble point pressure there is no free gas liberated
from the oil.
• Last pressure step is the standard conditions (14.7 psi & 60oF).
• In the differential vaporization test, the liberated gas is removed from the
PVT cell in step wise.
• @ each step below bubble point, volumes densities, gas expansion &
compressibility are determined.
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5− Differential Liberation Expansion (DLE) Test 5− Differential Liberation Expansion (DLE) Test
• Test starts by measuring the oil volume @ the bubble point pressure • Then vent this liberated gas again & so on for some pressure
then the sample is allowed to expand by reducing the pressure starting reduction steps until venting all the existing gas in solution from
from the bubble point pressure to any desired lower pressure. the oil in the cell.
• As the pressure reduced below bubble point pressure, two phases will Gas Gas
occur in the oil cell as the gas in solution will liberates from the liquid. P1 = Psat P2 < Psat P2 < Psat P3 < P2 P3 < P2
• The solution gas liberated from the oil sample & accumulated above the
V1 = Vsat
Gas Gas Oil
oil in the oil cell @ each step of pressure decrease is continuously Oil Oil
V3
V2
removed from contact with the oil by means of the hydraulic pump
V3 < V2 < Vsat

connected to the PVT cell.
Oil
V2 < Vsat
Oil
• So, for each pressure reduction
step, gas that was still in solution &
not liberated yet from the previous
pressure step will find a chance to
liberate & come out of solution then Hg Hg Hg Hg Hg
accumulated on top of the oil until
there is no more gas comes out of
solution @ this pressure step.
117 118
5− Differential Liberation Expansion (DLE) Test 5− Differential Liberation Expansion (DLE) Test
For each pressure step we determine the following parameters: • This is a typical experimental results for the Differential Liberation
Expansion (DLE) test.
► Vg (ft3): liberated gas volume @ each pressure (P) step & test temperature (T).
► Vgsc (scf): liberated gas volume after expanding to standard conditions.
► F → cumulative relative volume of the liberated gas measured @ standard conditions.
► E → Gas expansion factor = Vgsc (scf) / Vg (ft3) @ any pressure step & temperature
during the test (Bg = 1/E).
► Z → Gas deviation factor = 35.37 P/(ET) ………..….. (for equation of state, E.O.S).
► Vo (res. bbl): oil volume measured @ each pressure stage after venting the gas.
► Vorel. → relative oil volume (res. bbl/bbl @ B.P): oil volume measured @ each
pressure step after venting the gas to the original oil volume @ (Pb) pressure.
► b o → oil formation volume factor (res. bbl/STB): oil volume measured @ each pressure
step after venting the gas to oil volume @ the last pressure step (atmospheric).
► Rs → gas in solution (scf/STB): remaining gas volume in solution @ each pressure

step to oil volume in the cell @ the same pressure = (F(scf) – Vgsc(scf)) / Vo(res. bbl).
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5− Differential Liberation Expansion (DLE) Test 6− Oil Viscosity Test

• Then, plot the reported properties (b o, bo , Rs, viscosity & density) as a • Viscosity is an important physical property that controls flow of oil
function of PRESSURE in order to ensure the observed trends are as through porous media & through pipes (higher viscosity values
expected below & above bubble point pressure. correspond to lower flow rates).
• Data above the bubble point pressure (Pb) comes from the Constant • Oil viscosity (mo) test is conducted to measure the internal resistance of
Composition Expansion (CCE) test while data below the bubble point oil to flow under certain conditions of pressures & temperatures (oil
pressure (Pb) comes from the Differential Liberation Expansion (DLE) test. viscosity decreases as temperature increases).
• This is the Viscometer used to measure oil viscosity
in the lab (viscosity is measured in centipoise, cp).
• There are two ways to expresses viscosity:
1. Absolute viscosity: viscosity is measured by
observing the fluid resistance to flow under
applied external controlled force.
2. Kinematic Viscosity: viscosity is measured by
observing the fluid resistance to flow under the
force of gravity.
• Kinematic viscosity = Absolute viscosity / Fluid density .
121 122
6− Oil Viscosity Test 6− Oil Viscosity Test

• This is the typical performance of the oil viscosity (mo) with pressures • In addition to that when the lab measurements are not available, there
above & below the bubble point pressure (Pb). are some correlations that are widely applied to calculate oil viscosities.
• Minimum oil viscosity (mob) is that @ bubble point pressure (Pb) NEITHER 𝛍𝐨 = 𝛍𝐨𝐛 + 0.001(𝐏 − 𝐏𝐛 )(0.024μ1.6 0.56
ob + 038 μob )
the initial oil viscosity (moi) NOR below the bubble point pressure (Pb), WHY?
1.1 𝐀
Saturated Under-saturated 𝛍𝐨𝐝 = 3.141 ∗ 1010 ∗ 𝐓 −3.444
∗ Log 𝐀𝐏𝐈
mod
0.9
𝐀= 10.313 ∗ Log 𝐓 − 36.447
mo, cp
Pb = 4200
0.7
moi • (mo) oil viscosity @ any given pressure (P).
0.5 mob • (mob) oil viscosity @ the bubble point pressure (Pb).
0.3 • (mod) dead oil viscosity @ the atmospheric pressure (Pa) when all
0 2000 4000 6000 gases were liberated out of solution.
Pressure, psig
123 124
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7− Constant Volume Depletion (CVD) Test 7− Constant Volume Depletion (CVD) Test
• Constant Volume Depletion (CVD) test is the most important PVT • Generally, CVD test is a successive of volume measurements @
experiment for both gas condensate & volatile oils reservoirs. pressures below the dew-point pressure (Pd).
• It is conducted to simulate the reservoir depletion performance & the • Let’s see the steps of the test:
compositional variation of the retrograde gas condensate reservoir
1. Step#1: a known reference volume (Vi) of a gas is charged into a
depletion to determine the compositional variation & the maximum
visual PVT cell @ the dew-point pressure (Pd).
condensates dropped out from the gas when reservoir pressure
reaches below the saturation pressure. o The initial gas compressibility factor (Z) is calculated from the
below real gas equation.
• This in turns will help to determine the maximum condensates dropped
out from the gas.
Gas
• This condensate dropped out from gas inside the reservoir would be
lost forever & may block the gas to flow.
Pd Vi Pd P P
𝐙𝐝 = T T T
𝑛𝑖 RT Vi Vi
Gas
V2 > Vi
Gas
Gas
Condensate
Condensate
1 2 3
125 126 Constant Volume Depletion Test (CVD)
2. Step#2: reduce pressure from (Pd) to a pre-determined pressure 3. Step#3: reset the PVT cell volume to the initial volume (Vi) by
level (P) by withdrawing mercury from the PVT cell. mercury re-injection into the PVT cell @ a constant pressure (P).
o During this process, a retrograde condensate liquid phase is o An equivalent volume of gas is simultaneously removed out
formed @ the bottom of the cell. from the PVT cell until the total volume of both the separated
(dropped-out) liquid & the remaining gas in the cell equal to the
o Both gas volume (Vg) & the dropped out retrograde liquid volume
initial volume (Vi).
(VL) are visually measured.
o This retrograde volume (VL) is
reported as a percentage of the
initial gas volume (Vi) which Gas Gas
basically represents the retrograde Pd P P Pd P P
liquid saturation (SL) during the
T T T T T T
depletion of a retrograde gas
reservoir. Vi Vi
Gas
Vi Vi
Gas
V2 > Vi
V2 > Vi
Gas Gas
VL Gas
Condensate
Gas
Condensate
SL =
Vi
Condensate Condensate
1 2 3 1 2 3
127 Constant Volume Depletion Test (CVD)

128 Constant Volume Depletion Test (CVD)
32
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• This procedure is repeated several times with pressures reduction until • The quantities & compositions of the gas & the retrograde liquid
the minimum test pressure available is reached. remaining in the cell are determined @ each pressure step.
• Due to retrograde gas condensate behavior, some volume of the dropout • Then calculate liquid saturation (SL = VL / Vi) @ each pressure step.
condensate will vaporize again to gas phase @ specific pressure step.
• This point is called the maximum liquid dropout or maximum yield %. • Finally plot these calculate liquid saturations (SL = VL / Vi) vs. pressures
• For production operations, usually the objective is to maintain a to determine the maximum condensate dropout or maximum yield %.
pressure that able to achieve maximum liquid dropout. Retrograde Liquid Volume 40
Pressure, psig % of initial volume T = constant
35
Gas SL =VL/Vi
Gas
Gas Gas 4968
Retrograde Liquid Volume

0 30
Dew-point pressure
% of initial volume
Gas 4905 19.3 25
Gas
SL =VL/Vi
Gas Gas
Gas 4800 25 Maximum liquid
20
Gas Gas Gas Gas 4600 29.9 dropout or
Gas 4300 33.1 Maximum Yield %
15
3500
34.4
Maximum liquid dropout 10
Oil 2800 34.1
3500 700 2000 32.5 5
Saturation
psia psia 1300 30.2
pressure 0
4905 4600 2000 700 27.3 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
4968
psia psia psia 0 21.8 Pressure, psig
psia
129 130
• This is a typical CVD test results @ constant temperature. • This is the liquid drop out behavior of a gas condensate sample @
(394oK) in CCE & CVD tests.
131 132
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Advanced PVT Analysis Minimum Miscibility Pressure (MMP)

− Minimum Miscibility Pressure (MMP) tests. • Minimum Miscibility Pressure (MMP) is the minimum pressure @ which
the injected gas & the contacted oil become miscible with each other @
1. Swelling test. constant temperature & composition.
2. Slim Tube test. • Graphically, it is defined as the pressure @ which the oil recovery vs.
pressure curve shows a sharp change in slope (the inflection point).
3. Vanishing Interfacial Tension (VIT) test.
4. Rising Bubble Apparatus (RBA) test. • The interfacial tension is zero & there is no interface exists between
the fluids @ the Minimum Miscibility Pressure (MMP).
− Scale Deposition tests
• Miscible displacement can be achieved when the gas is injected @ a
1. Asphaltene formation test. pressure higher than the Minimum Miscibility Pressure (MMP).
2. Waxes & paraffin’s formation test. • Minimum Miscibility Pressure (MMP) & Minimum Miscibility Concentration
(MMC) are essential parameters for designing the miscible EOR
3. Hydrates formation test.
projects since they determine the mode of the displacement (miscible
or immiscible) during the gas injection process.
133 134
Minimum Miscibility Pressure (MMP) 1− Swelling Test

• Minimum Miscibility Pressure (MMP) can be affected by: • Oil swelling effect is the expansion in oil volume that can occur when a
− Reservoir temperature (MMP increases as the reservoir temperature). solvent contacts a reservoir fluid.
− Compositions of the displaced oil & the injected gas. • The swelling is due to the complete or partial dissolution of the solvent
molecules into the reservoir fluid.
− Oil molecular weight & API gravity.
• The amount of swelling is dependent on the pressure, temperature,
composition & the physical properties of solvent & reservoir fluid.
• Minimum Miscibility Pressure (MMP) can be obtained from: • Reservoir oil swelling can result in improved oil recovery by mobilizing
− Slim Tube Test method. residual oil trapped in inaccessible pore spaces.
− Vanishing Interfacial Tension (VIT).
− Rising Bubble Apparatus (RBA).
− Models.
− Empirical correlations.
Before swelling After swelling
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1− Swelling Test 1− Swelling Test

Steps to perform the sweeling test in the lab: Steps to perform the sweeling test in the lab:
• The swelling test is used to estimate the miscibility effects of the given • Then, a predetermined volume of injection gas is added to the reservoir
injection fluid with the reservoir fluid & to determine the first contact fluid & the sample agitated until single-phase equilibrium is achieved &
Minimum Miscible Pressure (MMP). both injected gas & the reservoir fluid inside the testing cell are mixed.
• The swelling test consists of several gas injections to create different • The total sample volume is measured & the increase in sample volume
fluid mixtures then followed by Constant Composition Expansion (CCE) due to this added volume of the injected gas is determined.
experiments (it is typical to perform five fluid mixtures).
• Pressurize the new mixture to some pressure above the saturation
• In the lab, a known volume of reservoir fluid is charged to a high- pressure.
pressure PVT cell & heated to reservoir temperature.
• The new sample is subjected to another CCE experiment, as described
• A Constant Composition Expansion (CCE) is performed by pressure above & the saturation pressure & liquid shrinkage are re-measured.
reduction to determine the saturation pressure, relative volume, liquid
• Record the saturation pressure & the relative injection gas moles
density & liquid shrinkage data.
fraction (the fraction of injected gas with respect to the entire number of
• The pressure is reduced until the sample volume has been expanded to @ moles in the mixture).
least two times the original volume @ the saturation pressure.
• Repeat the above steps by adding another volume of the injection gas to
the reservoir fluid (it is typical to perform five fluid mixtures).
137 138
1− Swelling Test 2− Slim Tube Test

• Once the swell test data is found, the Minimum Miscible Pressure (MMP) • Slim tube test has been used since early 1950’s in order to estimate the
by first contact is determined by the largest value of the swell test data. Minimum Miscibility Pressure (MMP) & Minimum Miscibility Concentration
(MMC) & composition during the gas injection process.
• It is very useful tool for a fast screening of a reservoir for various types of
gas injection.
• Slim tube is typically made of Packed Coiled Tube
long stainless-steel tube (20 ft
Injection gas
or longer) with a relatively small

diameter (< 0.25 inches) which Oil
is packed with sand or marbles.
Injection pump
• Slim-tube technique requires
about 4 – 6 weeks for obtaining Sight glass
Separator
the Minimum Miscibility Pressure

(MMP) & Minimum Miscibility Back pressure
pump (regulator)
Gas
Concentration (MMC). Gas meter
Chromatograph
Collection
cylinder
139 140
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2− Slim Tube Test 2− Slim Tube Test

Recoveries @ the
• This tube is saturated with reservoir oil & is pressured up to the • Then plot the cumulative oil recovery breakthrough
5000 psi
Recovery Factor, % Pore Volume

anticipated pressure level of the miscible flood scheme. versus pore volume of gas injected @ 4000 psi
each pressure step as shown in the 3000 psi

• The reservoir oil is then displaced, @ a regulated pressure, with the 2000 psi
following plot.
fluid proposed for the miscible flood. 1000 psi
• Finally, plot the injection pressure points

@ no oil recovered (usually recovery
after injection of 1.2 pore volume of
gas) versus the oil recovered for each
• Volumes of produced fluids are recorded as functions of the number of pressure step.
Pore volume of gas injected (% of P.V.)
pore volumes of fluid injected.
Recovery Factor, % Pore Volume

• The plotted data will give two trends of
• Gas is injected into the tube @ some constant pressure (for example points. The intersection point between
1000 psi) and @ each amount of gas injected, measure the oil the two trends lines is the Minimum
recovered from the other side from the tube until NO oil is recovered from Miscible Pressure (MMP) value that is
the tube. required for the injection process.
Minimum Miscible
• Repeat the previous step @ different injection pressures (2000, 3000, • Above this MMP, any additional Pressure (MMP)
4000, 5000 psi …etc.) & every time continue with the same pressure till recovery is generally minimal.
Inj. Pres. @ no recovery point for each step
have no oil recovered from the tube.
141 142
3− Vanishing Interfacial Tension (VIT) Test 3− Vanishing Interfacial Tension (VIT) Test
• Slim-tube technique requires about 4 – 6 weeks for obtaining the • By plotting the interfacial tension against the independent variable
Minimum Miscibility Pressure (MMP) & Minimum Miscibility Concentration (either pressure or enrichment), accurate values for the Minimum
(MMC), so it was necessary to find a faster way to determine this data. Miscibility Pressure (MMP) & Minimum Miscibility Concentration (MMC)
are then obtained by extrapolation to zero interfacial tension.
• Vanishing Interfacial Tension (VIT) is a new technique that is used to
enable rapid (about 1 – 3 days) & cost-effective determination of the
Minimum Miscibility Pressure (MMP) & Minimum Miscibility Concentration
(MMC) & composition.
• The new (VIT) technique is based on the concept that the interfacial
tension between the gas & crude oil phases @ reservoir temperature
must vanish & reduce to zero as these two phases approach the point
of miscibility & become miscible with each other.
• This new (VIT) technique, consists of measuring the interfacial tension
between the injected gas & the crude oil @ the reservoir temperature
& @ varying pressures and/or enrichment levels of the injected gas.
• Then extrapolating the data to zero-interfacial tension which is
corresponding to the value of the Minimum Miscibility Pressure (MMP).
143 144
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4− Rising Bubble Apparatus (RBA) Test 4− Rising Bubble Apparatus (RBA) Test
• Rising Bubble Apparatus (RBA) is a laboratory device that is used to • In this lab, the first step of the test to fill the sight gauge & the flat glass
indicate miscibility between reservoir oil & the injection gas. tube with distilled water.
• This is a typical Rising Bubble Apparatus (RBA) device. • Then, enough oil is injected into the glass tube to displace most of the
water & only to keep a short column of water in the tube’s lower end.
• The major part of the Rising Bubble Apparatus (RBA) device is a flat
glass tube stands vertically in a high pressure sight gauge in a • Next, a bubble of gas with the desired composition is injected into the
temperature controlled bath. glass tube oil-filled visual cell @ given temperature & test pressure
through a hollow needle mounted @ the bottom of the sight gauge.
Sight gauge Sight gauge
Flat glass tube Flat glass tube
Hollow needle Hollow needle
145 146
4− Rising Bubble Apparatus (RBA) Test 4− Rising Bubble Apparatus (RBA) Test
• The buoyant force on the gas bubble caused it to rise through the • @ pressure FAR BELOW MMP, the bubble
column of water then through the water-oil interface. retains & holds its almost spherical shape
as it rises, but its size is reduced as the gas
• As the bubble rises through the oil, its shape & motion are observed &
is partially dissolved in the oil.
photographed.
• As the pressure approaches MMP, a bubble
• The change in shape of the rising bubble indicates its miscibility with
still remains nearly spherical on top, but the
the oil @ those conditions.
bottom interface of the bubble changes from
• Testing @ several pressures helps determine the Minimum Miscibility spherical to flat or “wavy”.
Pressure (MMP) between gas & oil.
• @ or SLIGHTLY ABOVE MMP, bubble
• After that, the bubble rises through the oil, then the used oil is replaced shape changes as it rises where a tail-like
with fresh oil & the test run again @ different pressure or with different features quickly developed on the bottom of
injection gas composition. a rising bubble, which remain spherical on
top (it may disintegrate, dissolve or
• During the rising of the bubble through the oil @ each height, it faces
disappear into the oil).
fresh oil then the gas bubble enriched with intermediate components
as rise through the column. • @ pressure HIGHER than MMP, the bubble
disperses very rapidly & disappears into
the oil.
147 148
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4− Rising Bubble Apparatus (RBA) Test Scale Deposition

• This is a typical Rising Bubble Apparatus (RBA) test results. • Before discussing the Asphaltene formation test, Waxes & paraffin’s
formation test & Hydrates formation test let's know first what is the scale?
• Scale is the most serious problem in the oil industry since it is usually
contributing to production impairment & potential corrosion/erosion
Average bubble rising velocity (cm/s)
Line (I): V = 3.4663 – 0.1636 P (R2 = 0.964) issues.

Line (II): V = 3.6136 – 0.5607 P (R2 = 0.999)
• It is refereeing to the hard solid deposits resulting from the deposition of

mineral compounds present in water that grow over time, blocking &
I
affecting wells productivity & hindering fluid flow through pipelines,
valves, pumps etc.
II
MMP = 15.5 MPa
149 150
Scale Deposition Scale Deposition

• It may consist of one or more types of inorganic scale deposited • Scale can be found in reservoir, tubing & production facilities & can
together along with other debris (organic material, sand, …. etc.). coat perforations, production tubing/casing, pumps, valves &
downhole completion equipment.
• Common Oilfield Scales are:
• If scales are not inhibited or removed, it could limit production & would
− Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)
lead to well abandonment and pipeline blockage.
− Barium Sulphate (BaSO4)
− Strontium Sulphate (SrSO4)
− Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4, CaSO4.2H2O)
− Iron Scales, (Fe2O3, FeS, FeCO3)
− Exotic Scales (ZnS, PbS, CaF2)
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1− Asphaltene Formation Test 1− Asphaltene Formation Test

• Asphaltenes are a class of crude oil components with large molecular • Once it is formed, it will cause a serious problem for flow & even may
weight with a complex structure. block the pipelines, reducing operational efficiency & even continuity
of operations in extreme situations.
• It is black & is usually caused by changes in pressure & temperature.
• Understanding chemistry involved in the asphaltenes deposition &
predicting the asphaltenes deposition tendency are critical to develop
effective asphaltenes remediation technologies in oil & gas recovery
processes.
153 154
1− Asphaltene Formation Test 1− Asphaltene Formation Test

• Asphaltenes Onset Pressure (AOP) is the pressure @ which the • Step-A (blank test):
asphaltenes will begin to separate from the crude oil & comes out of 1. Collect 3 samples of crude oil (100, 200 & 300 μL) & add 12.5 mL of
solution @ a given temperature. n-heptane to each sample then place them in the centrifuge.
• Several methods are available to measure this Asphaltenes Onset 2. The centrifuge tubes were shaken for 2 minutes to agitate the
Pressure (AOP) such as Gravimetric method, Optical microscopy, asphaltene stability.
Density measurement, Light scattering method & Refractive index. 3. Record the volume % of the asphaltene deposit.
• Choose the crude oil dose which gives from 4 to 10% sedimentation to
• Asphaltenes Formation Test (AFT) or Asphaltene Dispersant Test (ADT)
be used in step-B (screening test).
method was Introduced by M. Manek in 1995 to:
− Simulate & evaluate the tendency of Asphaltene to precipitate
during the production or no
− Evaluation of the chemical inhibitor efficiency in the static condition
using a class of chemical additives to control asphaltene deposition
by finding an optimum concentration of inhibitor with high efficiency.
• The test procedure consists of two steps, step-A (blank test) to
determine how much crude is required to use in step-B (screening test).
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1− Asphaltene Formation Test 2− Waxes & Paraffins Formation Test

• After that, the asphaltene dispersant is used to determine the optimum • Paraffin's are composed essentially
dosage rate. of high molecular weight, heavy
and viscous hydrocarbon solids
• The optimum dosage rate should not be too low to prevent asphaltene
(C18+) with low melting point.
formation & not too high for cost wise.
• Paraffin oil can be used to produce
• The asphaltene dispersant is done by paraffin-based products like grease.
adding different asphaltene dispersant
dosage to the tubes with the following
concentrations (50,100, 200, 300 & 500). • Wax & paraffin deposits are primarily temperature driven & also is a
function of the pressure and the fluid composition.
• Shake well & wait 1 hr.
• When temperature of the crude oil drops during production, transportation
• The amount of asphaltene reduction or storage, paraffin in the crude oil can precipitate & cause serious
measured & the efficiency of inhibitors in problems including pipeline blockage, oil gelling, etc.
each concentration is calculated.
• Thus, it is important to measure the composition (amount & type) of
• The dispersed% shall not be less than 98%. paraffin's in the crude oil, and to estimate the temperature @ which the
paraffin’s will occurs & crystallize (Wax Appearance Temperature “WAT”).
157 158
2− Waxes & Paraffins Formation Test 3− Hydrates Formation Test

• Wax viscosity drastically increases 10
• In gas wells, when the gas comes out of the well with high pressures, it
with lowering temperature. expands & its pressure decreases.
8
• Study of wax requires detailed • The pressure drop causes gas expansion & cooling when gas enters
composition analysis up to (nC60) 6 the larger pipe diameter or through chokes according to the general law
m, cp
m, cp
or higher. of gases (PV = nRT).

4
WAT
WAT • This phenomenon is known as Joule–Thomson effect.
• The Isothermal depressurization 2
technique @ different temperatures • This pressure drop in turns cause
steps is used to define the wax 0 forming of an ice-like substance
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
precipitation envelope Temperature, oCo known as HYDRATES.
Temperature, C
• If there were significant hydrate

• Wax can be treated or inhibited by one of the following methods: buildup inside the pipe, the
formed hydrates would not allow
1. Chemical: using deposition inhibitors as solvent.
for continuous flow & even the
2. Thermal: insulating or active heating of the flow lines (thermal soaking). flow would likely stop.
3. Mechanical: wax deposition is commonly managed by periodic pigging.
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3− Hydrates Formation Test 3− Hydrates Formation Test

• Hydrates is one of the flow assurance problems in gas production & • Hydrates are crystalline solids consist
transportation since it occurs in the wellbore, pipelines, chokes, mainly of crystal cage of water (i.e.,
manifolds, low temperature gas plants & gas storage tanks. modified ice crystal structure).
• Hydrate causes partial or complete plugging of the natural gas system. • Each cage contains one natural gas
molecule as a guest.
• Hydrate (crystalline solid) in natural gas system is formed by chemical

interaction & combination between water & small molecules of the
natural gas under pressure @ temperature above the freezing point of
the water.
• Generally, hydrates requires the following conditions to be formed:
− Enough amount of water (gas, liquid or solid).
− Hydrate guest gas molecules (hydrate former) such as (CH4 or C2H4).
− Simultaneous low temperature & high pressure.
161 162
3− Hydrates Formation Test 3− Hydrates Formation Test

• Accurate estimation & prediction of • Condition that inhibit hydrates formation are:
the natural gas water content is an
− High temperature & low pressure.
essential & important parameter
for proper designing of: − No free water present slows the hydrate formation.
o Gas production, processing & − Using the inhibitors such as:
dehydration facilities.
► Thermodynamic & Chemical Hydrates Inhibitors:
o Transportation facilities design.
Methanol & Ethylene glycol affect phase equilibrium of water &
• McKetta & Wehe published in 1953
lower the hydrate formation temperature @ the given pressure
a widely used chart in the industry to
& help in dispersing hydrates once formed.
determine the water content of a
SWEET natural gas @ a given ► Kinetic Hydrates Inhibitors (KHI):
pressure & temperature.
Polymers delay nucleation of the hydrates crystal but generally,
• McKetta & Wehe chart is not polymers greatly slow down but do not stop the formation of
applicable for SOUR “ACIDIC” hydrate crystals.
gases & can’t be used to estimate
the hydrate.
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3− Hydrates Formation Test

• In the lab, isobaric cooling using visual observation is used to determine
both hydrates formation conditions (pressure & temperature) & hydrate
decomposition temperatures for the sample.
• In 1944, D. Katz presented a simple gas
gravity chart that can be used to predict
Pressure for hydrate formation, psia
the pressure & temperature @ which the

hydrates could be formed.
• This Katz chart relates the hydrate Silicate − Sandstone Carbonates − Limestone
pressure & temperature with the specific
gravity of NATURAL gases (NOT
including non-hydrocarbon gases).
• Gas specific gravity equal to gas molecular
Reservoir Rocks
weight divided by that of air (≈ 29).
• For example, for a gas with a specific
gravity (0.7) @ 1000 Psia, hydrates may
Specific gravities
of natural gases
64 oF
Properties
be expected @ temperature 64°F. Temperature, oF
165 166
Reservoir Rock Reservoir Rock

• Reservoir rock is a subsurface rock body with: • SEDIMENTARY rocks are the most prevalent reservoir rocks because
they have higher porosity than most IGNEOUS & METAMORPHIC rocks
− Pockets of voids spaces within the rock called (POROSITY) that is
& occur @ temperature suitable for the preservation of hydrocarbons.
enough for hydrocarbon to settle.
• Sedimentary rocks are formed by particles of other rocks such as sand.
− As well as channels that are connecting these pockets called
(PERMEABILITY) that is allowing hydrocarbons to freely move inside • These sediments come together to form the sedimentary reservoir rock.
the rock & flow out of the rock.
• Lithification turns sediments to rock.
• These voids spaces & channels between grains can be formed during
or after formation of the rock as a result of ground water moving through
the rock that dissolve some of the cement sediment between the grains.
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Reservoir Rock Reservoir Rock

• Reservoir Rock Cycle from sediments to rock consist of: • Hydrocarbon from the SOURCE ROCK must travel into the reservoir
rock to form a reservoir.
1. Deposition: sediments are dropped or settle out.
• Source rocks are often offset from the reservoir (not directly below the
2. Compaction: as more sediments accumulated above, sediments are
reservoir but off to the side.
forced closer together.
• The source rock would also be the bottom-most layer.
3. Cementation: groundwater moves between the grains & leave behind
mineral deposits that bonded the grains to each others.
Source rock offset from the reservoir Source rock bottom-most layer
169 170
Just to Remember (Types of Reservoir Rocks) Just to Remember (Types of Reservoir Rocks)
• Sandstone (Silicates, Siliclastic or Siliciclastics - SiO2) reservoir rock • Carbonate reservoir rock (Limestone “CaCo3”) was created in marine
was created by accumulation of large amounts of clastic sediments environments & usually made of fossils that were undergo many stages
that is characterized by the intergrain matrix porosity, which is the of alteration & diagenesis that often create a secondary porosity.
porosity between the grains making up the rock structure.
• It is characterized by the interparticle, intercrystalline & vuggy porosity.
• Sandstone porosity is homogenous & controlled by grains sizes & sorting.
• Carbonate porosity is heterogenous & controlled by diagenesis.
Clear relationship between porosity & No or Complex relationship between

permeability porosity & permeability
(uni-modal pore system) (poly-modal pore system)
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Just to Remember (Types of Reservoir Rocks) Just to Remember (Types of Reservoir Rocks)
• Dolomite (CaMg(Co3)2) is formed by the dolomitization replacement of • These are different types of rocks that existing in the reservoir.
the calcium (Ca) in limestone (CaCo3) by magnesium (Mg).
• Magnesium (Mg) is denser & smaller in volume than calcium (Ca),
resulting in a volume decrease which causes more porosity & even
fractures (much more permeability).
Sandstone Limestone Dolomite
Crystalline
Dolomite Vuggy
Limestone
Shale Clay Anhydrite Salt
173 174
Reservoir Rock Properties Reservoir Rock Properties

• To form a commercial hydrocarbon reservoir, all geological formations 2- When producing the well, the reservoir fluid must be able to pass a
must exhibit two essential properties which are: relatively long distance under a small potential pressure gradient
from reservoir pressure to bottom hole flowing pressure
1- Reservoir rocks must be able to accumulate & store fluid inside it.
‒ This is known as rock permeability & refers to rock transmissibility.
‒ This is known as the rock POROSITY an refers to rock STORATIVITY.
Porosity is the void space
between the rock grains structure
Permeability is the throat

connecting between the
adjacent voids spaces (pores)
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Reservoir Rock Properties Reservoir Rock Properties

• So, in general, Porosity refers to the pore space that determine rock • This is how a real reservoir rock looks like under the microscope.
STORATIVITY while Permeability refers to pore throat that transmit
fluids & determine rock TRANSMISSIBILITY.
Pore space that

determine the
rock porosity
(STORATIVITY)
Pore throat that transmit fluids

Rock
& control rock permeability
grains
(TRANSMISSIBILITY)
177 178
Porosity (f) Porosity (f)

• Porosity (f) of a rock is a measure of its capacity to store fluids in the • These voids spaces inside the rock are similar to that are in the sponge.
pores & refers to the non-solid voids spaces portion of the rock between
the rock grains that is filled with fluids.
Sand
grain
Pore
space
Sand grain Pore space
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Porosity (f) Porosity (f)

• This picture shows one rock type • Factors affecting the porosity are:
with different porosity values.
− Grains sizes & rounding
• Mathematically, porosity is the (sphericity shape of the grains).
ratio of the voids space pore
volume (Vp) that contain all the
fluids inside the rock to the bulk − Grains sorting (variation of
volume (Vb) of the entire rock. grains sizes, i.e., all grains have
almost equal size or with a wide
range of sizes).
Very well sorted Very poorly sorted

− Mode of grains packing (grains
• Pore volume (Vp) = Bulk volume (Vb) – Matrix grain volume (Vma) arrangement).
Vp Vb − Vma Vma
∅= = =1−
Vb Vb Vb Cubic packing with similar Hexagonal packing with
grain size (f = 48 %) similar grain size (f = 27 %)
181 182
Methods to Image & Measure Porosity Types of Porosity (f)

• Several methods are used to Porosity is classified based on the PORES SPACE CONNECTIVITY to:
image & measure porosity: • Absolut (Total) Porosity: It is the total Total pore volume (Vp )
− Well logs (a) are the most pore spaces in the rock regardless if it is ∅𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 =
connected & contributing to the fluid Bulk rock volum (Vb )
common method.
flow or NO.
− Thin sections analysis (b) &
Scanning Electron Microscopy − Total porosity = connected pore
(SEM) (c) provide critical detail spaces + unconnected pore spaces.
on clays & mineralogy. • Effective Porosity: It is only the
interconnected pore spaces in a rock Effective porosity
− CT scans (d) & 3D core 25%
tomography (e & f) are that are contributing to the fluid flow in Isolated or
increasingly used to visualize a reservoir. noneffective
porosity
pore networks. − Effective porosity is typically less 5%
than total porosity. Total porosity
30%
− Only effective porosity is of interest
Interconnected pore volume
since it is that can contribute to the ∅𝒆𝒇𝒇. =
flow in a reservoir (permeability). Bulk rock volum (Vb )
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Types of Porosity (f) Types of Porosity (f)

RHOC Dt
• Neutron (CNL) & Density (RHOC) CNL • In fact, connections between the pores represent rock permeability.
porosity logs measure the absolut (total)
• So, a rock may be porous but non-permeable due to Non-connected
porosity while sonic (Dt) porosity log
pore spaces OR may be a porous & permeable due to these connected
measure the effective porosity.
pore spaces.
• In this example, total porosity measured
by Neutron (CNL) log is 25% while the
effective porosity as indicated by the
sonic (Dt) log is only 9%.
25 9
Non-connected pore spaces Connected pore spaces

Porous & non-permeable Porous & permeable
185 186
Types of Porosity (f) Types of Porosity (f)

Porosity is also classified based on the NATURE OF OCCURRENCE to: Porosity is also classified based on the NATURE OF OCCURRENCE to:
• Primary (Original) Porosity: • Secondary (Induced) Porosity:
− It is also called the Intergranular or − It is referring to any later changes developed
interparticle porosity which is the voids by any external effects with time after the
spaces between rock grains that were sediments were deposited & formed the rock
developed & formed during the deposition of (i.e., on the existing primary porosity).
rock sediments in the original sedimentation
− Secondary porosity is divided into three classes
& precipitation process of the rock. Carbonate is an example for the
based on the external effect mechanism to: Secondary (Induced) Porosity
− In this case, rock keeps its original structure Clastic sandstone is an example
without any changes due to any external for the Primary (Original) Porosity 1. Solution porosity: voids formed by the solution of the more soluble
portions of the rock by the ground water encroachment that
effects.
created vugs & cavities.
− Primary porosity is a function of the packing, sorting, rounding,
2. Fractures, Fissures & Joints: voids formed by the structural
compaction & cementation effects.
failure of the rock under loads caused by folding & faulting.
− It is called intergranular porosity for sandstones & the oolitic or
3. Dolomitization: voids that formed by chemical change &
intercrystalline porosity for carbonates.
recrystallization in limestone & transformed into dolomite.
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Types of Porosity (f) Saturations (Sw)

• It is important to differentiate between the secondary porosity that was • This is a typical formation components where:
created by the Fractures & that was created by the Vugs.
− Most of the reservoir rock is a matrix.
− The voids spaces available for store fluids is called porosity (f).
Fractures Vugs
− These voids spaces is not completely available for the hydrocarbon
due to presence of the formationTypical
water (SwFormation
). Components
Oil
feff
Water
Matrix
SW = 60%
fEff. = 30%
189 190
Saturations (Sw) Saturations (Sw)

• So, fluid saturation (Sx) is defined as the • Critical saturation refers to the minimum saturation @ which a phase
RATIO of pores spaces volume occupied becomes mobile & start flowing inside the rock. It is called the initial
by this specific fluid (Vx) to the connected water saturation (Swi) for water or residual oil saturation (Sor) for oil.
(effective) pores spaces (Vp) in the rock.
• Irreducible (Swirr.) or connate (Swc) water saturation is the amount of water
adhering to the rock grains & cannot be moved or displaced from it.
Vx
Sx =
Vp
Sor ≠ Swi
• Since not all the pore space is available
only for oil due to the presence of
formation water (Sw) & sometime free Fluids saturations Swc < Swi
gas so, the saturation of each individual
phase range from > (0%) & < (100%).
• Sum of all fluids saturations in place So + Sg + Sw = 1 This is a typical connate water This is a typical residual oil
must equal to (1).
saturation in the reservoir rock saturation in the reservoir rock
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Saturations (Sw) Saturations (Sw) − Archie Equation

• Transition zone of a reservoir is the region between • Archie developed his famous empirical equation to calculate water
So= 100%
depth when water saturation is 100% @ the base of saturation (Sw) of the uninvaded zone in a formation next to a borehole
the reservoir (this is called Oil Water Contact “OWC”) & using open hole well log parameters.
another higher depth in the reservoir when water
saturation is @ its irreducible water saturation (Swirr.)
@ which movable oil saturation is 100%. Empirical
constant ≈ 1 Formation water
• This figure summarize the change in OIL SATURATION
(So) with depth inside the TRANSITION ZONE. 𝒏 𝒂 𝑹𝒘 resistivity (W)
𝑺𝒘 =
∅𝒎 𝑹𝒕
Water saturation True formation
(fraction) resistivity (W)
Porosity
Saturation Cementation
(fraction)
constant ≈ 2 exponent ≈ 2
So= 0%
193 194
Compressibility Compressibility
• Compressibility is defined as the proportional fractional change • From the Stress−Strain relationship for any material, the Yield Strength
(Enlargement or Reduction) in unit thickness or unit volume of a (psi) is defined as the maximum strain point before the deformation.
material due to pressure change (Tension or Compressive loading).
• Compressibility (C) is the reverse of the Yield Strength (psi-1).
Stress
PLASTIC
Dp
Dp
region
ELASTIC Fracture
region or
Dp Dp Yield Strength failure
Dp V V2 Deformation
V1 Dp
E
Dp
Dp Before change
Enlargement after Reduction after Stress Rise
Young Modulus = Slope = =
Tension Compression Strain Run
• It can be measured in the lab or determined from some correlations. 0 Strain
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Compressibility Rock Compressibility (Cf)

• Solids & Liquids are very less compressible & not easily compressed. • Reservoir rocks consist of grains solids & pores spaces.
• Gasses are highly compressible (easily compressed) because their • Grains solids itself are NOT compressible
molecules are widely spaced. but only the pores spaces volume between
the grains is reduced when is subjected to
pressure.
Before compression After compression
Solids & Liquids Gases

Not easily compressed Highly compressed
• Pore volume compressibility plays an important role in the drive
Molecules are closely spaced Molecules are widely spaced
mechanisms in some reservoirs (Depletion Drainage Drive Reservoirs).
197 198
Total Compressibility (Ct) Compaction

• In a reservoir which consists of rock & pore space occupied by oil, water, • Rock compaction is the change in rock compressibility with pressure.
& gas, total reservoir compressibility (Ct) is defined as the SUM of • As more sediments accumulate above the reservoir rock, the overburden
formation or pore volume compressibility (Cf) & the saturation pressure force the grains to be closer to each others (reduce pore space).
weighted fluid compressibilities.
• When the overburden pressure exceeds the fluid pressure in the pore
For Saturated reservoirs (P < Pb) where there is a FREE GAS: space, the formation is compacted.
• Compaction of the grains also reduces the size of the pore throats.
Ct = Cf + CoSo + Cw Sw + CgSg Therefore, the permeability is also reduced.
• Porosity, permeability & compressibility are reduced due to compaction.
For Under-Saturated reservoirs (P > Pb) where there is NO FREE GAS: Overburden
Grain
Ct = Cf + CoSo + Cw Sw
Pore space
• Gas compressibility (Cg) has a significant effect on the total reservoir
compressibility (Ct) value since gas compressibility (Cg) is too much high
compared to that of the other reservoir fluids compressibilities (Co) & (Cw).
• Thus, if there is any free gas present in the reservoir, the total reservoir
compressibility (Ct) is dominated by the gas compressibility (Cg).
Sediment Compaction
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Permeability (k) Permeability (k)

• Permeability (k) is a ROCK PROPERTY of the porous medium that refers • Permeability is a very important rock property because it controls the
to ability of the reservoir rock to easily pass & transmit fluids through it DIRECTIONAL MOVEMENT & FLOW RATE of the reservoir fluid inside
(the higher the permeability, the more rapidly fluids will flow through the formation.
pores).
• So, Permeability (k) is a rock characteristic independent of the flowing
liquids (NOT fluids).
201 202

• Sizes & distribution of the PORE THROAT that is connecting between • These are the pores throats that control fluid flow through porous media.
the pores are the main factor controls rock permeability (k).
• They are NOT all with equal sizes
• For a rock to be permeable, it must contain inter-connected pores. (blue is larger than orange).
• Pores throats are randomly

distributed within the rock matrix
based on the conditions of the
initial deposition.
• Pores throat sizes & distribution

are the major factors controlling
rock matrix permeability.
• In general, movement of fluids within a rock depends more upon the

size of pores throats than on the size of pores.
Sand grain Pore space PORE THROAT • So, permeability depends on grains sizes as well as grains sorting.
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• This is a comparison for a rock samples with same porosity (36%) but • For a rock to be permeable, it must contain inter-connected pores so,
different permeabilities due to different pore throats sizes. rock permeability depends on the EFFECTIVE POROSITY.
• The higher the effective porosity, the higher the permeability.
No pore space Unconnected pore space Connected pore space
Non-porous Porous Porous &

Non-permeable Non-permeable Permeable
205 206

• Just remember that Porosity refers to the pore space that determine rock Darcy work to measure rock permeability:
STORATIVITY while Permeability refers to pore throat that transmit • This is exactly the permeameter device that Darcy used in his experiment
fluids & determine rock TRANSMISSIBILITY. to conclude the equation that describe the fluid flow in porous media.
Pore space that
determine the
rock porosity
Dp
(STORATIVITY)
P1 P2
A
Constant water
pumping rate, q
(cc/sec) L
m
m
Pore throat that transmit fluids Water collection
Rock
& control rock permeability & measurement
grains
(TRANSMISSIBILITY)
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Darcy work to measure rock permeability: Darcy work to measure rock permeability:
• Darcy placed a sand pack of length (L) and cross-sectional area (A) in • Darcy measured the upstream inlet pressure (P1) = fluid density * g * h1
the device.
• This upstream inlet pressure (P1) in the reservoir is the current static
reservoir pressure (Pi).
• Darcy used a liquid with known • Then
Constant water q P1 Darcy measured the Constant water q P1
viscosity (m) to flow through it injection rate,
(cc/sec)
m downstream outlet pressure (P2) injection rate,
(cc/sec)
m
with a constant rate (q) under = fluid density * g * h2
pressure varied from the upstream
inlet pressure (P1) to the • This downstream outlet pressure
downstream outlet pressure (P2). L (P2) in the reservoir is the bottom L
h1 hole flowing pressure (Pwf). h1
• Note that Darcy used liquid not
gases since type of gas affecting
A P2 A P2
flow measurements and become
unstable. h2 h2
Water collection Water collection
& measurement & measurement
209 210

• Finally, fluid flow rate (q) was determined by measuring the accumulated • Darcy changed these parameters (A, L, m, P1) several times by using:
volume in the tank in certain time.
1. Cores with different lengths (L) with keeping
• For example, If a 0.5 liters was collected in 30 minutes, this mean that the other parameters (A, m, P1) unchanged. P1
the daily flow rate equal to: P2
2. Cores with different cross-sectional areas
Constant water q P1
0.5 liter * (60/30) hr = 1 liter/hr injection rate,
(cc/sec)
m (A) with keeping the other parameters (L, m,
P1) unchanged.
= 1 liter/hr * 24 hr/day = 24 liter/day
3. Different flowing fluid types with different
= 24 liter/day * 158.9 bbl/liter viscosities (m) with keeping the other A m q
= 3815 bbl/day. L h1
parameters (A, L, P1) unchanged.
4. Different applied upstream inlet pressures
A P2 (P1) with keeping the other parameters (A,
L
q L, m) unchanged.
m h2
Water collection • Every time, he monitored fluid flow rate (q) accumulated in the tank & the
& measurement
corresponding downstream pressures (P2).
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• Darcy observed that flow rate (q) accumulated in the tank increases if: • Darcy then formulated these observations in
Pressure difference (DP) between upstream (P1) & downstream this form. AΔP
►
Qx α
pressures (P2) increased. • In order to convert this relationship from the μx L
► Core cross sectional area (A) increased. proportional form to an equation, he
► Core length (L) decreased. adjusted the units of both right-hand & left-
► Flowing fluid viscosity (m) decreased. hand sides of the relationship.
• To do that, Darcy introduced the proportional
• So, Darcy concluded that flow rate (q) & corresponding flow velocity is: constant (Empirical coefficient) which is the P1
P2
► Proportional to: absolute permeability (k) that has the unit of
‒ Core cross sectional area (A). area (L2).
‒ Pressure difference (DP) between upstream (P1) & downstream
(P2) pressures (DP = P2 – P1). 𝐤AΔP
► Inversely proportional to: Qx = A m q
‒ Core length (L).
μx L
‒ Viscosity (m) of the flowing fluid. L
213 214

• Note that, Flow rate (q) in Darcy equation is called the apparent flow rate • A rock has a permeability of (1 Darcy) if a liquid with (1 Cp) viscosity
because the entire cross section area (A) is not available for flow due to flowing with rate of (1 cm3/s) through a core with (1 cm) length & (1 cm2)
porosity (only porous paths are available for flow but not the matrix). cross-section area with a pressure drop of (1 atm/cm).
• Unit of permeability (k) is Darcy & its dimension is area dimension (L2).
Force F (
ML / T 2 )M
Qx m x L  L3 M 1 LT 2  P= = =
Unit area A L2
=
LT 2
kx = → . .L. 2 . 
ADP  T LT L M  m=
shear stress
=
F/A
=
( )
ML / T 2 / L2
=
M
rate of shear strain V / L (L / T ) / L LT
1 Darcy = 0.987 * 10–8 cm2
• But using of Darcy as a measuring unit for the permeability is usually too
large so to be convenient in reservoirs the millidarcy (10-3 Darcy) is
therefore more commonly used.
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• Permeability cab be estimated from many correlations. Klinkenberg effect or gas slippage effect:
• Darcy used liquids in his experiment to measure rock permeability.
• But gases can be also used in order to measure rock permeability in the
lab specially for the tight rocks (low permeability) since it is easier for
gases to flow through it more than liquids.
• This is because liquids require longer time & higher pressure to flow
through a tight rock (liquid mobility is much lower than that of the gas).
• But we must know that type of gas affecting flow measurements and
become unstable.
• Gases normally used to measure permeability in the lab is Helium or
Nitrogen (use of air may cause unstable materials in the core to
oxidize).
• That is why in the core report there is what is called Helium permeability
& what is called Liquid permeability.
217 218

Klinkenberg effect or gas slippage effect: Klinkenberg effect or gas slippage effect:
• In the lab, gas is the fluid generally used because: • From the other hand @ low pressures, the mean free path of the gas
molecule (which is a function of its molecular size & kinetic energy) is
− Flow rate stabilized quickly due to the low gas viscosity.
relatively large compared to the pore opening sizes.
− Some liquids interact with the rock matrix.
• As the pressure increases & gas becomes more compressed so the
− 100% saturation of a dry core with a gas is readily obtained. mean free path of the gas molecules approach those of the liquid.
• The resulting flow is converted to values relevant to common gas • This means that @ low pressures; gas has a higher permeability than
permeability (kg). @ higher pressure.
• Klinkenberg (1941) discovered that the permeability of a core sample • This slippage in case of gases lead to an apparent higher flow rate,
measured by flowing gases is always GREATER than the permeability hence an increase in the measured permeability value than the real
obtained when a liquid is the flowing fluid. permeability.
• This is because for gases @ low pressures, there is a slippage between • This is called the Klinkenberg effect or gas slippage effect.
the gas molecules and the grains surfaces while liquids have a zero
• This mean that the permeability measured by gases in the lab (kg) is
velocity @ the sand grain surface.
often unrealistic & it should be corrected to the real rock liquid
• This is because gas does not adhere to the pore walls as liquid does. permeability before being used.
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• In order to correlate between the permeability measured by gases & that • Klinkenberg concluded that if the measured permeabilities by gas (kg)
is measured by liquids, Klinkenberg introduced a new definition known are plotted vs. (1/Pm) values then extrapolated a best fit straight line to a
as mean pressure (Pm). permeability point where (1/Pm= 0) that is in turns mean that the mean
• Mean pressure (Pm) is defined as the upstream flowing pressure (P1) plus pressure goes to infinity (Pm = ∞).
downstream flowing pressure (P2) divided by (2).
• This extrapolated permeability is
referred to as (kinfinity) & then it is
called “Klinkenberg” permeability (kK).
𝑃1 + 𝑃2
𝑃𝑚 = • This “Klinkenberg” permeability (kK)
2 would be approximately equal to the
liquid permeability (kL) or the
absolute permeability.
• Klinkenberg also found that for a given porous medium, as the mean
pressure (Pm) increases, i.e., (1/Pm) decreases, the calculated
permeability decreases.
221 222

• The resulting straight-line relationship can be expressed as: • Klinkenberg effect is function of the gas type that is used to measure
the permeability of a core sample because the mean free path of the gas
𝑪 is a function of its molecular size & the kinetic energy.
Permeability
𝒌𝒈 = 𝒌𝑳 + kg
𝑷𝒎 • This was clear from Klinkenberg's
C experiments using three different
kg : measured gas permeability. gases of varying molecular sizes
(Hydrogen, Nitrogen & Carbon
kL : equivalent liquid permeability or the dioxide).
Klinkenberg infinity permeability, i.e., kL • In the lab, permeability is
absolute permeability (k). measured by passing inert gas
Pm : mean pressure = (P1 + P2) / 2 (Helium or Nitrogen) through the
sample.
C : slope of the best fit straight line which 1 / Pm
is a function of the influence of the Klinkenberg method to determine the
pore size and the mean free path. absolute permeability using the gas
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Permeability Classification: 1- Absolute Permeability:
• Permeability can be classified based on the number of fluids flowing at • It is the permeability of a porous medium
the same time inside the rock to: when ONLY ONE FLUID present, i.e., the
porous medium is fully saturated only
1. Absolute Permeability. with one fluid (only single-phase flow).
• By another words, absolute permeability
2. Effective Permeability. is the permeability when the rock is 100%
FULLY saturated with a single fluid.
3. Relative Permeability. • Absolute permeability is a specific
property of the rock since it is not
affected by type of the liquid (NOT
fluids) flowing inside the rock. kAΔP
• So, for all liquids when any liquid flows Q=
μL
alone inside the rock, the absolute
permeability of this rock is constant.
• It is measured in Darcy or “mD” & it is labeled as (k) or (kabs).
225 226

2- Effective Permeability: 2- Effective Permeability:
• It is the ability of a rock to preferentially • Any fluid will not start to move inside the rock except when its saturation
flow or transmit a particular fluid when reaches to a specific value that is called CRITICAL SATURATION @
more than one immiscible fluids which the rock will develop an effective permeability to this fluid to start
flowing simultaneously inside the rock flowing.
(two or three phases flow).
• Generally, effective permeability (keff) to any fluid is a function of its
• By another words, it is the permeability saturation inside the rock, effective permeability (keff.x) to a specific fluid
when the rock is PARTIALLY saturated increase when its saturation (Sx) increase,
(NOT 100%) with a single fluid.
• Since there are more than one immiscible fluid flowing simultaneously
• It is measured in Darcy or “mD” & it is labeled as (keff−o, keff−w, keff−g). with each others inside the rock while the saturation of any fluid in the pore
space is < 100%, so the effect of different fluids flow on the rock
𝐤 𝐞𝐟𝐟−𝐱 AΔP permeability appears.
𝐐𝐱 = • In this case one of the fluid trying to affect & interfere the movement of
𝛍𝐱 L
the other fluids inside the rock but will never affect the overall ability of
keff−x : effective permeability to a specific fluid (x) the rock to transmit fluids through it.
mx : viscosity of this specific fluid (x)
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2- Effective Permeability: 3- Relative Permeability:
• By definition, Effective permeability < Absolute permeability. • RELATIVE permeability is a ratio of the EFFECTIVE
permeability (keff) of the rock to a specific fluid to k eff
0 < keff < kabs the ABSOLUTE permeability (kabs) of the rock. 𝐤𝐫 =
k abs
• When there are two immiscible fluids (such as oil & water) flowing
simultaneously together inside the reservoir, then the total flow (Qt) is • Relative permeability is dimensionless & it is labeled as (kro, krg, krw).
given by:
k eff−o AΔP k eff−w AΔP Effective permeability to OIL keff−o
𝐐𝐭 = 𝐐𝐨 + 𝐐𝐰 𝐐𝐭 = + kro = =
μo L μwL kabs kabs
• Note that, in this equation, we used the effective permeability (keff) & the Effective permeability to GAS keff−g
krg = =
mobility (m) for each phase. kabs kabs
• That is why the permeability obtained from the pressure transient
Effective permeability to WATER k
analysis (PTA) is the effective permeability to the phase that we used krw = = eff−w
its viscosity as an input @ the beginning of the analysis. kabs kabs
229 230

3- Relative Permeability: 3- Relative Permeability:
• Since Effective permeability < Absolute permeability (0 < keff < kabs). • In case of there are more than one phase flowing @ the same time inside
the rock, the sum of the relative permeabilities values for all the phases is
• Relative permeability (kr) to any phase in the presence of the other phases always LESS THAN (1).
ranges from more than (0) for (0 < keff) of this phase to less than (1) for
(keff < kabs) of this phase. • This means that → kro + krw + krg < 1
Krw
• So as a = K@Sw / Kabs
summary: • While we know that (So + Sw + + Sg = 1)
• So, what is the reason for this inconsistency?
− (kr = 0) @ 0% saturation of any phase.
Krw = K@Sw / Kabs • This is because the coexisting different
− (kr > 0) @ saturation > 0% of this phase. immiscible fluids simultaneously moving
inside the rock @ the same time will
− (kr < 1) @ saturation < 100% of this phase. cause the phases interfere each others.
− (kr = 1) @ 100% saturation of this phase.
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• Relative permeability (kro & krw) data is plotted vs. water saturation (Sw) • @ any water saturations lower than the initial (critical) water saturation
data that result-in a unique plot known as a relative permeability curve. (Swi) or equal to the irreducible (connate) water saturation (Swirr), then:
• Can you identify what is happening A • Relative permeability of water A
Water Oil Water Oil
@ points A, B, C, D & E? NOT NOT (krw) is zero (there is no free or NOT NOT
flow Oil & Water flow flow Oil & Water flow
mobile water) @ point-B.
flow together flow together
E • @ this point, only oil is moving E
inside the reservoir & relative
permeability to oil (kro) is the
maximum @ point-A.
kro krw • As water saturation increases, kro krw
Swi C Sor relative permeability of oil (kro) Swi C Sor
gradually decreases until
B D becomes zero @ the residual B D
oil saturation (Sor) @ point-D.
233 234

• @ this point, only water move inside the reservoir & relative permeability • Inside the reservoir, this area corresponds to the transition zone.
to water (krw) is the maximum @ point-E.
• In the reservoir, this point-E Water A Oil • @ point-C, both fluids are Water A Oil
corresponds to the Oil Water NOT NOT moving with the same relative NOT NOT
flow Oil & Water flow flow Oil & Water flow
Contact (OWC). permeability value (kro = krw)
flow together flow together
however they have different
• @ any other water saturations (Sw) E E
saturation values.
where (Swi) < (Sw) < (1 – Sor), so
both oil & water are moving
simultaneously inside the
reservoir with different relative kro krw kro krw
permeabilities ratios depending Swi C Sor Swi C Sor
on their relative saturations.
B D B D
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3- Relative Permeability: Relative Permeability Ratio:
• Wettability & heterogeneity have a significant impact on the shape of • Relative permeability ratio is a ratio between the relative 𝐤 𝐫𝐨
the relative permeability curves. permeability of a rock to any fluid to the relative permeability
of the same rock to another fluid flowing together in the rock. 𝐤 𝐫𝐰
• @ oil saturation ≈ 100% (water saturation is ≈ 0% → relative permeability
to oil (kro) is (1) & that to water (krw) is (0).
• @ this point, relative permeability ratio (kro / krw) is infinite (1 / 0) = (∞).

• With production, oil saturation decreases, while water saturation
increases until reaching a point @ which water saturation has the highest
value ≈ 100% & oil saturation has the lowest value ≈ 0%.
• So, @ this point relative permeability to oil (kro) is (0) & that to water (krw)
is (1) that result-in the relative permeability ratio (kro / krw) is (0 / 1) = (0).
• This means that relative permeability ratio (kro / krw) data itself varies with
Effect of wettability on relative permeability curves Effect of heterogeneity on relative permeability curves
a wide range from (∞) @ very low (Sw) to (0) @ very high (Sw).
237 238
Permeability (k) Mobility (l)

Relative Permeability Ratio: • Mobility (l) of any fluid (x) is a ratio between the effective permeability
(keff–x) of this fluid to its viscosity (mx).
• Similar to relative permeability data, relative permeability ratio data is
also plotted vs. water saturation (Sw) data that result-in a unique plot.
• But since relative permeability ratio data varies with a wide range so the
k eff(x)
λx =
Cartesian representation is not suitable for this type of data. μx
• Instead, Logarithmic representation
of the relative permeability ratio data 𝐤 𝐫𝐨
= ae−b𝐒𝐰 • Mobility (l) is a function of both the saturation (Sx) of this fluid (x) in the
is used with the saturation data on 𝐤 𝐫𝐰
a semi-Log plot that established a rock & the relative permeability (krx) to it.
straight-line relationship that is
• From Darcy law we have:
mathematically represented by this
equation.
• So, @ any given water saturation k eff(x) AΔP AΔP k eff(x) AΔP
(Sw) value, we can estimate the qx = = ∗ = ∗ λx
corresponding value of the relative μx L L μx L
permeability ratio (kro/krw).
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Mobility Ratio (M) Mobility Ratio (M)

• Mobility ratio (M ) is a ratio between the mobility of the displacing fluid • This figure shows the Mobility ratios (M ) effect on the flood front in the
(Water or Gas) to that of the displaced fluid (Oil). Water Injection (W.I) system.
• For Water Injection (W.I) system, the Mobility ratio (M ) is defined as:
Injector Oil Injector Oil
well producer well producer
keff−w
𝛌𝐰 μw keff−w ∗μo krw ∗μo
𝐌= = keff−o = =
𝛌𝐨 keff−o ∗μw kro ∗μw
μo
M=1 Neutral → Water & Oil moving equally (ideal displacement)
M<1 Favorable → Oil moving easier than water (better sweep)
M > 1 Un-favorable → Water moving easier than oil (breakthrough) M > 1 (Un-favorable)
Water moving easier than oil (breakthrough)
M < 1 (Favorable)
Oil moving easier than water (better sweep)
241 242
Tortuosity (t) Tortuosity (t)

• LAMINAR fluid flow through pipes is in straight parallel lines. • These type of arrangements cause the
paths allowed for fluids to pass & flow
between the grains is zigzagged & winding
such as a snake movement.
• But in the reservoir, due to porous

structure of the rock, the grains are
arranged & packed beside each
others in such way to form the rock
structure.
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Tortuosity (t) Wettability

• Kozeny in 1937 introduced the • First let’s be aware with some important definitions.
concept of hydraulic Tortuosity to Gas ꟷ water
account for the tortuous character • Surface Tension: it is the force that acting @ interface
of flow through porous media. an immiscible gas-liquid interface results from Gas
an imbalance in the intermolecular forces @ the
• Tortuosity or Lithology constant is L\ surface between them (Van der Waals).
a factor that describes the deviation
of the fluid flow path inside the • This imbalance causes the surface molecules to Liquid
porous media than the straight-line experience a net pull directed into the bulk of the
trend due to presence of the pore L solution.
space structure. (L\): actual fluid flow path Interfacial surface film due
(L): core length • Interfacial Tension: Oil to unequally attraction
forces between water & oil
• It is represented by a ratio of the molecules cause tension in
It is the force that acting
length of the actual streamline fluid the surface
between the surface of two
flow path (L\) between two points to
adjacent different immiscible
the straight-line distance (L)
LIQUIDS (oil – water).
between that two points.
OIL & WATER molecules
• Actual fluid flow path (L\) length is more than the core length (L). Water attracted equally in all
directions
245 246
Wettability Wettability
Wetting
• The ATTRACTION force or the ADHESION force that is acting between • In the reservoir, when there are two different
the rock & the contained fluids is called WETTABILITY. immiscible fluids co-exit, one fluid wets the
surfaces of the formation rock (wetting
phase) in preference to the other fluid (non-
wetting phase).
• Wettability is defined as: Non-Wetting
− The preference & affinity of the rock to

be in contact with one fluid & to adhere
to each other rather than another
existing fluid.
− Or it is the tendency of one fluid to wet, Wetting
coat, spread on or adhere to the solid

surface in a rock in the presence of other
immiscible fluid. Non-Wetting
− Or the tendency of one fluid to displace

another fluid from a solid surface.
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• This spread of liquid on top of the solid is ranging from complete spread • In water-wet reservoirs, water coats rock surfaces & is preferentially
of the fluid on the solid surface (wetting the solid) to the liquid form a held it in smaller pores since water is the wetting phase.
sphere on the solid due to no wettability (not wetting the solid).
• These two pictures show a droplet of water that is completely wetting
the rock & the other that is completely NOT wetting the rock.
Low High
permeability permeability
Oil Connate water
Water completely wetting the rock Water completely not wetting the rock
249 250
• Nonwetting hydrocarbon phases (oil & gas) occupy the central space • If the contact angle (q) measured through fluid (1) is acute (q < 90o),
of the larger pores. then the separation surface between the two immiscible fluids will be
• This image shows the position of the wetting & non-wetting phases concaved towards fluid (2).
inside the rock for both water wet, mixed wet & oil wet rocks • Then fluid (1) will displace fluid (2)
from the solid surface & then fluid (1)
is said to be a wetting phase with
respect to the solid surface.
• For a Gas ─ Water system, Gas is
the non-wetting phase. q
• One of the famous conventional methods to measure the wettability is

the contact angle (q) which is the angle between the curved surface of
the fluid droplet & surface of the solid.
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• If the contact angle (q) measured through fluid (1) is obtuse (q > 90o), • If the contact angle (q) is a right angle (q = 90o), then this is called
then the separation surface between the two immiscible liquids will critical contact angle.
tends to be much spherical.
• In this case, neither fluid (1) nor fluid (2)
• Then fluid (2) will displace fluid (1) can displace each others from the
from the solid surface & then fluid (2) solid surface.
is said to be a wetting phase with
respect to the solid surface. • Wettability in this case is called Neutral
or mixed or intermediate wettability.
• For an Oil ─ Water system, Oil is
usually the non-wetting phase. q
• For oil wet reservoirs, water will be
the non-wetting phase so there will
be a huge amounts of oil adhere to
• In water – oil displacement process, water is mostly the wetting fluid.
the rock without production.
• In gas – oil displacement process, gas is always the non-wetting fluid.
• Let’s see how to estimate the Wettability from Relative Permeability Curve.
253 254
• As summary, based on the contact angle (q), reservoir rock wetting • As summary, based on the contact angle (q), reservoir rock wetting
state is classified as: state is classified as:
1. Water wet (hydrophilic): contact angle (q) < 90o 3. Neutral or Intermediate wettability: contact angle (q) ≈ 90o
− A thin film of water coats the surface of the formation matrix, a − All portion of the rock surface have a slight but equal preference to
condition that is desirable for efficient oil transport. being wetted by water or oil.
2. Oil wet (hydrophobic): contact angle (q) > 90o
− Pertaining to the preference of a solid to be in contact with oil phase
rather than water or gas phase. Oil-wet rocks preferentially imbibe oil.
Water wet (q < 90) Neutral wettability (q = 90) Oil wet (90 > q < 180) Water wet (q < 90) Neutral wettability (q = 90) Oil wet (90 > q < 180)
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• This is a summary of the wettability cases based on the contact angle (q). • Wettability has a significant impact on the shape of the relative
permeability curves.
• Let’s see how wettability affect shape of the relative permeability curves.
257 258
1. End points values comparison: Maximum relative permeability values 1. End points values comparison: Irreducible water saturation (Swirr.) &
comparison. residual oil saturation (Sor) comparison.
• In the water-wet system, • In the water-wet system,
relative permeability to water kro @ Swi irreducible water saturation
end-point (krw @ Sor) is low (Swirr.) is higher than the
while relative permeability to oil residual oil saturation (Sor) &
end-point (kro @ Swi) is high & krw @ Sor vise versa in oil-wet system.
vise versa in oil-wet system.
• So as a conclusion:
• So as a conclusion:
► If Sor < Swirr.
► If krw @ Sor < kro @ Swi
→ water wet reservoir.
→ water wet reservoir.
Swirr. Swi Sor ► If Sor > Swirr. Swirr. Swi Sor
► If krw @ Sor > kro @ Swi
→ oil wet reservoir.
Sw% So% Sw% So%
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2. Point of intersection between the two relative permeability curves: 3. Relative permeabilities comparison @ equal saturation value (50%):
• Intersection point (Swx) between • Comparison of the relative
the two curves will determine if permeability values (kro & krw)
the rock is water wet or oil wet. @ equal saturations value of
• If (kro = krw) @ the intersection So = Sw = 50% will indicates
point (Swx) between the two the wettability.
curves, it means that both oil & • So as a conclusion:
water are moving in the same
way inside the rock (Neutral ► If kro > krw @ So = Sw = 50%
wettability).
• But if the corresponding water → water wet reservoir.
kro
saturation @ this intersection
► If kro < krw @ So = Sw = 50%
point is greater than the krw
corresponding oil saturation,
then this mean that much water Swx 50%
remain & hence water is the
wetting phase & vise versa. Sw% So% Sw% So%
261 262
Capillary Pressure (Pc) Capillary Pressure (Pc)

• Capillary pressure appears as a result of the surface tension existing • The surface tension force for liquid – gas system or the interfacial
@ the interface separating two adjacent different immiscible fluids. tension force for oil – water system will create a Capillary Force on the
contacting surface area between these two different immiscible
• Let's consider what happens when a tube of capillary radius (r) is dipped
adjacent fluids that distorts the liquid surface from a planar shape &
in a larger container filled with water.
concaving it downward or upward.
• Water in the capillary tube rises above the water level in the container to a
• This capillary force per unit surface area is called Capillary Pressure.
height (h) that depends on capillary size or the radius of the tube (r).
Height (h) is inversely proportional to (r). • This Capillary Pressure (Pc) represents the
pressures difference across the curved
• In this case, the Attraction (Adhesion) q q
interface between the coexisting two
force that is acting between the solid immiscible phase fluids which are in
surface of the tube & the contained contact in the capillarity pore system.
fluid allows water to rise in the
capillary tube WHILE the gravity force • Displacement of one fluid by another is either
acts in the opposite direction. aided or opposed by the capillary pressure.
• Water rises until there is a balance • Based on this, an analogy can be drawn
between these two opposing forces. between this capillary tube radius & the
radii of pores throats in the rock matrix.
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• In order to understand the concept of the Capillary Pressure inside the • In this case, oil initially was not able to get into the rock, except if it had
reservoir, let’s go back to the initial oil migration when all the existing some extra energy to push the exiting saturating water saturation (Sw)
liquid inside the pores was only water & water saturation (Sw) was 100% in this system out of the rock.
(water wet rock).
• Due to the continuous movement of the migrated oil into the reservoir,
• In this case there are two types of water saturations: an extra energy was developed that successfully enabled the oil gotten
into inside the rock pores & displaced the saturating water downward
1. Saturating water saturation (Sw) moving inside the pore spaces. of the structure due to buoyancy forces created by density differences
2. Wetting water saturation or irreducible water saturation (Swirr) that between the two fluid phases.
adhering to & coating the grains surfaces due to the wettability. • This extra energy is called the Capillary Pressure (Pc) that is pressure
difference between the pressures in oil & water phases (Pc = Po – Pw).
(Sw) = 100% = 100% saturation =

Oil
Saturating Wetting % PV Saturating Wetting

% PV Oil Water
Water Water
1 = Sw + Swirr 1 = So + Swirr
265 266

• Although the oil had this extra energy, but it could not never displace • Just to summarize:
100% of the in-Situ water in the rock pores system due to the attraction
− Capillary Pressure (Pc) resists the displacement of water by
(adhesion) force that is acting between the rock & its contained wetting
hydrocarbons.
fluid.
− The buoyancy pressure (Pb) enables the hydrocarbons to migrate &
• This will result-in some water will be held by the capillary forces in the
enter the pore space occupied by water.
rock pores that is called Irreducible water saturation(Swirr.) or connate
water saturation (Swc).
• @ equilibrium, a water surface known as Oil Water Contact (OWC), will
be formed @ some elevation (h) in the reservoir.
• Phases pressures of both oil & water @ this Oil Water Contact (OWC)
are different & then the oil-water capillary pressure will be the
difference in phases pressures @ this elevation or interface.
• In the reservoir, as in the capillary tube, the capillary rise (h) will be
greater in a rock with smaller pores throats (r), i.e., low permeability
rock than in rocks with large pores throats, i.e., high permeability rock.
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• This figure shows the effect of different capillary tube radius sizes (r) • Just remember that the transition zone of a reservoir is the
So= 100%
on the rise of the water levels (h) in the tube that mimics the different region between depth when water saturation is 100% @
values of the rock permeabilities (pores throats) in the reservoir. the base of the reservoir (this is called Oil Water Contact
“OWC”) & another higher depth in the reservoir when water
Small pores Medium pores Large pores saturation is @ its irreducible water saturation (Swirr.) @
throats throats throats which movable oil saturation is 100%.
Small Medium Large • This figure summarize the change in OIL SATURATION
(So) with depth inside the TRANSITION ZONE.
FWL
So= 0%
269 270

• Capillary Pressure (Pc) is the main responsible of the fluids distribution • In the reservoir, the Free Water Level (FWL) is located @ the base of the
inside the transition zone in the reservoir where saturation changes transition zone of a hydrocarbon column.
gradually from mostly oil with irreducible water @ the top of the transition
• Free Water Level (FWL) is defined as the DEEPEST elevation of the
zone to mostly water with residual oil saturation @ the bottom.
100% water saturation (wetting phase) @ which the capillary pressure
• Mathematically, Capillary Pressure (Pc) is expressed as the difference become zero (PC = Pnw – Pw = 0) because only ONE fluid (water)
between the non-wetting phase pressure (Pnw) & the wetting phase present @ this level.
pressure (Pw), i.e., (PC = Pnw – Pw). So= 100%
• Similar to the capillary tubes in the lab,
in the reservoir due to equilibrium, q
water raise in the transition zone to a
height above the FWL that is called Oil OWC
Water Contact (OWC) which is function
of the transition zone permeability & the FWL
wettability.
So= 0%
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• Oil Water Contact (OWC) is defined as the LOWEST elevation of the • Mathematically, Capillary Pressure (Pc) is expressed as the difference
100% wetting phase saturation @ which the capillary pressure is between the non-wetting phase pressure (Pnw) & the wetting phase
greater than zero (PC = Pnw – Pw > 0) because there are TWO fluids pressure (Pw) as follow.
present & mobile hydrocarbons occur.
𝐏𝐜 = Pnon − Pwetting
−wetting
• That is why both of FWL & OWC have the
same value of water saturation (Sw = 100%) q
but with different capillary pressure values • Capillary Pressure (Pc) can be also expressed either as a function of the
which is the min of zero @ the FWL while it OWC capillary radius (r), surface tension (s) & the wettability (q) or as a
is the max @ the OWC. function of height (h) above Free Water Level (FWL).
FWL
2σ Cosθ
𝐏𝐜 = 𝐏𝐜 = Δρnw−w ∗ gh
r
273 274

• This is the general form of the capillary pressure equation in terms of • This is a typical capillary pressure (Pc) vs water saturation (Sw) curve.
both height (h) above Free Water Level (FWL), capillary radius (r),
surface tension (s) & the wettability (q).
Water Oil NOT
2σnw−w ∗ Cosθ NOT flow Oil & Water flow together flow
𝐏𝐜 = ΔP = Pnon − Pwetting = Δρnw−w ∗ gh =
− wetting r
Pc : capillary Pressure, dyne/cm 2, (1 dyne/cm 2 = 1.45 × 10-5 psi)
Pnon-wetting : pressure in the non-wetting phase, dyne/cm 2 Transition
Pwetting : pressure in in the wetting phase, dyne/cm 2 zone
Entry (Displacement)
rnw & rw : densities of the non-wetting & wetting phases respectively, gm/cm3 pressure, Pd
Drnw-w : densities difference between non-wetting & wetting phases, gm/cm3
g : acceleration due to gravity = 980.665 cm/sec2
h : capillary rise or height above the Free Water Level (FWL), cm (1 cm = 0.0328084 ft)
snw-w : interfacial or surface tension between non-wetting & wetting phases, dyne/cm Swc
Sor
r : capillary tube radius that represent equivalent pore radius of reservoir permeability, cm
q : contact angle @ the interface between non-wetting & wetting phases surface, degrees
in the lab it is measured in radians (degree = radian × p/180)
275 276
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2σnw−w ∗ Cosθ 2σnw−w ∗ Cosθ
𝐏𝐜 = ΔP = Pnon − Pwetting = Δρnw−w ∗ gh = 𝐏𝐜 = ΔP = Pnon − Pwetting = Δρnw−w ∗ gh =
−wetting r −wetting r
• So, from the equation, the capillary pressure (Pc) is equal to: • Also from the above equation, capillary pressure (Pc) & height (h) above
the (FWL) are inversely proportional to pore size (capillary pore
− The product of the height (h) above the Free Water Level (FWL) &
radius, r) that means an increase in pore radius (r) leads to a decrease
the density difference between the two immiscible fluids @
in the capillary pressure (Pc) & the height (h) above the (FWL).
reservoir conditions.
• In rock with smaller pores throats radii (r), higher capillary pressure (Pc)
− Or the product of the surface tension (s) by the contact angel (q) is required to displace wetting phase (water) with non-wetting phase
between the two immiscible fluids which is a function of the (oil) fluids.
wettability divided by the capillary radius (r) @ reservoir
conditions. • In rock with larger pores throats radii (r), non-wetting phase fluid is
more easily entering into the pore spaces.
• Capillary pressure is (0) if the interfacial tension (s) is (0) which occurs
only in case of TWO MISCIBLE FLUIDS coexist with each others inside • This is because movement of fluids within a rock depends more upon
the reservoir such as in case of miscible gas injection. the size of pores throats than on size of the pores.
277 278

2σnw−w ∗ Cosθ • This figure shows the effect of pore sizes on wetting phase saturation,
𝐏𝐜 = ΔP = Pnon − Pwetting = Δρnw−w ∗ gh = smaller pore sizes will cause higher capillary pressure (Pc) & higher
−wetting r irreducible water saturation (Swirr).
• In fact, there is a direct relationship between permeability (which is
controlled by pore throat size, r) & the capillary pressure (Pc).
• Thus, for the high permeability rocks with relatively larger pores
throats radii (r) have lower capillary pressure (Pc) & lower capillarity
rise (h) above the (FWL) than low permeability rocks with relatively
small pores throats radii (r) containing the same fluids.
279 280
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• As example, this figure shows a reservoir consist of 3 layers with different • Capillary pressure data is plotted vs. water saturation data that result-in
permeabilities of 1, 10 & 100 md respectively. So, @ any water saturation: a unique plot called capillary pressure curve that describes the
capillary pressure required to obtain a given non-wetting phase
− (Pc1) for (k = 1 md) > (Pc2) for (k = 10 md) > (Pc3) for (k = 100 md). saturation in a rock.
− (h1) for (k = 1 md) > (h2) for (k = 10 md) > (h3) for (k = 100 md). • This is a typical capillary pressure (Pc) vs. water saturation (Sw) curve.
1 md • Capillary pressure (Pc) vs. water

Capillary pressure (Pc) psi or
saturation (Sw) data are important

height above FWL, ft
10 md because they can be related to the

OWC
water saturation (Sw) vs. height (h)
High permeability above the oil – water or gas – water
100 md
contacts or Free Water Level (FWL)
Pc1 or h1 inside the reservoir.
OWC1
Pc2 or h2 OWC2 • This information is used to determine
100 md the initial hydrocarbon saturation
Pc3 or h3 OWC3
distribution inside the reservoir.
FWL Low permeability
Sw% 1 md
281 282

• Pore geometrical factor (G) which is defined • Generally, there are 5 important points on the capillary pressure curve
as the range of grains sizes, grains shapes that should be identified & recognized.
& tortuosity of the pores throats.
1. Free Water Level (FWL).
• Large pore geometrical factor (G) refers to
2. Displacement pressure (Pd).
poorly sorted pores throats & tortuous.
3. Oil Water Contact (OWC).
• This pore geometrical factor (G) define
shape of the curved portion in the 4. Connate water saturation (Swc).
capillary pressure vs. saturation plot.
5. Transition zone.
Coarse grains
Pore geometrical factor
Well sorted (G) define the shape of
this curve
Fine grains
Well sorted
Water is immobile
Entry in this region
pressure
283 284
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1- Free Water Level (FWL): 1- Free Water Level (FWL):
• Free Water Level (FWL) is the horizontal surface elevation of the wetting • FWL can be determined from the MDT measurements which is the
phase @ which capillary pressure (Pc = 0) because only one fluid exist. intersect point between the oil & water gradient lines.
• FWL is NOT the OWC since FWL is a • This is because the intersection point between the two gradient lines
fixed surface not a variable surface on the MDT plot mean that oil pressure = water pressure @ this
as the OWC. intersection point.
• FWL is the lowest depth @ which there • So, pressure difference
is only water exist (Sw = 100%) & @ this intersection point is
there is no residual oil saturation so (0) which is the definition
capillary pressure (Pc) @ FWL = (0). of the capillary pressure
that it equal to ZERO @
• FWL (which is deeper than the OWC)
the FWL.
CANNOT be determined from open FWL Free water level FWL
Pc @ FWL = 0
hole resistivity log because it will be
masked by the OWC because both of
FWL & OWC show low resistivity due
to water saturation = 100%.
285 286

1- Free Water Level (FWL): 1- Free Water Level (FWL): Well−A5 (oil points)
Well−A6 (oil points)
• This figure illustrate how the FWL is determined from the MDT • This is a real field example to Well−A6 (water points)
measurements & it is location on the open hole resistivity log. determine the FWL from MDT
measurements in 2 wells (1 well
with measurements only in oil
Oil gradient = 0.3 psi/ft
zone & 1 well with measurements
in oil & water zones).
Depth
FWL @ 2900 ft/TVDss
Water gradient = 0.44 psi/ft
Pressure
287 288
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1- Free Water Level (FWL): 1- Free Water Level (FWL):
• Height (h) above the Free Water Level (FWL) can be calculated from the • From the capillary pressure (Pc) equation we can 2σnw−w ∗ Cosθ
𝐏𝐜 =
capillary pressure equation as shown in the below equations. see that both of capillary pressure (Pc) & height 𝐫
(h) above Free Water Level (FWL) are inversely 2 σnw−w ∗ Cosθ
2σnw−w ∗ Cosθ proportionally with the pores radii (r). 𝐡=
𝐏𝐜 = ΔP = Pnon − Pwetting = Δρnw−w ∗ gh = 𝐫 ∗ g ∗ Δρnw−w
−wetting r
• Rise of water in the reservoir above
Pc : Capillary pressure, dyne/cm2
the Free Water Level (FWL)
(dyne/cm2 = 1.45 × 10-5 psi)
2 σnw−w ∗ Cosθ h : capillary rise or height above Free depends on the permeability, i.e.,
h= Water Level (FWL), cm water will rise in LOW permeability
r g Δρnw−w rw & ro : water & oil density, gm/cm3 reservoirs higher than that in HIGH
so-w : oil-water surface tension, dyne/cm permeability reservoirs.
r : capillary radius, cm
• So, transition zone thickness (h)
g : acceleration due to gravity,
Pc = 980.665 cm/sec2 increase when its permeability is
h= q low (pores radii “r” is relatively
Δρnw−w ∗ g : contact angle, degrees
in the lab it is measured in radians small) & vise versa.
LOW permeability HIGH permeability
(degree = radian × π/180) reservoir reservoir
289 290

2- Displacement Pressure (Pd): 3- Oil Water Contact (OWC):
• A force is needed to overcome the capillary pressure to displace a • Oil Water Contact (OWC) is the base of the Transition Zone which is the
wetting fluid with a non-wetting fluid out of the rock. deepest point (lowest elevation) in the reservoir @ which the movable oil
• Displacement (entry) pressure exist & the mobile oil occur.
(Pd) is the MINIMUM pressure @ 2σo−w ∗ Cosθ
𝐏𝐝 = • Similarly, Gas Oil Contact (GOC) is
which the non-wetting phase (oil) 𝐫 the elevation above which gas is
start invading the core to displace the produced hydrocarbon phase.
the wetting phase (water) outside
the core. OWC
• Displacement (entry) pressure
Pd Pd
(Pd) is controlled by the sizes of
the pores throats openings, the
smaller the pores throats radii (r), FWL FWL
the higher the pressure required for
displacement.
291 292
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3- Oil Water Contact (OWC): 3- Oil Water Contact (OWC):
• It is capillary pressure (Pc) that causes water to rise from the Free Water • OWC can be determined from the open hole resistivity logs which is
Level (FWL) & displace the oil in the overlying rock above the FWL in located @ the shallower point showing water resistivity.
water wet reservoir.
• Remember that FWL (which is
• @ the (OWC) & above, capillary deeper than the OWC)
pressure (Pc) > (0) because there CANNOT be determined from
are two different immiscible fluids open hole resistivity log
exist inside pores spaces. because it will be masked by
• OWC (detected using resistivity
OWC the OWC because both of FWL
Pd & OWC show low resistivity
logs) is a variable surface that OWC from open
due to water saturation = 100%. hole log
depends on the local pores
permeability.
FWL
• OWC located above the Free Water
Level (FWL).
FWL from MDT plot
293 294

• Oil Water Contact (OWC) is NOT the FWL that is determined from MDT. • This is MDT plot showing the
locations of both FWL & OWC.
• To locate the OWC on the MDT plot,
just determine the value of the • We can see that the OWC is
displacement pressure (Pd) from the shallower than the FWL.
capillary pressure vs. saturation plot.
• Then convert this displacement

pressure (Pd) to height (P = rgh).
• Finally, subtract this height (h) from

the FWL depth that give the location
of the OWC on the MDT plot.
295 296
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• This is a summary plot to locate both FWL & OWC on MDT & Pc plots. • This figure showing the location of the FWL & OWC in the reservoir
corresponding to that obtained from the capillary pressure curve.
Oil zone
True
Vertical
Depth
(TVD)
Oil phase pressure
Capillary transition
gradient line
zone
Pc
𝐡=
Δρo−w ∗ g Water phase pressure
gradient line
OWC
FWL
(Pc = 0)
Water zone
Water saturation, Sw % Pressure
297 298

3- Oil Water Contact (OWC): 4- Connate Water Saturation (Swc):
• This figure is an actual example showing the location of the FWL & OWC • Connate water saturation (Sw) is also called irreducible water saturation
in the reservoir corresponding to that obtained from the capillary (Swirr) which is immovable water forming a film around grain surface.
pressure curve, open hole logs & pressure gradient survey.
• It is defined as the MINIMUM
immobile amount of the wetting
phase that can NOT be displaced
from the core by the non-wetting
phase even after applying higher
pressures. OWC
Pd
This is a typical connate Swirr. FWL

water saturation (Swc)
in the reservoir rock
299 300
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4- Connate Water Saturation (Swc): 4- Connate Water Saturation (Swc):
• Grain size has a strong influence on the amount of the irreducible • It is important to know that the
water saturation (Swirr). irreducible water saturation (Swirr)
or connate water saturation (Swc) is
• Rocks with SMALL grains sizes have higher (Swirr) because there are
NOT the water saturation @ which
more grains surface areas available for the irreducible water to coat &
the rock start developing a
form a film around the grains surfaces compared to the same rock
relative permeability to wetting
volume with a LARGER grains sizes & vise versa.
phase to start moving because this
is called the initial (critical) water
saturation (Swi).
OWC
Pd
• Of course (Swirr) = (Swc) < (Swi).
• But how to determine this Initial Swirr.
(critical) water saturation (Swi)? FWL
SMALL grains sizes with HIGH (Swirr) LARGE grains sizes with LOW (Swirr) Swi
301 302

1.0
4- Connate Water Saturation (Swc): 0.9
0.8
5- Transition Zone:
• From the definitions: 0.7
0.6
• Transition zone of a reservoir is the
region between depth when water
kro & krw
− @ the irreducible water saturation

0.5
0.4
saturation is 100% @ base of the 100% movable oil
(Swirr), there is no effective permeability 0.3
0.2 transition zone (this is called Oil Water

for water to move & hence no relative 0.1
Contact “OWC”) & another higher Transition
permeability to water @ the irreducible 0.0
zone thickness
0 20 40 60 80 100
depth in the reservoir (top of transition
water saturation (Swirr). Swirr. Swi
Sw %
kro krw zone) when water saturation is @ its
− @ the initial (critical) water saturation 3000
irreducible water saturation (Swirr)
(Swi), the rock start to develop an 2500
@ which oil is only movable phase.
OWC
Pd
effective permeability to water & hence 2000
water start moving @ the initial

Pc, psi
1500
(critical) water saturation (Swi). Swirr.

1000
FWL
− Between (Swirr) & (Swi) there is NO 500
MOVABLE WATER. 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sw %
Swirr Swi Pc, psi
303 304
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5- Transition Zone: 5- Transition Zone:
• This 100% movable oil saturation line • TRANSITION ZONE can NOT be estimated from MDT alone without
is the intersection between capillary using the capillary pressure data or open hole resistivity log to locate
pressure curve & the vertical line @ 100% movable oil the Oil Water Contact (OWC).
irreducible water saturation (Swirr).
Transition
• Water free production occurs above zone thickness
the elevation of this 100% movable oil
saturation line.
OWC
Pd
Swirr. FWL
305 306

5- Transition Zone: • Both Oil Water Contact (OWC) & top of the transition zone varies with
rock type. The poorer the pores permeability, higher OWC, thicker
• Just to remember, these figures summarize the change in OIL transition zone & higher irreducible water saturation (Swirr).
SATURATION (So) with depth inside the TRANSITION ZONE.
• But the MDT gradient will be exactly the same compared to an adjoining
So= 100% high-quality rock in the same reservoir, that will have a lower OWC,
thinner transition zone & lower irreducible water saturation (Swirr).
Capillary pressure (Pc) psi or
1 md
height above FWL, ft
10 md
OWC
High permeability
100 md
Pc1 or h1
OWC1
Pc2 or h2 OWC2
100 md
Pc3 or h3 OWC3
So= 0%
FWL Low permeability
Sw% 1 md
307 308
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• This is a summary of fluids saturations distribution inside the reservoir • This is a summary of fluids saturations distribution inside the reservoir.
for oil-air system.
Capillary pressure (Pc) psi or height above FWL, ft

Free Air Swirr
Capillary pressure (Pc) psi
or height above FWL, ft
100% oil production

Highest water level
Transition zone thickness
S w%
FWL
OWC (Lowest oil level)
Free Oil
Free Water Level (FWL)
FWL Swirr Sw%
100% water production
309 310
Capillary Pressure (Pc) Drainage & Imbibition

• This is a summary of fluids saturations distribution inside the reservoir. • Drainage & Imbibition are referring to the history of the saturation
change (Hysteresis) between wetting & non-wetting fluids.
• The interval (h) between FWL & OWC is fully saturated with movable
formation water (Sw = 100%). • Drainage & Imbibition hysteresis showing what is happening inside the
pores spaces to the NON-WETTING phase as its relative permeability is
• Transition zone separate the zone contains mostly movable oil from that developed during the displacement process.
contains mostly movable water.
• This is because the NON-WETTING phase relative permeability curve is
Capillary Pressure or Height
Oil zone NOT the same when the non-wetting phase is the displaced or the
100 % movable oil displacing fluid.
+
irreducible Swirr. • WETTING phase relative permeability curve does NOT depend on the
saturation history (Hysteresis) that means the wetting phase relative
Transition Movable oil permeability curve is the same regardless if the wetting phase is the
+
zone Movable water
displaced or the displacing fluid.
OWC (Pc > 0)
Non movable oil
• This is because wetting phase (either when it is being displaced or
h Pd + displacing) will move without any resistance from the non-wetting
FWL (Pc = 0) Movable water
0
Swirr. Sor
100 phase during the displacement (natural tendency to saturate the rock).
Sw% Water zone • In water – oil displacement process, water is mostly the wetting fluid.
100% water & NO residual oil
• While in gas – oil displacement process, gas is always non-wetting fluid.
311 312
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Drainage & Imbibition Drainage & Imbibition

• The process of displacing the • In contrast, the process of • This is typically a drainage & imbibition RELATIVE PERMEABILITY
wetting phase (water) with the non- displacing the non-wetting phase curves for both non-wetting phase (oil) & the wetting phase water.
wetting phase (gas or oil), is called (gas or oil) with the wetting phase
the DRAINAGE process. (water) is called the IMBIBITION • We can see that:
process.
• During drainage process, wetting − NON-WETTING phase relative
phase (water) saturation decreases • During imbibition process, wetting permeability curve is NOT the
while nonwetting phase (gas or oil) phase (water) saturation increases same when the non-wetting Drainage
saturation increases. while nonwetting phase (gas or oil) phase is the displaced or the
saturation decreases. displacing fluid. Swc
• This drainage process establishes
the fluid saturations when the • This imbibition process establishes − WETTING phase relative
reservoir was discovered & was in the fluid saturations occurs during permeability curve is the same Imbibition
equilibrium after the initial the W.I project or due to water regardless if the wetting phase
migration. influx from an aquifer. is the displaced or the
displacing fluid.
→ →
Water out Oil out Sor
→ →
Swi
Oil in Water in
Wetting phase saturation, fraction of pore space
313 314
Drainage & Imbibition Rock Typing

• This is typically a drainage & imbibition CAPILLARY PRESSURE • Rock types are units of rock deposited under similar conditions which
curves for both non-wetting phase (oil) & the wetting phase water. experience similar diagenetic processes resulting in a unique porosity −
permeability relationship , capillary pressure − water saturation
• For the drainage curve, there is a 30 profile for a given height above free water in a reservoir.
k = 28.2 md
capillary pressure called the Entry or
displacement pressure (Pd) that is 25
• In fact, reservoir rock contain a variety of pore sizes connected by
Capillary Pressure, psig
the minimum pressure in the wetting different sizes pore throats that cause what is known as reservoir
phase that is required to displace the 20
heterogeneity.
non-wetting phase out of the rock. Swirr. • Reservoir heterogeneity refers to the uneven changes in spatial
• There is no minimum pressure 15 distribution & internal properties of hydrocarbon reservoirs due to the
required to displace the non-wetting influence of sedimentary environment, diagenesis & tectonic processes
10 Imbibition during the formation process.
phase in the imbibition.
Drainage Pd
• Difference between the saturations @ 5
the end points of both imbibition &
drainage curves is the residual 0
Sor
0 20 40 60 80 100
saturation of the non-wetting (Sor) Wetting phase saturation, fraction of pore space
fluid that is trapped inside the rock.
315 316
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Rock Typing Rock Typing

• This is an example of reservoir properties distribution across the • Accurate characterization of reservoir heterogeneity is a big task & a
reservoir after characterization of reservoir heterogeneity. key step between reservoir engineers & geological teams to develop,
monitoring, and managing a reservoir & optimizing production.
• Reservoir characterization provides critical information on the three-
dimensional distribution & realization of the reservoir heterogeneity &
petrophysical properties.
• This is accomplished by correlating the petrophysical properties
determined by various techniques (core analysis, wells logging, surface
seismic data & wells production data) to geologic fabrics.
• The first aim of reservoir characterization is to produce a geological
model that honors the available data & can be used to predict the
distribution of porosity, permeability & fluids throughout the field.
317 318

• This diagram show the different components involved in the reservoir • The relationship between permeability & porosity of a reservoir rock is
characterization process. not related to a unique trend but in most cases due to reservoir
heterogeneity, it may have many trends & even with some cloudy data.
• So, it is unfair just to set a straight line through the scattered points
saying that this is the trend that that represents the entire reservoir rock.
Rock Characterization Fluid Characterization Fluid Flow Characterization
Data Reconciliation
Yes No
319 320
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• These are other examples of the permeability vs. porosity relationship. • In fact, in the relationship between permeability & porosity different
sample points may be related to different groups.
• So, it is difficult in such cases to set a direct relationship between
permeability & porosity that represents the entire reservoir rock.
Core Porosity Vs. Permeability Core Porosity Vs. Permeability

10000 10000
1000 1000
khoriz_core (md.)
Khoriz_core (md.)
100 100
10 10
1 1
0.1 0.1
0.01 0.01
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
PHI_core (%) PHI_core %
321 322

• For this reason, rock typing technique was developed to analyze & • This is an example of different rock types inside the same reservoir rock.
integrate geological & petrophysical data to characterize & classify
reservoir rocks into groups with similar petrophysical properties
(porosity, permeability and same pores throats sizes & distribution).
• One group is called Hydraulic Flow Units (HFU) so that each group or
flow unit is characterized by a set of same petrophysical & dynamic
rock properties.
Capillary Pressure, psia
k, md
f Sw
323 324
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• This is average capillary pressure curves for limestone reservoir using • In genera, reservoir Hydraulic Flow Unit (HFU) is defined as a mappable
high pressure mercury injection capillary pressure data. portion of the total reservoir within which geological & petrophysical
properties that affect the flow of fluids are consistent & predictably
different from the properties of other reservoir rock volumes.
• Reservoir is classified with the same rock type when they have the same
Hydraulic Flow Units (HFU) with unique (k vs. f) trend, the same
capillary pressure curve & the same pore throat distribution.
• Hydraulic Flow Units (HFU) have the following characteristics in common:
− A flow unit is a specific volume of a reservoir, which is composed of
one or more reservoir quality lithologies & any non-reservoir quality
rock types within that same volume, as well as the fluids they contain.
− A flow unit may be in communication with other flow units.
325 326

• This figure illustrate effect of reservoir heterogeneity on fluid contacts. • These are different Hydraulic Flow Units (HFU) with different (k vs. f)
trend, different capillary pressure curve shapes & different pores type.
327 328
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• This is an example of a reservoir rock type grouping that show different • These groups or Hydraulic Flow Units (HFU) are then used to predict the
distribution of the rock properties because the reservoir consist of spatial distribution of petrophysical parameters (f, k & Sw) on a field-
many rock types & hence Hydraulic Flow Units (HFU). wide level.
Pore Throat Size Dominant Inter - Rock -Type R.T.
Distribution Curves Connection Nature Name No.
pore throat distribution
180
160 Interconnected Grainstone 12

140
120
between grains
100
80
Group No. 4 Grainpack 11
60
40
Kh 0.4 - 5000 md.
20 Packgrain 10
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Avg. Kh 250 md.
180
High Diss .
160
140
Highly Intercon- Packstone 9
120 nected in Matrix
High Diss .
100
80
0 Group No. 3 Float/Pack
8
60
Kh 0.4 - 1100 md.
40
High Diss .
20
0
P Avg. Kh 85 md. Wackestone 5
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
180
Diss .
160
140
Fairly Intercon- Packstone 7
120
nected in Matrix
100
Diss .
80
60
Group No. 2 Wackestone 4
40 Kh 0.25 - 250 md.
20
0
Avg. Kh 10 md. Packstone 6
0.01 0.1 1 10 100

180
160
140
Poorly Intercon- Wackestone 2
120
nected in Matrix
100
Cemented
80
60
Group No. 1 Wackestone
3
40 Kh 0.25 - 200 md.
1
20
0 Avg. Kh 5 md. Mudstone

0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Rock type with Kh < 0.2 md andf < 5% in Dense intervals 0
329 330
Questions
Break
331 332
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Resources & Reserves

• The amount of any natural resource on the earth can be explained &
described in terms of their occurrence (resources) & reserves.
• Therefore, it is important to understand what both mean in order to
understand how much of this material is accessible and usable.
• Resources refers to all quantities of hydrocarbon naturally occurring
within the Earth’s crust, both discovered & undiscovered (whether
recoverable or unrecoverable), plus those quantities already produced.
• Moving from RESOURCES to RESERVES, both geologic certainty &
Reserves & economic feasibility increase.

• Reserve is the total amount of the hydrocarbon that can be
economically produced from the STOOIP (Stock Tank Oil Originally In
Recovery Methods Place) under the current Policy, Technology, Economics, Political &
Environments conditions.
• Potentially recoverable quantities that do not satisfy the definition of
reserves are contingent (discovered but sub commercial) & prospective
(undiscovered) resources.
333 334
Reserves Calculations Reserves Calculations

• Several methods are used to 1. Deterministic: using a single value assigned for each input
calculate the STOOIP (Stock parameter of the reserves calculations is that gives a fixed value of
Tank Oil Originally In Place) & the reserve (Proven & Un-Proven reserves).
the reserves as summarized in
− Volumetric method
this table.
− Material balance method
• Let's discuss all in detail in the
coming slides. − Production decline curve analysis method
2. Probabilistic (Stochastic): a full range of values are used for each
input parameter into the reserve calculation that gives reserve
values @ some various confidence levels of P90, P50, P10, etc.
− Monte Carlo Probabilistic & stochastic method
3. Numerical Reservoir Simulation Model: are used to compute the
changes in pressures & saturations for all phases for each grid cell
@ every time step based on well known reservoir engineering
equations & techniques to predict the flow of reservoir fluids through
porous media.
335 336
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Reserves Reserves
• All reserve estimates involve some • Reserve can be classified based on the confidence (level of uncertainty)
degree of uncertainty that depends of estimation in terms of (3P) to 3 categories as shown in this diagram:
mainly on the amount of reliable
geologic & engineering data − Proven reserve (P1)
available @ the time of the estimate Reserve
& the interpretation of these data. − Un-Proven Probable reserve (P2)
• Finally reserves estimates will − Un-Proven Possible reserve (P3)
generally be revised when Un-proven
Proven (P1)
additional geologic or engineering (P2 + P3)
data becomes available, or when
economic or political conditions
changes.
Developed Non-
Probable (P2)
• Reserves estimation & production Developed
forecasting are important inputs into
the decision-making process &
investment scenario evaluation. Non-
Producing
Producing
Possible (P3)
337 338
Reserves Reserves
• This figure shows different types of reserves based on this classification. • Because of ambiguity associated with uncertainty levels in traditional
Proven Developed definitions of reserves, all reserve estimates involve some degree of
Producing reserve Proven Developed uncertainty that depends mainly on the amount of reliable geologic &
connected to Non-Producing reserve engineering data available @ the time of the estimate & the interpretation
production facilities not connected to
of these data.
production facilities
• For this reason, the probabilistic definitions that quantify uncertainty
have gained wide acceptance in the industry.
• Based on the probabilistic definitions, reserve can be also classified
based on the confidence of probability of occurrence 3 scenarios (P90,
P50 & P10). Where subscripts 90, 50 & 10 are the parentage of
probability of occurrence as in the figure shown in the following slide.
Un-proven possible
reserve (only
seismic available &
requires appraisal Un-proven Proven
wells to confirm) probable Developed Proven Non-
reserve reserve developed reserve
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Reserves Reserves Calculations − Deterministic Method

• Reserve classification based on the confidence of probability of • In this case, reserve is calculated using the best estimates of the data
occurrence 3 scenarios (P90, P50 & P10). Where subscripts 90, 50 & 10 are based on known fixed value for the geological, engineering & economic
the parentage of probability of occurrence. data @ the time of calculations.
N, stb
Cumulative probability %
𝟕𝟕𝟓𝟖 𝑨 𝒉 ∅ 𝟏 − 𝑺𝒘𝒊
𝑵 =
𝜷𝒐𝒊
90% 50% 10%
Cumulative probability graph
Probabilities of occurrence
341 342
Reserves Calculations − Deterministic Method Reserves Calculations − Volumetric Method

• Deterministic reserve is divided into 3 categories (P1) Proven, (P2) • Volumetric method for estimating the STOOIP (Stock Tank Oil Originally
Unproven Probable & (P3) Unproven Possible. In Place) & the reserves gives a single static value of the reserve.
• (P1) Proven reserve that refers to the lowest estimation value with high • This volumetric reserve accuracy depends on the most confident
confidence of estimation. It may be either developed or undeveloped. parameters (porosity “f”, reservoir net thicknesses “h”, areal extent “A” &
• Unproven reserves includes both (P2) Probable reserve that refer to hydrocarbon saturation “Swi”) that are used in the calculations.
most likely best estimate value with reasonable confidence of
estimation & (P3) Possible reserve that refer to the highest estimation Oil
value with low confidence of estimation. Total rock Rock Connate Estimated
formation
volume average water recovery
Reserve volume
porosity saturation factor
factor
• Total reserve using the sum of these 3 categories is
Unproven
defined in terms of (3P) as follow: Proven (P1)
(P2 + P3)
− (1P) = Proven (P1)

Developed
Non-
Developed
𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐞 = 𝐀 𝐡 × ∅ × 1 − 𝐒𝐰𝐢 /𝛃𝐨𝐢 × 𝐑𝐅
− (2P) = Proven (P1) + Probable (P2) Probable
Producing (P2)
− (3P) = Proven (P1) + Probable (P2) + Possible (P3) Non-Producing Possible
(P3)
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Reserves Calculations − Volumetric Method Reserves Calculations − Volumetric Method

• Assuming this reservoir so the total reservoir volume A • So, reservoir volume available ONLY for oil is given by:
= reservoir net thickness (h) * reservoir area (A) = reservoir thickness (h) * reservoir area (A) * porosity (f) * initial oil saturation (Soi)
h
• But NOT all this volume contain fluids, it is ONLY • But we know that → oil saturation (Soi) + water saturation (Swi) = 1
the pore spaces so, reservoir volume available for
fluids is given by: • Oil volume @ the reservoir conditions is given by:
= reservoir thickness (h) * reservoir area (A) * porosity (f) * (1 − Swi)
= reservoir thickness (h) * reservoir area (A) * porosity (f) • But on the surface this volume of oil will be reduced due to the liberated
gas volume comes out of oil that was in solution (this is represented by oil
formation volume factor, b o).
• But NOT all this pore volume contain ONLY

oil, but water is also existing inside the pore
+
spaces with an initial water saturation (Swi). → Free gas volume
In the reservoir @ surface (standard conditions)
345 346
Reserves Calculations − Volumetric Method Reserves Calculations − Volumetric Method

• So, Original Oil volume In Place (OOIP) @ the standard conditions is: • Similarly for gas, Original Gas volume In Place (OGIP) @ standard
conditions is called (G, scf).
= reservoir thickness (h) * reservoir area (A) * porosity (f) * (1 − Swi) / (b oi)
A h ∅ 1 − Swi 43560 A h ∅ 1 − Swi
• Oil volume @ standard conditions is called (N): 𝐍= 𝐆=
βoi βgi
• All of the variables (A, h, f & Swi) used above are the average values.
• In order to use direct field units, area (A, acres), reservoir thickness (h, ft) & • Gas formation volume factor (b g, ft3/scf) is defined as a RATIO of the free
oil formation volume factor (b o, res. Bbl/stb) a constant (7758) is introduced gas volumes @ reservoir conditions (Vres) to its volume @ the standard
to the above equation which is the equivalent barrels of one acre-foot. conditions (Vsc) which is given by:
Assuming an area of (1) acre = 43560 ft2 0.02827 Z (T + 460)
Volume of (1) foot thickness of this area is = 43560 ft3 Bg =
P
But volume of (1) barrel = 42 gal = 5.615 ft3
(1) acre-foot = 43560 ft3 / 5.615 ft3 = 7758 bbls
• So, Original Gas In Place
• So, Stock Tank Oil Originally In Place 1540856 A h ∅ 1 − Swi Pi
𝟕𝟕𝟓𝟖 A h ∅ 1 − Swi (OGIP) volume @ the standard 𝐆=
(STOOIP) volume @ the standard 𝐍= conditions (G, scf) is given by: Zi Ti + 460
conditions (N, stb) is given by: βoi
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Reserves Calculations − Material Balance Method Reserves Calculations − Material Balance Method
• Material Balance Equations (MBE) is an analytical graphical method that • Reservoir drive mechanism is the way by which the reservoir provides
allows a quick identification of reservoir drive mechanisms & in place the required energy for driving the fluids through the reservoir to be
hydrocarbon volumes based on historical production data & PVT data. produced through the wellbore.
• Basically, it depends on the volumes changes & expansions of the • Total fluids produced from the reservoir equal total expansion of:
reservoir fluids, so it is a combination of the fluid production data & the
1. Hydrocarbon in the oil zone.
change of their physical properties with pressure change (PVT) data.
2. Gas in the gas cap.
• For propre estimation of reserves, this method requires sufficient
production history to be available with accurate PVT data. 3. Rock & its associated water compressibility.
• Since it was NOT developed to describe the fluids movement inside the 4. Water influx from the aquifer into the oil zone.
reservoir, so it DID NOT contain the permeability term.
• The most uncertain values in the Material Balance (MB) calculations are:
− Size of the initial gas cap
− The influx from the aquifer (We)
− STOIIP (N)
349 350
• As a summary, hydrocarbon reservoirs are classified based on the • Drive mechanisms for GAS reservoirs:
drive mechanism as follow:
− Due to gas compressibility, so gas Gas
Reservoirs present in the reservoir significantly Dew pressure
differ in volume & quality when they Current pressure

Gas Oil reach the surface because of change in
Reservoirs Reservoirs
pressure & temperature.
Without Under-Saturated Saturated
Water Drive (Pi > Pb) (Pi < Pb)
− Nature of gas reservoir itself may be Gas
+ Condensate
either Dry gas reservoir or Retrograde

With Without Depletion Drive condensate gas reservoir.
Water Drive Water Drive Solution-gas drive Associated gas
− Gas in the reservoirs may exist as
With Water Drive Gas Cap Drive
associated gas reservoir (connected to
an oil reservoir below it that is known
as gas cap) or non-associated gas
Active Water Drive
reservoir (there is no oil reservoir
connected with it but may be connected Non-associated gas
Combination Drive to an aquifer or no).
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• Drive mechanisms for OIL reservoirs: • Drive mechanisms for OIL reservoirs:
− Expansion of reservoir rock (reduction of pore volume) & liquid − Production performance for any reservoir is a strong function in its
expansion drive mechanism reservoir. drive mechanism.
− Depletion, Solution, Internal or Dissolved gas drive mechanism
reservoir. − These figures showing the general production performance for the
− Gravity Drainage drive mechanism reservoir. different drive mechanisms.
− Gas Cap drive mechanism reservoir.
− Water drive mechanism reservoir.
− Combination drive mechanism reservoir.
Expansion Gravity drainage drive
drive
Wellbore
Secondary
gas cap
Depletion Drive Mechanism Gas cap Drive Mechanism Water Drive Mechanism
353 354
• Recover Factor (RF) is defined as the ratio between the producible • General terms used in the material balance calculations are:
reserve to the Original Oil volume In Place (OOIP).
N&G : Original oil & gas in place.
• This is a summary table with the average recovery factors for oil & gas
reservoirs: NP & GP : Cumulative oil & gas produced to a certain date.
Range Average m : Bulk volume ratio of the gas cap zone to the oil zone.
Average Oil Recovery Factors,
Drive Mechanism
% of OOIP
• Highest oil recovery Ct : Total compressibility = Cf + CoSo + CwSw + CgSg
1- Solution Gas Drive 5 - 30 15
factor comes from active Co, Cw, Cg, Cf : Oil, water, gas & formation compressibilities respectively.
water drive mechanism. 2- Gas Cap Drive 15 - 50 30
Oil Reservoirs So, Sw, Sg : Oil, water & gas saturations respectively.
3- Active Water Drive 30 - 60 40
Rs, Rp : Gas in solution & producing GOR, scf/stb

4- Gravity Drainage Drive 16 -85 50
Average Gas Recovery Factors,

b o, b w, b g : Oil, water & gas formation volume factors respectively.
% of OGIP
• Highest gas recovery 1- Volumetric reservoir bt : Two-phase (total) formation volume factor which is used
70 - 90 80
factor comes from gas Gas Reservoirs
(Gas expansion drive)
below bubble point pressure = b o + (Rsi − Rs) b g
reservoir without water 2- Water Drive 35 - 65 50
drive mechanism. Z : Gas compressibility (deviation) factor.
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Material balance for Gas reservoirs without water drive: Material balance for Gas reservoirs without water drive:
• In this case there is no aquifer, so the main driving energy comes from • Re-arranging the equation we have:
Gp
gas expansion in the reservoir due to high gas compressibility.
Bad measurement
• Expansion of reservoir rock & connate water are always present but βgi Gp βgi
Gp = G 1 − R. F = = 1−
often minor sources of reservoir energy for gas reservoirs due to too high βg G βg
gas expansion with pressure changes.
• So, plotting values of (Gp) vs. (1 − bgi / bg) G
Gp
@ different times will result-in a straight-
line relationship passing through the bg
G b gi (G – Gp) b g origin with slope equal to (G). 1− i
After production time (t) bg
P i & Zi P&Z βg = 0.00504

TZ
P → Gp = G 1 −
βgi
βg
= G 1−
Zi P
Z Pi
• Apply the material balance since

reservoir volume is constant → G ∗ βgi = G − Gp ∗ βg
• Similarly, plotting values of (Gp) vs. (1 − ZiP / ZPi) @ different times will
result-in a straight-line relationship passing through the origin with
slope equal to (G).
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Material balance for Gas reservoirs without water drive: Material balance for Oil reservoirs:
• From this equation, since the term (Pi/Zi) is Zi P • Same as for gas reservoir, the material balance for any oil reservoir
constant, so the term (P/Z) is hence linear with (Gp). Gp = G 1 − drive mechanisms can be driven.
Z Pi
• So, it is easy now to find the value of • The general form of the material balance equation for oil reservoirs can
(G) by plotting the values of (Gp) on be described as a net withdrawal (withdrawal − injection).
X-axis with their corresponding (P/Z) Oil & dissolved gas Water Water Gas
values of (P/Z) on Y-axis. production production injection injection
• This result-in a straight line that is (Pi/Zi)

intersect with X-axis @ a point
equal to (G) & intersect with Y-axis
@ a point equal to (Pi/Zi). No aquifer
• Deviation of this relationship away

from the straight line indicating a With aquifer Gp
presence of an aquifer (bottom
water) below the gas reservoir. G G Compression of pore space +
Oil & dissolved gas Water Gas cap
expansion connate water expansion influx expansion
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Drive Mechanisms Indices: Drive Mechanisms Indices:
• Havlena & Odeh simplified Material Balance Equations (MBE) as follow: • Drive indices for oil reservoirs indicate the relative magnitude of the
various drive mechanisms & energy sources acting in the reservoir.
• A simple description of a drive index is the ratio of a particular
• The expansion terms (Eo, Eg & Ef,w) in the equation are defined as: expansion term to the NET withdrawal (hydrocarbon voidage).
− (Eo) expansion of the oil & its originally dissolved gas • The sum of these drive mechanisms indices = 1
− (Eg) expansion of the free gas
− (Ef,w) expansion of the pores & connate water
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What is the Aquifer: Water Influx Models used in Material Balance:
• Aquifer is one of the source of water influx into the reservoir. • Active water drive reservoir is a reservoir that is in a hydraulic contact
with a supporting aquifer below it.
• Other sources of water influx into the reservoir includes recharge of the
reservoir by water injection from the surface to support a weak aquifer. • Once the reservoir pressure starts declining due to production, aquifer start
water encroachment into the reservoir to offset the reservoir pressure
• Water influx contributes to the total driving energy used for production
from declining & pushing oil toward oil producer wells thus increasing
of oil from the reservoir to surface.
hydrocarbon recovery.
• In this case, reservoir fluids production is supported by the EXPANSION
of the COMPRESSED AQUIFER WATER into the reservoir when
reservoir pressure drops due to production of the reservoir fluids.
• When the produced water cut (W.C%) becomes very high & the
production is not more economic, this is called “water out”.
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Water Influx Models used in Material Balance: Water Influx Models used in Material Balance:
• Wells located @ low structure part (down dip of the reservoir) near to • There are two types of the aquifers.
the aquifer will be watered-out before wells located @ high structure.
1. EDGE water drive:
• Watered-out wells are good candidates & economically most efficient
to be converted to water injection wells for water flood operation. Aquifer exclusively feeds
one side or flanks of the
reservoir.
2. BOTTOM water drive:

Aquifer feeds the entire
bottom of the reservoir.
• Water drive mechanism is effective if the aquifer contacting to the

reservoir is very large as in case of BOTTOM water drive.
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Water Influx Models used in Material Balance: Water Influx Models used in Material Balance:
• This figure shows the position BOTTOM water • An accurate estimation of aquifer water influx into the reservoir is
of the water injector wells to the required with the aid of an efficiency aquifer model that can capture the
oil producing wells for both type real dynamics of petroleum subsurface system.
of aquifers.
• It is important to characterize the aquifer behavior before start aquifer
modelling or inclusion of aquifer into the reservoir simulation model.
• This is because during aquifer characterization, the understanding of
aquifer properties & strength is increased.
EDGE water
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Reserves Calculations − Material Balance Method Reserves Calculations − Decline Curve Analysis
Water Influx Models used in Material Balance: • Oil & gas production rates declining with time due to loss of reservoir
pressure with production.
• Reservoir−Aquifer systems are commonly classified based on:
• Production Decline Curve Analysis (DCA) including Production Analysis
− Degree of pressure maintenance
(PA) or Rate Transient Analysis (RTA) is a graphical analytical approach
− Flow regimes that is used to analyze the declining in production rates with time to
establish a trend line of decline as a function of time in order to:
− Outer boundary conditions
− Forecasting the future production performance for the total field
− Flow geometries
(or the individual well) that help in the reservoir development.
• Various mathematical water influx that are commonly used in Material
− Predict the abandonment date based on the set abandonment rate.
Balance calculations have been developed for estimating water influx
that all are based on assumptions that describe the characteristics of − Estimate ultimate recovery.
the aquifer such as:
− Carter & Tracy unsteady state & Schilthuis steady state
− Fetkovich method (Radial & Linear aquifer)
− Van Everdingen Hurst unsteady state (Edge & Bottom water drive).
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Reserves Calculations − Decline Curve Analysis Reserves Calculations − Decline Curve Analysis
• This is a typical production performance; it is important to know that: • First, we must understand the difference between DECLINE & DROP.
− There is no decline across the green areas, for the initial production ► DECLINE: is the normal change in the trend due to regular production.
startup or during the constant production “Plateau”.
► DROP: is a sudden change in the trend due to an external effect that
− Only across the yellow area, the decline occurs. impact the production such as plugging of the perforations.
► So, when setting the decline line for a specific period, you must avoid
the drop areas in the curve to ensure a representative decline.
DROP
DECLINE
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• DCA was introduced in 1954 by J.J. Arps based on empirical observation • Exponential decline is the easiest
of production decline curve then he developed three types of very common decline model. Exponential
mathematical decline models (Exponential, Hyperbolic & Harmonic)
− It shows the most decline,
that are used when production declining @ a CONSTANT PRESSURE. Hyperbolic
hence provide the most confident
conservative reserve forecast.
Harmonic
Exponential − It is a constant decline with time
Production rate, q
& is INDEPENDENT on the

production rate.
Hyperbolic
• While both of Harmonic & Hyperbolic types are changing declines with
Harmonic time which are DEPENDENT on the production rate.
− In Harmonic decline model, decline rate is not constant BUT change
with a constant decline rate.
− In Hyperbolic decline model, decline rate is neither constant nor
Time, t change with a constant decline rate BUT always changing with time.
373 374
• Let’s defines the constants (Di & b). b : Arps’ decline curve exponent factor equal to slope of the natural
log of production rate vs. time that define shape of the decline
Di : value of the decline rate, (time-1).
curve & type of the decline (Exponential, Harmonic or Hyperbolic).
► b = (0) → for Exponential decline
b = (1) → for Harmonic decline
Log of production rate, Log(q)
► (0) < b < (1) → for Hyperbolic decline (“b” is not “0” or “1”)
Production rate, q
Dq Di = −2.303 DLog(q)/Dt
Di = (−Dq/q)/Dt
Dq
Oil rate, stb/d
Dt Dt
Time, t Time, t Exponential → b = 0
Harmonic → b = 1
Hyperbolic → (0) < b < (1)
Logarithmic plot Cartesian plot

Time, months
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• Some general guidelines for the value of “b” and how it relates to the • Then, equations to calculate the production rate (q) & the Estimated
description of the reservoir are summarized in the table below. Ultimate Recovery (EUR) or (Q) @ any given time (t) for the 3 decline
methods are summarized in this table below.
Exponential Hyperbolic Harmonic

b=0 (0) < b < (1) b=1
qo : initial production flow rate @ time zero.

q : production flow rate @ any time (t).
Di : value of the decline rate, (time-1).
b : Arps’ decline curve exponent factor
377 378
Reserves Calculations − Decline Curve Analysis Reserves Calculations − Monte Carlo Method
• Based on the production data, the three ways of decline will behave on • Before discussing the Monte Carlo Probabilistic & Stochastic method
Cartesian & Semi-Log plots as follow: we must know some about basics of statistics such as:
• Exponential decline: is straight line on semi-log plot with (b) factor = (0) 1. Range
2. Domain
• Hyperbolic decline: is curve on semi-log with (b) factor ranges (0 < b < 1)
3. Average Value
• Harmonic decline: it is a special curve type of the hyperbolic on semi- 4. Mean Value
log decline with (b) factor = (1) 5. Median Value
Cartesian plot Semi-Log plot 6. Variance or Least Squared Error (R2)
7. Standard Deviation
8. Frequency & Histogram
9. Probability
10. Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF)
11. Mode or Modal Value
12. Class
13. Grouping
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1- Range 2- Domain
• Range is the difference between: • A function is the expression that relates an input to an output.
− Upper & lower limits on a particular scale. • The domain of a function is the set of all possible INPUTS to the function.
− Largest & Smallest values in a set of data.
• In this set of data {4, 6, 9, 3, 7} the

lowest value is (3) & the highest is (9),
so the range is (9) − (3) = (6).
• The range can sometimes be misleading when there are extremely high
or low values.
• In this data set {8, 11, 5, 9, 7, 6, 3616} the lowest value is (5) & the • For example:
highest is (3616), so the range is (3616) − (5) = (3611). − The domain of f(x) = (x²) is all real numbers
• The single value of (3616) in the data set makes the range (3611) to be − The domain of f(x) = (1/x) is all real numbers except for x = 0
large, while most values varies around (10).
381 382
3- Average Value 3- Average Value

• Average is a single approximate value which can be used to represent • The Harmonic average is always < the Geometric average, which is
the whole set of data. There are three types of averaging: always < the Arithmetic average.
• Arithmetic Average: • The Arithmetic average is usually used, occasionally the Geometric
𝑖=𝑛
− Mathematical sum of the data / number of this data. 1 average, & very rarely the Harmonic average.
𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ෍ 𝑥𝑖
𝑛 • Using any of these averages depends mainly on the type of the data to be
• Geometric Average: 𝑖=1
averaged. For example, if the data contain (0), so both Harmonic &
− It is the square root (powered to the number of the Geometric averages give errors.
data) of the mathematical product of this data. 𝑖=𝑛
• Generally, Arithmetic average is used with static data as porosity (f).
𝑛
− It can be found by multiplying all the numbers in 𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ෑ 𝑥𝑖

the given data set & take the nth root for the result. 𝑖=1 • While both Harmonic & Geometric averages are used with dynamic
data as permeability (k). DP
• Harmonic Average: h1
i =n q1 → i =n
K h
K1
 fi
∅1
− It is the number of the data divided by the sum of 𝑛 h2 i i
the reciprocal of each number in the data set. 𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
1 q2 → ∅2 K2
K avg = i =1
favg =
𝑖=𝑛 i =n
σ𝑖=1 i =1
− Thus, harmonic mean is the reciprocal of the
arithmetic mean of the reciprocals in the data set.
𝑥𝑖
n q3 → ∅3 K3
h3
h
i =1
i
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4- Mean Value 5- Median Value

• Mean value (m) is the Arithmetic average of different values of (x). • It is NOT like the Mean (Arithmetic average) value, but it is the halfway
middle point in a sorted data set where (½) numbers in the data set are
• It is equal to the sum of the numbers divided by how many numbers, greater than it & the other (½) numbers in the data set are less than it.
i.e., it is the sum/count.
• To find the median, place the numbers in value order, then find the
middle point where number of digits below & above it are equals.
𝐒𝐮𝐦 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐬 • Example: consider this data set {3, 13, 7, 5, 21, 23, 39, 23, 40, 23, 14, 12,
𝐌𝐞𝐚𝐧 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 (𝛍) =
Number of terms 56, 23, 29}.
• Then, place the numbers in order like this → {3, 5, 7, 12, 13, 14, 21, 23,
• Example: Sam's team has scored the following numbers of goals in recent 23, 23, 23, 29, 39, 40, 56}.
14 games (2, 3, 1, 2, 1, 3, 2, 3, 4, 5, 4, 2, 2, 3).
• Since there are (15) numbers in this data set (ODD number of digits), so
• The mean value of the goals for all games is: the middle number is the (8th) number in the sorted data set (there are 7
numbers on both right & left sides).
2 + 3 + 1 + 2 + 1 + 3 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 4 + 2 + 2 +3 • {3, 5, 7, 12, 13, 14, 21, 23, 23, 23, 23, 29, 39, 40, 56} → so, the median
𝐌𝐞𝐚𝐧 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 = = 2.64 value of this set of numbers is (23).
14
• Note that the median numbers (23) is already included in the data set
• Note that (2.64) is NOT included in the numbers in the data set. not like the mean number (22).
385 386
5- Median Value 6- Variance or Least Squared Error (R2)

• BUT, for data set with an EVEN number of digits, there will NOT just one • Sum of Squared Estimate of errors (SSE) is the sum of the squared
middle number, but a PAIR of middle numbers. differences between each data point & its group's mean value (m).
• To find the median in this case, just define the two middle numbers in • The variance (S2) or the Least Squared Error (R2) is a measure of
the data set that (½) numbers in the data set are greater than them & the variability & the degree of spread in a data set, the more spread the
other (½) numbers in the data set are lower than them. data, the larger the variance is in relation to the mean value (m).
• Then add them together & divide by (2) to find their Arithmetic average
that is equal to the median. • Graphically, the variance (S2) or the
Least Squared Error (R2) is an
• Example: this is a data set {3, 13,7, 5, 21, 23, 23, 40, 23, 14, 12, 56, 23, 29}. intermediate line go through the data
• Place numbers in order like this → {3, 5, 7, 12, 13, 14, 21, 23, 23, 23, 23, making the total sum of the square
29, 40, 56}. of the errors as small as possible.
• There are (14) points in the data set, the middle two points are the (7th & 8th). • If all data points in a group are
identical, then the least squares
• The median value of this set of numbers is {(21 + 23) / 2} = 44 / 2 = 22 error would then equal to (0).
• Note that (22) was not in the numbers in the data set but that is ok because
half the numbers in the list are lower & half the numbers are higher than it.
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6- Variance or Least Squared Error (R2) 6- Variance or Least Squared Error (R2)
• This is a graphical representation showing how the variance (S2) or the • Mathematically, it is calculated by taking the average of the squared
Least Squared Error (R2) is determined. deviations from the mean value (m).
• This is the formula to calculate the variance:
S2 : sample variance
σ 𝐗𝐢 − 𝛍 𝟐 N: number of points in the data set

𝐒𝟐 = xi: each value in the data set
𝐍
m : mean of the data set
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7- Standard Deviation 7- Standard Deviation

• Standard deviation (s) is the square root • This is the formula to calculate the Standard Deviation (s):
Population density
of the variance (S2) which is a measure

of the variation or dispersion value of s: standard deviation
m-s m+s
a set of values in a data set away from
their mean value (m).
σ 𝐗𝐢 − 𝛍 𝟐 N: number of points in the data set
m 𝛔= xi: each value in the data set
• Majority of the data resides in the range 𝐍
m : mean of the data set
from (m − s) to (m + s).
LOW (s)
• LOW standard deviation indicates that • To calculate the standard deviation (s) of any set of numbers:
the values in the data set are close to
each others and hence to the mean 1. Calculate the mean value (m) which is the average of the numbers.
value of the data set (more accurate).
2. Then for each number in the data set, subtract the mean value (m)
• HIGH standard deviation indicates that & then square the result (xi − m)2
the values in the data set are not close HIGH (s)
to each others but spread out over a 3. Then calculate the mean of those squared differences {(xi − m)2 / N}
wider range (less accurate).
4. Take the square root of that mean {(xi − m)2 / N}½ & we are done.
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7- Standard Deviation − Example 7- Standard Deviation

• Assume this set of data with 20 points → 9, 2, 5, 4, 12, 7, 8, 11, 9, 3, 7, 4, 12, • To understand the practical meaning behind the standard deviation (s),
5, 4, 10, 9, 6, 9 & 4 → (N = 20 points) suppose you have 1000 height measurements data with mean height
• The mean value (m) = (m) = 170 cm & standard deviation (s) = 5 cm.
(9+2+5+4+12+7+8+11+9+3+7+4+12+5+4+10+9+6+9+4) / 20 = 140 / 20 = 7
• Majority of the data resides in the range from (m − s) to (m + s), i.e. from
• Then for each value in the data set, subtract the mean value (m) & (170 − 5 = 165) to (170 + 5 = 175).
square the result, like this for the first two points in the data set.
For 1st point: (9 − 7)2 = (2)2 = 4 • If the data was from a school, then the
For 2nd point: (2 − 7)2 = (−5)2 = 25 standard deviation (s) = 5 cm is huge &
• By doing this for all data points in the data set to calculate all values not accepted since the heights of m-s m+s
from (x1 − m)2 to (xN − m)2, we will have these results for all data points in toddlers would be varied from age to
the data set (4, 25, 4, 9, 25, 0, 1, 16, 4, 16, 0, 9, 25, 4, 9, 9, 4, 1, 4, 9). another (i.e., hight variation from KG m
students to secondary students).
• Sum all values from (x1 − m)2 to (xN − m)2
= 4+25+4+9+25+0+1+16+4+16+0+9+25+4+9+9+4+1+4+9 = 178 • But if this data set was from an army academy, so the standard deviation
• Standard deviation (s) = (178 / 20)0.5 = (2.98) which is relatively high (s) = 5 cm is small & acceptable since almost all heights would be
since the mean value (7) is away from the values in the data set since close to the selection cut-off criteria for the academy & hence very less
they are not close to each others. spread & less standard deviation would be obtained.
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8- Frequency & Histogram 9- Probability

• Frequency means how many time the value of (x) is repeated in the • Probability means the chance that something will happen. By another
data set. By another words, how often each values of (x) occurs in the words, How likely this event will occur.
data set.
• Mathematically, it is defined as a ratio between the frequency of (x) to
• Frequency Histogram is a graph that uses vertical bars without gaps the total frequencies for all values of (x) in the data set.
between the bars to show frequencies for all values of (x) in the data set
& how they are distributed. • Since probability is a number, so its value ranges from 0 (impossible)
to 1 (certain)
• Example: following numbers are the goals scored in a recent 14 games
{2, 3, 1, 2, 1, 3, 2, 3, 4, 5, 4, 2, 2, 3}. • Sum of the probabilities must equal to (1).
• Then, put the numbers in order {1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5} & • Apply this for the data set used in the Frequency & Histogram example.
summarize as below. Score Frequency Probability
Score Frequency Histogram
6
− Probability of (1) to occur (2/14)
− (1) occurs (2 times) 1 2 1 2 2 / 14 = 0.14
5
− Probability of (2) to occur (5/14)
2 5 5 / 14 = 0.36
Frequency
− (2) occurs (5 times) 2 5 4

3 − Probability of (3) to occur (4/14) 3 4 4 / 14 = 0.29
− (3) occurs (4 times) 3 4
2
− (4) occurs (2 times)
4 2
1
− Probability of (4) to occur (2/14) 4 2 2 / 14 = 0.14
5 1 5 1 1 / 14 = 0.07
− (5) occurs (1 time) 0
1 2 3 4 5 − Probability of (5) to occur (1/14)
Total 14 Score Total 14 Sum = 1
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10- Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) 10- Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF)
• The Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) is used to describe the • Then to plot the cumulative probabilities vs. the scores (or any other
probability distribution of random variables. class intervals as will discussed later) to construct the Cumulative
Distribution Function (CDF) curve.
• Mathematically, the Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) is obtained
by summing up the probability & getting the cumulative probability for all
Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) Curve
values of (x) in the data set. 1
• Apply this for the data set used in the probability example.
0.8
Cum. Probability
Score Frequency Probability Cum. Probability 0.6
1 2 2 / 14 = 0.14 0.14
0.4
2 5 5 / 14 = 0.36 0.50
3 4 4 / 14 = 0.29 0.79
0.2
4 2 2 / 14 = 0.14 0.93
5 1 1 / 14 = 0.07 1 0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Total 14 Sum = 1
Score
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10- Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) 11- Mode or Modal Value

• There is a difference between Probability Density Function (PDF) & the • Mode or modal value is the value with the most frequently occurring in
Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF). the data set.
• The CDF is the probability that random variable values less than or equal • To find the mode value, it is best to put the numbers in order then
to (𝑥 ) whereas the PDF is a probability that a random variables exactly count how many of each number occurs.
equal to (𝑥 ). • A number that appears most often is the mode.
• We may have more than one mode in the data set. Having two modes
is called "BIMODAL".
• Having more than two modes is called "MULTIMODAL".
𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥)
• Example#1: this is a data set {6, 3, 9, 6, 6, 5, 9 & 3}.

• Place the numbers in order → {3, 3, 5, 6, 6, 6 , 9 & 9}.
• The Mode is (6), as it occurs most often.
• Example#2: this is a data set in order → {1, 3, 3, 4, 5, 6, 6, 7, 9, 12 & 15}.
𝑥 𝑥 ► Both numbers (3) & (6) appears two times in the data set so there are two
Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) Probability Density Function (PDF) modes (3) & (6).
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12- Class 13- Grouping

• Class is a set or category of things having some property or attribute in • In some cases, such as when all values in the data set appear with the
common & is differentiated from others by kind, type, or quality. same number of times, the mode is not useful.
• By another words, it is an interval on a number scale that represents range • But we can group the values to see if one group has more numbers than
of each group of data, e.g., greater than (x) but less than or equal to (y). the others.
• Class interval is defined as the size of the class into which a particular • Example: in this data set {4, 7, 11, 16, 20, 22, 25, 26, 33} each value occurs
data is divided which equal to the difference between the upper-class once so let us try to group them with class of “9”:
limit & the lower-class limit. − 0 − 9 : 2 values (4 & 7)
• Example: assume you measure the length of leaves on a tree. Some are less − 9 − 18 : 2 values (11 & 16)
than (1) cm & the longest is (9) cm.
− 18 − 27 : 4 values (20, 22, 25 & 26)
• You then put the lengths into groups using different class intervals as
− 27 − 36 : 1 value (33)
summarized in this table.
• In groups with class of “9”, the group which includes data from 18 to 27 range
A class interval of (3) cm has A class interval of (5) cm has
these groups these groups
appear most often, so we could choose 25 (the middle of this group) as the
mode.
0 cm to just below 3 cm, 0 cm to just below 5 cm,
3 cm to just below 6 cm, 5 cm to just below 10 cm, • You could use different classes & get a different groupings answer.
6 cm to just below 9 cm,
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Reserves Calculations − Monte Carlo Method Reserves Calculations − Monte Carlo Method
• Monte Carlo Probabilistic & Stochastic method is used because the • Then the model statistically combine these parameters to calculate a
deterministic methods do not count for the heterogeneity & variation of range of the reserve values & their probabilities by using reiteration
the reservoir properties. calculation based on the products of the distributions of these
variables.
• This method is based on the stochastic model for the probability & the
degree of confidence of data occurrence (frequency) in the reservoir. • The final result divides the reserves into 3 reserve scenarios based on the
probability of occurrence, P10 (Best case scenario), P50 (Most likely
• A high degree of confidence exists IF the quantity is much more likely
case scenario) & P90 (Worst case scenario) ). Where subscripts 90, 50 &
to be achieved than not.
10 are the parentage of probability of occurrence.
• In this method, we construct the probability of occurrence plot
(Histogram) with ranges of estimates & their associated probabilities
for each values & parameter of the geological, engineering & economic
data such as (h, A, f, Sw, b o … etc.) to determine the probability of
distribution for each property inside the reservoir.
Uniform Triangular Gaussian Uniform
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• Then, the multiply of the probability of distribution plot (Histogram) for • Then the final result is 3 reserve scenarios, P10 (Best case scenario with
all parameters (A, h, f, Sw, bo … etc.) will result-in the probabilistic the low chance of occurrence), P50 (Most likely case scenario with
distribution curve for the reserve. reasonable chance of occurrence) & P90 (Worst case scenario with high
chance of occurrence).
A, acres
Normal
probability
distribution
×
h, ft P50
Triangular
probability
distribution P90
× f%
Normal
probability P10
distribution
Exponential Sw
probability
distribution A = 300 – 750 acre
P90 P50 P10
× bo Scenario
h = 15 – 30 ft N = 0.4 – 2.8 MMstb
Uniform
probability
Model Cumulative probability graph
distribution
R = 100 – 300 stb/acre.ft
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• So as a summary, (P10) is high & (P90) is low chance of finding. • Percentage (10%, 50% & 90%) denote relative area under probability
• These are the probability graphs (lognormal distribution shown). curve.
Probability density graph Cumulative probability graph
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P90 (Worst case scenario): P50 (Most likely case scenario):
• This scenario is the pessimistic • This scenario is the most likely
case (Worst case low estimate case (most likely best estimate
scenario with high probability scenario with reasonable
of occurrence) which represent confidence probability of
the minimum reserve that can occurrence) which represent the
be estimated based on the given normal reserve estimation based
properties distribution. on the given properties
distributions.
• (90) is the percentage of
probability of occurrence so • (50) is the percentage of
this is the number with high probability of occurrence so this
confidence of occurrence. Cumulative probability graph is the number with reasonable Cumulative probability graph
confidence of occurrence.
• (P90) is equivalent to the (1P) proven reserve category • (P50) is equivalent to the (2P) “proven & un-proven probable”
reserve category
= (P1) proven reserve only
= (P1) proven reserve + (P2) un-proven probable reserve
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P10 (Best case scenario): • As a summary:
• This scenario is the optimistic − For proved reserves, there should be @ least a 90% probability that
case (high estimate scenario with the quantities to be recovered will equal or exceed the estimate.
low probability of occurrence)
− For probable reserves, there should be at least a 50% probability
which represent the maximum
that the quantities to be recovered will equal or exceed the sum of
reserve that can be estimated estimated proved plus probable reserves.
based on the given properties
distributions. − Likewise, for possible reserves, there should be @ least a 10%
probability that the quantities to be recovered will equal or exceed the
• (10) is the percentage of
sum of estimated proved plus probable plus possible reserves.
probability of occurrence so this
is the number of less confidence
of occurrence. Cumulative probability graph
• (P10) is equivalent to the (3P) “proven, un-proven probable &
un-proven possible” reserve category
= (P1) proven reserve + (P2) un-proven probable reserve +
(P3) un-proven possible reserve
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• In order to understand how we construct the • Then set the required class (an interval
histogram for any data set let’s consider the on a number scale) to calculate the
porosities data for 40 drilled wells as summarized frequencies & construct the Histogram.
in this table.
• For this example, the class = 0.022
Sum = 40
• Then connect between the

• First, arrange the data in descending mode. peaks to have the histogram
where the graph should be
typically as one of the common
probability distribution graphs
shown in the next slid.
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• These are the common probability distribution graphs. • Then calculate the probability which is the ratio between the frequency
of (x) to the total frequencies & the cum. probability which is the ratio
between the cum. frequency of (x) to the total frequencies.
Cum.
Probability
Probability
= 4 / 40 = 0.1 = 4 / 40 = 0.1
= 2 / 40 = 0.05 = 6 / 40 = 0.15
= 5 / 40 = 0.125 = 11 / 40 = 0.275
= 8 / 40 = 0.2 = 19 / 40 = 0.475
= 8 / 40 = 0.2 = 27 / 40 = 0.675
= 6 / 40 = 0.15 = 33 / 40 = 0.825
= 6 / 40 = 0.15 = 39 / 40 = 0.975
= 1 / 40 = 0.025 = 40 / 40 = 1.00
Sum = 40 =1
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• Finally plot the cum. probability vs. the class intervals to have the Cum. • Then crystal ball program will do the same
A, acres
Distribution Function (CDF) that define the 3 scenarios for this parameter, calculations for all reservoir parameters (h, A, f,
P10 (Best case scenario), P50 (Most likely case scenario) & P90 (Worst Sw, b o…etc.) used in the reserve calculations.
case scenario).
• Then it calculates the reserves using all these h, ft
1 probabilities numbers to define the 3 scenarios for
0.9 P90 the reserve, P10 (Best case scenario), P50 (Most
0.8 likely case scenario) & P90 (Worst case scenario).
Cum. Probability
f%
0.7
P90
0.6
0.5 P50
0.4
Cum. probability
Sw
0.3 P50
0.2
0.1 P10 bo
0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 P10
Porosities
Reserve, MMstb
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Reserves Calculations − Reservoir Simulation Model Reserves Calculations − Reservoir Simulation Model
• Numerical reservoir simulation models are used to compute the changes • Then the numerical reservoir simulation model is used to simulate several
in pressures & saturations for all phases for each grid cell @ every time production profiles scenarios to prepare the Full Field Development Plan
step based on well known reservoir engineering equations & techniques to (FFDP) considering different exploitation schemes & operating conditions
predict the flow of reservoir fluids through porous media. to optimize the depletion plan.
Th-IV (All Reservoirs) Corrected Production Capacity
800,000
• Dynamic reservoir model combine the static model, pressures, New 30 Infills
Approved 28 Infills
production, PVT, relative permeability & saturation data, facilities data, 700,000
W/O
wells locations & geometries to calculate the pressure & saturation Existing Wells
600,000 Inj. Supported Oil Potential
distribution into the reservoir. Target_IV
500,000
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
0
2007 2010 2013 2016 2019 2022 2025
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Reserves Classification Oil Recovery Methods

• As a summary, Reserves classifications can be summarized as below. • Oil recovery is a technique used in oil
reservoir to keep oil production @ its
Reserve classification maximum level for a longer time as
Probabilistic Calculated possible to maximize the Ultimate
Deterministic Accuracy
& Stochastic Category value Recovery (UR).
method
method • Normally when start production, crude
(P1) Proven P1 oil flows out from wells drilled into the
reservoir driven by the natural energy
(P2) unproven Probable P2
(pressure) of the reservoir.
(P3) unproven Possible P3 • However, the amount of crude oil that
Proven P90 1P Low estimate High probability can be recovered by the natural
reservoir energy is around +10 to
Reasonable +30% of the total amount of crude oil
Best estimate
Proven + Probable P50 2P confidence for
most likely
probability originally in place under the ground.
Proven + Probable +
P10 3P High estimate Low probability
Possible
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Oil Recovery Methods Oil Recovery Methods

• Accordingly, technology to increase the recovery factor of the existing • Primary Recovery or Reservoir Drive Natural depletion (no change in
oil fields is as important as the discovery of new oil fields where various reservoir energy): crude oil flows out caused by the natural reservoir
technologies are being studied & applied. energy or pumped out mechanically by any of the artificial lift methods
such as pumps installed in the well.
• Many research institutes & oil development companies have been
developing technologies to recover the crude oil remaining in place. • Secondary Recovery (change in reservoir energy): such as water
flooding/injection & gas injection where water or gas is injected into the
• Recoverable oil from Original Oil In Place (OOIP) is recovered through 3 reservoir to push out the crude oil to surface or @ least to bottomhole of
main recovery processes, Primary, Secondary & Tertiary recoveries. the well then use any of the artificial lift methods to produce to surface.
− Although utilizing the secondary recovery will increases the recovery
factor to about +40%, but still there is still +60% to 70% of the crude oil
left underground.
• Tertiary Recovery or Enhanced Oil Recovery “EOR” (change in
reservoir properties): to further increase the recovery factor, both
physical & chemical properties of the reservoir rock & formation fluids
are altered by using special chemicals with the injected water or
applying any of the thermal recovery methods or using miscible gas
injection to recover the crude oil remaining in place.
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• These figures summarize the recoverable oil from Original Oil In Place Hydrocarbon Recovery Methods
(OOIP) by the 3 recovery processes (Primary, Secondary & Tertiary).
Primary Recovery Secondary Recovery Tertiary Recovery
Miscible
Water Flooding
Gas Injection
Artificial Lift Natural Flow
Immiscible Co2 injection

Pressure Maintenance
Gas Injection WAG
S/R Solution Gas Drive

Chemical
Surfactants slugs
Flooding Micro-Emulsion flooding
PCP Gas Cap Expansion Polymers injection
Alkaline – Surfactant –
Polymer (ASP)
ESP Gravity Drainage
Wettability reversal
Jet pump Rock Expansion Thermal Steam injection

Recovery Steam drive
Gas lift Water Drive In-situ combustion
COFCAW method
425 426

• Enhanced oil recovery target for light & heavy crude oil when water
saturation is around 20% pore volume.
Primary
5% OOIP Secondary
5% OOIP
Primary
EOR target 25% OOIP
45% OOIP
EOR target
Secondary
90% OOIP
30% OOIP
Light oil Heavy oil
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1. Primary Recovery (Natural Depletion): 1. Primary Recovery (Natural Depletion): Wellbore
• The initial stage of oil production from reservoirs is called primary ‒ Gravity drainage drive mechanism where oil
production where @ this stage, the oil is forced to the surface either by is naturally moving from the updip (high Secondary
gas cap
natural reservoir forces or by using any of the Artificial Lift methods structure) of the reservoir towards the well
without applying any of the pressure support methods. penetrating the downdip (low structure).
• In the naturally oil primary recovery process, reservoir pressure may be
depleted in such way that it is not able to deliver the oil to the surface. ‒ Depletion or solution gas drive mechanism Oil producing wells
in which oil is produced due to the energy

• The natural reservoir forces depends on rock & fluid properties, resulted of gas liberation from the crude oil &
Original conditions
geological structure & geometry of the reservoir, & to some extent the the subsequent expansion of the solution Oil producing wells
rate of oil & gas production. These natural reservoir forces are such as: gas with the reservoir pressure depletion.
50% depleted
‒ Rock & liquid expansion drive mechanism ‒ Displacement by movement of naturally

where oil is produced due to pore volume pressurized fluids in a communication with
compressibility (Cf), i.e., rock expansion, oil the reservoir (i.e. natural bottom water drive
expansion, the expansion of the gases in from an aquifer or top gas cap drive or a
solution inside the oil. combination between gas cap & an aquifer).
429 430

• Just to remember thatReservoirs
reservoirs are classified based on the drive 1. Primary Recovery (Natural Depletion):
mechanism as follow:
• In the naturally oil primary recovery process, when the reservoir
Gas Oil pressure is depleted in such way that it is not able to deliver the oil to
Reservoirs Reservoirs
the surface so, in this case, one of the Artificial Lift (A/L) methods is
Without Under-Saturated Saturated
applied to produce the oil from the bottomhole to surface.
Water Drive (Pi > Pb) (Pi < Pb)
With Without Depletion Drive

Water Drive Water Drive Solution-gas drive
With Water Drive Gas Cap Drive
Active Water Drive
Combination Drive
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1. Primary Recovery (Natural Depletion): 2. Secondary Recovery:
• There are many Artificial Lift (A/L) methods applied in the field such as: • In the secondary recovery stage of oil production, most reservoir oil
remains in place after the natural energy that moves oil inside the
reservoir has been depleted.
Sucker Rod (S/R) Progressing Cavity Electric Submersible Hydraulic
Pump Pump (PCP) Pump (ESP) Jet Pump
Gas Lift • In this case, injecting water or gas into the oil reservoirs to increase the
Production natural force that is required to maintain the reservoir pressure @ a
Injected
gas certain level & force moving some of the remaining oil to the wells.
Injection well Producing well
Tubing
Gas lift
Water
Casing valve Oil
Packer
Oil
reservoir
Oil bank
Rod pumps Rodless pumps

Water + Water + Oil + gas + water
residual oil movable oil
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2. Secondary Recovery − Water Injection (W.I) & Flooding: 2. Secondary Recovery − Water Injection (W.I) & Flooding:
• Water injection or water flooding is a secondary recovery technique • Water injection project is mainly aiming to reservoir pressure support,
applied in oil field that is commences after the primary production increasing oil production & recovery by displacement of oil by water &
period is ended. to disposal of connate water after separation from hydrocarbons.
• It is estimated that almost half of all produced oil is produced by use of • On designing for water injection project, it is important to consider the
Water injection or water flooding . distance between the injection & production wells, injection rate & the
pressure required to achieve the required displacement of oil by the
injected water.
Production well
Water injection
well
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• This is a general layout of the water injection system. • This figure shows the water source that is used in the water injection.
437 438

• Water injection is often employed as a mean for pressure maintenance • This historical reservoir pressure plot show the effect of water injection
wherein the energy required to move oil from the reservoir rock into a to increase the depleted reservoir pressure.
producing well is supplied from the surface by means of water injector
wells to re-energize a reservoir to sustain the oil production @ a
certain level or to decrease the decline rate of the production that
results in an incremental recovery.
• The injected water replaces the produced oil from the reservoir that
keeping on production rate & reservoir pressure for longer time.
• The horizontal injectors provide more uniformly distributed pressures
& more efficient line-water drive.
• In the water injection process, the injected water displaces oil from the
pore spaces, but the efficiency of such displacement depends on many
factors (e.g., oil viscosity & rock characteristics).
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• The right water flooding involves optimized design for ALL project • Water injection (external or powered water
components such as: injection) consider injection of water with
relatively high pressure into an aquifer away
− Water injector wells (number, spacing, location, … etc.). from the drilled oil producing wells (down dip
− Water injected (volume, quality, compatibility & properties). of the reservoir or BELOW the OWC to
increase/maintain the reservoir pressure.
− Oil production wells (optimum production rates, well monitoring &
performance evaluation). • Powered water injection can extend the field's Reservoir
life and raise its recovery factor up to 50%. OWC
Aquifer
• Many people still having a conflict between • The main role of the external powered water
water injection & water flooding. injection considers preserving the reservoir
pressure through out production.
• Peripheral (Contouring) water injection
Reservoir pattern where the injection wells are located
Aquifer along the perimeter of the reservoir is an
example of the water injection process.
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2. Secondary Recovery − Water Injection (W.I) & Flooding: 2. Secondary Recovery − W.I Patterns:
• Water Flooding or internal water injection • Water Injection (W.I) into a reservoir is not a matter of just dumping
consider the injection of water into the water into the wells.
reservoir in the oil bank ABOVE the OWC.
• So, one of the major factors to be studied before applying W.I project is to
• In brief, it is the dumping or injection of water select water injection pattern (location & numbers of the injectors to
inside the reservoir between the oil producing the producers) which is mainly function of reservoir heterogeneity.
wells with relatively lower pressures than that
• Water injection pattern mainly aims to sweep most of oil around the oil
is used in the external water injection process. Reservoir
OWC producing wells over the injection time.
• The main role of water flooding is to increase Aquifer
the sweep & displacement efficiency of the
remaining oil that was not produced in the
primary recovery by the reservoir’s natural
energy such as fluid & rock expansion, solution-
gas drive, gravity drainage & aquifer influx.
• Injection Areal Spot Patterns are an example
for the water flooding process. Injection time
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2. Secondary Recovery − W.I Patterns: 2. Secondary Recovery − W.I Patterns:
• Several types of water injection patterns are used worldwide includes: • This is an example of a regular 5 spots injection pattern (every oil
producer well is surrounded with 4 W.I wells).
1. Peripheral (contouring) pattern.
2. Irregular pattern.
Peripheral (contouring)
Peripheral pattern Irregular pattern
Irregular pattern
pattern
3. Regular Areal Direct Line or
Staggered Line Drive patterns.
Regular five spots pattern
4. Regular Areal Spots patterns

(two, three, four, five, seven &
nine spots).
Direct
Directline drive
Line pattern
pattern Regular
Regular Areal 5 Spots
five spots pattern
pattern
445 446

2. Secondary Recovery − W.I Patterns: 2. Secondary Recovery − W.I Patterns:
• Selection of the injection pattern (the areal • This figure shows the position of BOTTOM water
configuration of the injection wells & the distance the water injector wells to the oil
between the wells) depends on several factors, producing wells for two cases of
which include rock & fluid characteristics, reservoir peripheral (contouring) flooding
heterogeneity, optimal injection pressure, planned in the presence of underlying
way to develop the field & economy: aquifers (Bottom water & Edge
water aquifers).
► Heterogeneity of reservoir facies: infill 5, 7 & 9
spot patterns or irregular pattern are EDGE water
recommended to catch most of the oil trapped
due to these bad facies or many faulting system.
► Way to develop the field: some companies refuse
the way of drill infill injectors or pattern
application as they still believe that they will cause
a lot of bypassed oil & they are only to apply the
peripheral W.I.
447 448
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2. Secondary Recovery − VRR: 2. Secondary Recovery − VRR:
• Voidage Replacement Ratio (VRR) is defined as the ratio of the total • Then, the Voidage Replacement Ratio (VRR) equation is given by:
injected reservoir volume to the total produced reservoir volume
measured @ reservoir conditions.
• VRR is an indicator for the injection efficiency which refers to how
Q i βw
much injection fluids were consumed to replace the produced volume
VRR =
of oil, gas & water from the reservoir by the injected fluids. Q o βo + R p − R s ×Q o βg + Q w β w
• Required WI volume = (Produced oil volume + Produced Free gas volume
+ Produced water volume) @ reservoir conditions • Optimum VRR = 1 → the injected volume displace the same
hydrocarbon volume from the reservoir.
Q i βw = Q o βo + R p − R s ×Q o βg + Q w βw
• If VRR < 1 → injected volume is LOW & MORE injection is required to
bo , bw : oil & water formation volume factors, res. bbl/stb
support reservoir pressure & decrease productivity decline.
bg : gas formation volume factor, res. bbl/scf
Qo , Qw : oil & water rates, stb/d
Rp , Rs : producing & solution gas/oil ratios, scf/stb.
• If VRR > 1 → injected volume is HIGH & LESS injection is required to
(Rp – Rs) * Qo : free gas production rate, scf/d avoid early breakthrough or water fingering.
449 450

2. Secondary Recovery − Hall plot: 2. Secondary Recovery − Mobility ratio:
• Hall Plot is technique that was developed by Howard Hall in 1963 which is • Mobility ratio (M) is the ratio between mobility of the displacing fluid
a graphical representation of (cumulative wellhead pressure * time) (WATER) to mobility of the displaced fluid (OIL).
vs. (cumulative injection rate).
k eff.w k abs k rw
• It is considered as a good tool for λw μw μw 𝐤 𝐫𝐰 𝛍𝐨
𝐌= = = =
water injection performance λo k eff.o k abs k ro 𝐤 𝐫𝐨 𝛍𝐰
monitoring & management to μo μo
analyze the evolution & the
• Mobility ratio (M) should always be ≤ (1) in order to get the maximum
effectiveness of the water injection.
favorable sweep efficacy without early breakthrough or water fingering.
• It indicates variations in the reservoir
properties such as increasing or
decreasing of the skin factor & if
there are any created fractures due
to injection above the fracture
pressure.
Favorable Mobility ratio (M) ≤ (1) Un-Favorable Mobility ratio (M) > (1)
451 452
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2. Secondary Recovery − Mobility ratio: 2. Secondary Recovery − Sweep Efficiency: Oil producer
• Mobility ratio (M) is a key element in design of the W.I project as it is Areal (Pattern) Sweep Efficiency (Ea):
considered as principal indicator used to determine sweep efficiency.
• It is defined as the fraction of the reservoir area
• This is a comparison between the flood front advance & sweep in the HORIZONTAL plane that is invaded & Water
invaded
efficiency in both homogeneous & heterogeneous reservoirs for swept by the injected (displacing) to the total area
mobility ratio (M) = 1 reservoir area @ a certain time.
W.I
• It depends primarily upon the relative flow
properties of oil & the injected water, reservoir
heterogeneity & the injection pattern used to flood
the reservoir.
Ea=
High sweep efficiency in the Homogeneous Poor sweep efficiency in the Heterogeneous
reservoir for Mobility Ratio (M) = 1 reservoir for Mobility Ratio (M) = 1
453 454

2. Secondary Recovery − Sweep Efficiency: 2. Secondary Recovery − Sweep Efficiency:
Oil
Vertical (Invasion) Sweep Efficiency (Ez) or (Ei): producer
W.I Volumetric (Macroscopic) Sweep Efficiency (Ev):
• It is defined as the fraction of the reservoir area Water • It is also known as the MACROSCOPIC displacement efficiency or
invaded
in the VERTICAL plane that is invaded & swept area Improved Oil Recovery (IOR) in which there will be NO change in the
by the injected (displacing) to the total reservoir oil properties due to the injected fluids such as in the normal W.I.
area @ a certain time.
• It is defined as the sweep
• It depends primarily upon vertical reservoir Ea: Areal Sweep Eff.
efficiency effect caused by
heterogeneity (variation in vertical permeability). both of areal (Ea) & vertical (Ez)
sweep efficiencies.
Ez = • It is expressed as Ev = Ea * Ez
Flood front advance can be detected using the

simulation model prediction or by using RST
logs in monitoring wells.
Ez: Vertical Sweep Eff.
455 456
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2. Secondary Recovery − Sweep Efficiency: 2. Secondary Recovery − Sweep Efficiency:
Displacement (Microscopic) Sweep Efficiency (Em): • Target for the EOR process is the TRAPPED oil in the SWEPT areas
& BYPASSED oil in the UN-SWEPT areas of the reservoir.
• It is the improvement of the normal displacement efficiency due to
the ability of the injected fluids to displace much more amount of the
remaining oil from the reservoir without leaving bypassed oil behind
in the flooded area such as applied in the EOR methods.
• In this case, there will be a change in the oil properties either due to
chemicals used in the injected fluids as polymer or surfactants
flooding or the injected fluid itself as in the miscible gas injection.
• We can see in this figure that
however the normal W.I swept the
area but on a microscopical scale
still there is trapped oil that was not
recovered that requires application SWEPT area
of any of the EOR methods. Microscopical scale
UN-SWEPT area
457 458

2. Secondary Recovery − Sweep Efficiency: 2. Secondary Recovery − Fractional of water flow equation (ƒw)
Total (Overall) Sweep Efficiency (E): • W.I displaces oil by pushing it to the Sor
producer. In an ideal case, it would be a
• The product of the 3 sweep efficiencies determines the total
piston-like displacement. Injected
sweep efficiency (Et) or the overall displacement efficiency (Ed) or Initial oil
Sw
water
saturation
the Recovery Factor (RF). bank
Swi
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑣 𝐸𝑚 = 𝐸𝑎 𝐸𝑧 𝐸𝑚 • But in reality, the most realistic model Sor

Distance
of oil displaced by W.I is not a PISTON-

LIKE displacement, but the front
Sw
Injected Initial oil

advance is called LEAKY PISTON water saturation
which is affected by the gravity, the bank
capillary forces & the permeabilities Swi
variation. Distance
459 460
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2. Secondary Recovery − Fractional of water flow equation (ƒw) 2. Secondary Recovery − Fractional of water flow equation (ƒw)
Flood front advance with time for a HOMOGENEOUS reservoir Flood front advance with time for a HOMOGENEOUS reservoir
(Mobility Ratio = 1) (Mobility Ratio = 1)
461 462

Flood front advance with time for a HOMOGENEOUS reservoir Flood front advance with time for a HOMOGENEOUS reservoir
463 464
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Flood front advance with time for a HOMOGENEOUS reservoir Flood front advance with time for a HETEROGENEOUS reservoir
465 466

Flood front advance with time for a HETEROGENEOUS reservoir Flood front advance with time for a HETEROGENEOUS reservoir
467 468
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Flood front advance with time for a HETEROGENEOUS reservoir Flood front advance with time for a HETEROGENEOUS reservoir
469 470

• Water fractional flow (ƒw) equation is an equation that can qualitatively • In order to know the fraction of water (ƒw) present in the reservoir @
show the ratio of water flow rate (qw) to total flow rate (qt) of fluids @ any time let’s assume (qo) & (qw) represent oil & water flow rates
certain time & location inside the reservoir in a water injection system. respectively @ the reservoir conditions.
Oil producer • From Darcy’s law for fluid flow through porous media, oil (qo) & water
• Generally, higher values of (ƒw) indicate
(qw) flow rates are expressed as:
LESS efficient displacement while
lower value of (ƒw) indicates MORE 𝑘 𝑘𝑟𝑜 𝐴 Δ𝑃 𝑘 𝑘𝑟𝑤 𝐴 Δ𝑃
efficient displacement. 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑞𝑤 = 𝑞𝑡 = 𝑞𝑜 + 𝑞𝑤
Un-invaded area
𝜇𝑜 Δ𝑥 𝜇𝑤 Δ𝑥
• Then oil & water fractions, (ƒo) & (ƒw) in the flow stream @ the reservoir
conditions are calculated as follow:
Water injection
invaded area 𝑞𝑜 𝑞𝑜 𝑞𝑤 𝑞𝑤
𝑓𝑜 = = 𝑓𝑤 = = 𝑓𝑜 + 𝑓𝑤 = 1
𝑞𝒕 𝑞𝑜 + 𝑞𝑤 𝑞𝒕 𝑞𝑜 + 𝑞𝑤
W.I
471 472
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• Then, Water flow fractions (ƒw) in the flow stream @ reservoir conditions • Now we can calculate & plot the different values of water fractional flow
is given by: (ƒw) vs. its corresponding values of water saturation (Sw).
k krw A ΔP
qw μw Δx 1 • This will result-in S-shape curve that describe the amount of water
𝑓𝑤 = = k kro A ΔP ( k krw A ΔP = kro uw flowing inside the reservoir (ƒw) @ any given water saturation (Sw).
qo +qw + 1+
μo Δx μw Δx krw uo 1
Fraction Of Water Flowing (ƒw)

1 1
• So, @ anytime, just measure the
𝑓𝑤 = =
k ro uw u
1+ 1 + w ae−bSw
0.9 k rw uo uo
𝐤 𝐫𝐰 surface W.C & convert it to the reservoir 0.8

• Since relative permeability ratio ( ) is a direct function in water condition to get the corresponding water
𝐤 𝐫𝐨 0.7
saturation (Sw) so, we can define the water fractional flow (ƒw) by means of fractional flow (ƒw) value. 0.6
water saturation (Sw) as follow: • Then use this plot to estimate the
0.5
0.4
corresponding current water saturation
1 1 (Sw) in the reservoir @ this given water
0.3
𝑓𝑤 = = fractional flow (ƒw).

0.2
Swi 1- Sor
k ro uw uw 0.1
1+ 1+ ae−bSw 0
k rw uo uo 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Water Saturation (Sw %)
473 474

2. Secondary Recovery − Fractional of water flow equation (ƒw) 3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
• Water−Oil Ratio (WOR) plot (semi log graph of WOR vs. cumulative oil • Tertiary recovery or Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) refers to the
production) is a common tool used to evaluate reservoir performance & incremental in the recovered oil by producing most of the remaining
forecast the ultimate recovery. reserve specially the bypassed oil that CAN’T be recovered either by
the primary recovery (natural flow or pumping) or by the secondary
• The graph is extrapolated to higher WOR values to estimate ultimate
recovery (water or gas injection with or without pumping) methods.
recovery.
• @ very high WOR values, the • Target for the EOR process is the
data points bend upward & trapped oil in the swept areas of
form a vertical line as the the reservoir & bypassed oil in the
reservoir is completely swept un-swept areas of the reservoir.
to a residual oil saturation & • Volume of the produced oil by
the maximum waterflood applying the tertiary recovery
recovery is achieved. depends on reservoir properties
& the applied EOR technique.
Trapped oil in the swept areas Bypassed oil in the un-swept areas
475 476
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3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR): 3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
• Generally, from Darcy’s equation for the fluid flow through porous media: • This is a summary for the common EOR methods.
Tertiary Recovery − EOR Methods
0.00708 ∗ k eff−x ∗ h ∗ Pe − Pwf
Qx =
r
βx μx ∗ Ln e Miscible gas Immiscible gas Chemical Thermal
rw injection injection flooding recovery
Co2 Surfactants Steam

• So, to increase production rate, one of the following must be applied: injection slugs Injection
(Huff & Puff)
► To increase the reservoir permeability (k) by perforations, acidizing Micro-Emulsion Steam
WAG
or hydraulic fracturing techniques (primary recovery method). flooding drive
► To increase the term of (Pe – Pwf) by applying water injection to Polymers In-situ
injection combustion
support the outer boundary reservoir pressure (Pe) (secondary
recovery method). Alkaline- COFCAW
Surfactant- method
► To decrease the oil viscosity (mo) or increase the water viscosity (mw) Polymer (ASP)
as used in the EOR methods (tertiary recovery “EOR” methods). Wettability

reversal
477 478

Miscible Gas Injection Process: Miscible Gas Injection Process:
• Miscibility refers to the ability of the injected gas & the reservoir
fluids to be completely mixed with each others into one phase.
• Capillary force that hold oil in the rock & the interfacial tension
force (IFT) between oil & gas can be eliminated or minimized if the
injected gas is miscible with the oil that was left in the reservoir.
• This reaction lower the resistance of oil to flow through a reservoir,
making it more easily produced, either by water or gas injection.
• Minimum Miscible Pressure (MMP) is the lowest pressure @ which
the reservoir oil & injection gas are miscible in all ratios which is
determined in the lab by the Slim Tube Test.
• Miscibility occurs when the vaporized components from the crude
oil alter the composition of the injected (Co2) & become enriched
(Co2) that is miscible with the oil.
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Miscible Gas Injection Process: Immiscible Gas Injection Process:
• Liquefied Petroleum Gases (LPG) can also be injected as a liquid slug • In the immiscible gas injection, injected gas does not mix with oil
because it is miscible with the oil in the first contact. during the displacement process.
• Enriched Gases which are dry gases rich with larger molecular weight • Historically, immiscible gas injection was first used for reservoir
hydrocarbons (ethane, propane, butane,……., pentane) can be also pressure maintenance.
injected into the reservoir as it will be miscible with the crude oil after
• Later, gas injection into oil reservoirs was used to increase oil
multiple contacts.
recovery by immiscible displacement.
• The formed miscible zone depends on the pressure, temperature &
• A variety of gases have been used for immiscible gas displacement for
the composition of the in-place crude oil & the injected gases.
example, nonhydrocarbon gases such as Co2 & N2.
• Theoretically, residual oil saturation (Sor) in the miscible flooding
is ZERO because the existing oil will be swelled by the injected gas
forming one phase move inside the reservoir.
481 482

Immiscible Gas Injection Process − (1- Co2 injection): Immiscible Gas Injection Process − (1- Co2 injection):
• Co2 EOR application is widely used method among the other methods • In the immiscible (Co2) flooding process, a mixture of carbonated
in order to enhance the oil recovery that is applicable in both clastic water slug (normally consists of 40% Co2 + 60% water by volume)
(sandstone) & calcites (carbonates) reservoirs. equivalent to approximately 20% of the pore volume (P.V) is injected
into the reservoir to ensure better displacement.
• Co2 improve oil recovery
by reducing oil viscosity, • The immiscible (Co2) EOR could Processing
gas plant
Production
well
lowering the interfacial reach 20% recovery over the primary Gas injector
well
tension & vaporize both & the secondary mechanisms.
intermediate & some of Residual oil
the high molecular weight

components from the
CO2
crude oil when become in &
Oil
CO2
contact with it.
Co2 Immiscible Oil

region bank
483 484
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Immiscible Gas Injection Process − (1- Co2 injection): Immiscible Gas Injection Process − (2- Water Alternating Gas - WAG):
• This is a summary of the (Co2) flooding process. • Due to the low viscosity of the injected
gases, viscous fingering may occur that
cause bypassed oil that will decrease the
sweep efficiency & hence affect the total
recovery from the injection process.
• Water Alternating Gas (WAG) flooding is
an EOR process where both gas injection
(usually carbon dioxide Co2) followed by
water injection is used alternately for
periods of time to provide better sweep
efficiency by controlling the mobility to
reduce viscous fingering & gas
channeling from injectors to producers.
485 486

Chemicals Flooding: Chemicals Flooding − (1- Surfactants slug - Alkaline water flooding):
• In chemical flooding, we use chemical solution as displacement fluid • Capillary pressure equation is given by: ΔP = P = P − P = 2𝛔𝐰−𝐨 Cosθ
c w o
to alter the physical properties of the formation fluids either by r
reducing the interfacial tension between reservoir oil & the injected • So, reducing the Interfacial Tension force (IFT) between oil &
fluid or improve oil mobility & increase sweep efficiency of the formation water (𝛔𝐰−𝐨 ) will decrease the capillary force that holds
injected fluid that is significantly improve oil recovery. the oil in place & hence allowing it to move easily.
• It is mainly includes adding special various chemical agents in the • General idea of the surfactants is that if the oil & water are placed
injected stream such as Alkali (A), Surfactant (S) and/or Polymer (P) together in a container so they will remain immiscible even if we
that are react with the reservoir fluids in such way that it cause the oil strongly shake the container.
to become more movable.
• But if some soap is added to the container, we will observe that they
• These types of chemicals can be used separately such as polymer become miscible with each other.
flooding, surfactants flooding, alkaline flooding or to be used in a
combination with each other for the different flooding operations such • Surfactants or Alkaline (NaOH, Na4SiO4 or KOH) are chemicals
as in case of the polymer/surfactant binary combination flooding & added to the injected water to increase its PH that will resulting-in
the surfactant/polymer/alkali ternary combination flooding. formation of the surfactants (soap) @ the oil-water interface.
487 488
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Chemicals Flooding − (1- Surfactants slug - Alkaline water flooding): Chemicals Flooding − (2- Micro Emulsion Flooding - Micellar Slug):
• This surfactant in turns lower the Interfacial Tension force (IFT) • Micellar slug is a mixture of micro-emulsions made of water +
between oil & water that aids to easier displacement of the crude oil. surfactants with small amounts + Alcohol where the entire mixture
will act to solve the remaining oil in place.
• In the Alkali flooding operation, we start with a softened water pre-
flush injection followed by an injection of an Alkaline solution slug • Adding Alcohol (isopropanol or methanol) to the surfactants slug will
(1.5% NaOH by weight) about 10 - 30% of the pore volume (P.V) improve the sweep efficiency because Alcohol helps for reducing
followed by continuous injection of drive plain water. the surfactant adsorption by the formation rock grains.
Injector Producer
Drive Alkaline Softened

plain → solution → water
water slug pre-flush
489 490

Chemicals Flooding − (3- Polymers Injection): Chemicals Flooding − (3- Polymers Injection):
• Generally, from Darcy’s equation for fluid flow through porous media, • Polymer injection will increase both areal & vertical sweep efficiencies
flow rate is inversely proportional with fluid viscosity (m). by viscosifying the water so that water fingering is reduced.
0.00708 ∗ k eff−w ∗ h ∗ Pe − Pwf
Qw =
r
βw μw ∗ Ln e
r w
• So, increasing of water viscosity (mw) to a very high value will
reducing its mobility allowing oil to be much easier mobile inside
the reservoir to be produced. Using polymer
Using plain water
• Polymer flooding is an EOR method that uses polymer solutions to injection without with the
increase oil recovery by decreasing the water/oil mobility ratio by polymer injected water
increasing the viscosity of the displacing water (mw).
• When adding 5% by weight of this polymer to water, water viscosity
will increase by about 20 - 25 times resulting-in reducing the relative
permeability to water (krw).
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Chemicals Flooding − (3- Polymers Injection): Chemicals Flooding − (3- Polymers Injection):
• Polymers are compounds with high • In field practice, a large bank of
molecular weights since they consist of brine (30% of the pore volume
long chains of molecules. (P.V)) is prepared which is
thickened by adding a low
concentration of polymer (5%)
• Inaccessible pore volume: polymer to form the injection slug of
does not invade all the pore space that polymerized water that will be
is invaded by normal plain W.I due to the injected into the reservoir.
large size of the polymer molecules.
• Then this polymerized water
• So, polymers will plug the low injection slug is followed by an
permeability areas causing bypassed ordinary brine slug without
oil & even if we increase the injection polymers content (plain water)
pressure to force the polymer to pass, to flush out some of the
Inaccessible pore volume
it will break & lose its function. (plugged by polymer) remaining oil bank.
493 494

Chemicals Flooding − (4- Alkaline – Surfactant – Polymer "ASP"): Chemicals Flooding − (4- Alkaline – Surfactant – Polymer "ASP"):
• A new modification to the chemical process is by adding surfactant & • This is a comparison of the three methods.
polymer to the alkaline that resulted in a new EOR method known as
• Alkaline–Surfactant−Polymer (ASP) flooding has the highest recovery
Alkaline-Surfactant-Polymer (ASP).
factor compared to polymer & plain water flooding.
• ASP flood reduces the remaining oil saturation by developing a bank
of oil that when reaches the production wells, oil will be produced
with water @ increased oil cut.
Injector Producer
Surfactant
slug
Polymer
Flood thickened Oil- Residuel oïl and
water fresh water resident brine
water Bank
495 496
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Chemicals Flooding − (5- Wettability Reversal): Thermal Recovery:
• This oil recovery technique is relatively new & there are only a few • Generally, from Darcy’s equation for fluid flow through porous media, oil
small-scale field trials in operations (premature application). flow rate (𝐐𝐨 ) is inversely proportional with oil viscosity (mo).
• By using the proper surfactant such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in
oil wet reservoirs, formation wettability can be changed from oil-wet 0.00708 ∗ k eff−o ∗ h ∗ Pe − Pwf
𝐐𝐨 =
to water-wet. r
βo μo ∗ Ln r e
w
• In order to predict the performance of this technique, it is first
necessary to determine the wettability of the reservoir rock then find a • Decreasing oil viscosity (mo) by exposing the crude oil in the reservoir
chemical which could be used to economically reverse the wettability. to high temperature of about 250oC will increase its mobility allowing
• Laboratory tests should be run to determine the residual oil oil to be much more easier mobile inside the reservoir to be produced.
saturations resulting from the two types of displacement (with normal • Thermal recovery applications are used for the reservoir that contains
existing wettability & after reversing it). relatively heavy (viscous) crude oil or for the oil with low API gravity
which is not movable in the reservoir under the normal production
process or is produced but without commercial volumes.
497 498

Thermal Recovery − (1- Steam Injection or Huff & Puff method): Thermal Recovery − (1- Steam Injection or Huff & Puff method):
• The general principle of steam injection is to heat heavy oil to reduce • Then close the well for another period (usually 2 X
its viscosity so that it flows more easily into the well. days) until the steam soaking & the heat exchange
between the hot steam & the reservoir rock is
• For field application, Huff & Puff technique Steam
completely takes place.
(wellbore stimulation or socks technique)
is used in which steam is injected into a • This reservoir rock will act as a heat exchanger & will Heat Heat
producing well for a period of time ranges transmit this heat to the heavy crudes in the vicinity
from few days to weeks or more that is to the wellbore & decrease its viscosity & hence
Oil & steam
called the period of injection. increasing its mobility allowing oil to move easily to water
the wellbore to be produced.
Oil
Steam
• Finally, open the well for production again where the
Steam production rate is expected to increase to fold as
prior to stimulation or more. Steam
Oil water
Steam injection to downhole • Note that steam water is produced with oil to surface.
499 500
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Thermal Recovery − (1- Steam Injection or Huff & Puff method): Thermal Recovery − (1- Steam Injection or Huff & Puff method):
• As the heated oil nearby the wellbore is Cycle • The produced oil to the injected steam ratio declines after the first few
produced, temperature around the wellbore months. In every cycle the maximum production rate that can be
Pre-stimulated Oil Production
Oil Production
will decline & the well productivity decrease achieved is sometimes lower than that for the previous cycle.
until reaching the pre-stimulated value. Cycle Cycle
Pre-stimulated Oil Production
Oil Production
Oil Production
Oil Production
Oil Production
Oil Production
• @ that time we should repeat the previous
Production Rate
cycle (inject steam – wait for soaking time –
Production Rate
produce the heated oil from the same well)
again to can produce the well again.
Steam injection
Steam injection
Steam injection
Steam injection
Steam injection
Steam injection
• In some applications, we can apply 4 – 10
cycles or more in the same well to can
produce the reserve around the well.
T1 T2 Time Injection Periods

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 Time
501 502

Thermal Recovery − (2- Steam Displacement or Hot Water Drive): Thermal Recovery − (2- Steam Displacement or Hot Water Drive):
• In a steam displacement technique, steam pushes the oil from the
steam injector well towards the oil producer location.
• This displacement process like the normal plain water flooding, but it
involves the propagation of heat from steam injection wells to the oil
producer wells.
Oil
Steam
Oil & Steam water Oil

Heat Heat
Steam injection Production from the flushed

to downhole oil by steam displacement
503 504
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Thermal Recovery − (3- In-situ Combustion or Fire Flooding): Thermal Recovery − (3- In-situ Combustion or Fire Flooding):
• In this case oxygen or air is injected down to the bottom of the 1- FORWARD In-situ Combustion:
injector well then create an ignition by using down hole combustion • In this case oxygen or air is injected
device (gas burner, electric heater, self igniting heater…. etc). down to the bottom of the injector Injection well Producer well
• The heat generated by the burning oil reduces the viscosity of the well then create an ignition to crack Air Oil
unburned oil, thereby increasing production. the heavy oil components in the
crude oil to be easier to move
towards the oil producing wells. Igniter
• Zone of burning oil around the

injector is called the combustion Air Air Oil
front that is spread & pushed from
the injection well towards the
producing wells by means of the Burned Combustion
zone front (burn)
injected air & the combustion gases.
• There are two types of the in-situ combustion, Forward & Reverse.
505 506

Thermal Recovery − (3- In-situ Combustion or Fire Flooding): Thermal Recovery − (3- In-situ Combustion or Fire Flooding):
1- FORWARD In-situ Combustion: 2- REVERSE In-situ Combustion:
• Reverse combustion is useful for Injection well Producer well
heavier oils that offer more Air Oil
resistance to flow.
• In this case the combustion
takes place in the oil producer to
decrease oil viscosity around it.
Oil Bank Igniter
• Air is injected in the injector well
that will act as a displacing
phase for this heated crude oil Air
Combustion Zone Oil
around the oil producer.
507 508
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Thermal Recovery − (4- COFCAW method or Wet Combustion): Thermal Recovery − (4- COFCAW method or Wet Combustion):
• COFCAW: Combination Of Forward Combustion And Waterflooding.
• In this case the combustion takes place in the injector well.
• Then water is injected into this injector well to be heated with the
heat generated form the combustion process.
• Some of this heated injected water will be converted to steam.
• This heated water in addition the created steam will act to displace
the heated oil towards oil producers.
• As the steam moves inside the reservoir, it will lose its temperature &
will condense again to a hot water which is also useful to displace
the oil towards the oil producers.
• Reverse in-situ combustion can be used also with the COFCAW
method.
509 510
Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
Thermal Recovery − (4- COFCAW method or Wet Combustion):
• This schematic shows the temperature profile in the COFCAW method.
Types of Flow, Flow

Performance
Relationships & Nodal
analysis
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Types of Flow Types of Flow

• Fluid flow is a part of fluid mechanics that deals with fluid dynamics. • Flow regimes or flow patterns mean the distribution of one fluid phase
relative to the other when they are flowing together.
• Fluid flow involves the motion of a fluid subjected to unbalanced force.
• There are many types of fluids flow regimes (or flow patterns) based
• This motion continues as long as unbalanced force is applied.
on their own properties & the surroundings conditions that must be
recognized to describe the fluid flow behavior & reservoir pressure
distribution as a function of time such as:
1. Viscous & Non-Viscous Flow.
2. Laminar & Turbulent Flow.
3. Compressible, Slightly Compressible & Incompressible Flow.
4. Steady State Flow, Unsteady State Flow & Semi Steady (Pseudo
Steady) State Flow.
5. Flow geometry inside the reservoir (Linear, Radial, Spherical &
Hemispherical Flow).
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1. Viscous & Non-Viscous flow: 1. Viscous & Non-Viscous flow:
Fluids have LESS Fluids have MORE • Newtonian fluids, such as water or oil, are characterized by a linear
resistance to flow are resistance to flow are relation between shear stress (applied force/area, “lb/100 ft2”) & shear
called Non-Viscous fluids called Viscous fluids rate (rate @ which a fluid layers are sheared during flow “1/sec”).
such as water & gas flow. such as a flow of honey.
• Newtonian fluid is independent of
the shear rate resulting in the Non-Newtonian
relationship between the shear stress fluids
vs. shear rate has a constant slope
that is corresponding to the viscosity. Viscosity
• Deviation from this behavior is called

Non-Newtonian fluids that does not
follow Newton's law of viscosity (i.e.,
constant viscosity independent of
stress), such as drilling muds.
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2. Laminar & Turbulent flow: 2. Laminar & Turbulent flow:
• Fluid flow smoothly (laminar) in pipe until passing through orifice that • Laminar flow or streamline flow
will cause turbulence to the flow. occurs when a fluid flow in parallel
straight layers without mixing or
Orifice plate disruption between the layers.
− It occurs @ low velocities &
smaller pipes diameters.
• Turbulent flow is a flow regime
Inlet Outlet characterized by chaotic property
flow flow since much eddies occurs in the flow.
− In contrast to laminar flow, the
fluid no longer travels in layers
but mixing across the tube.
• This is a real example for both Laminar &
Turbulent flows.
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2. Laminar & Turbulent flow: 2. Laminar & Turbulent flow:
• This short video shows the main difference • This figure summarize the flow velocity profile in pipes for both Laminar
between Laminar & Turbulent flows. flow & Turbulent flow.
• For Laminar flow, maximum flow velocity is @ the canter of the pipe.
• For Turbulent flow, flow velocity profile is almost the same across the
pipe diameter.
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2. Laminar & Turbulent flow: 2. Laminar & Turbulent flow − Reynold’s Number (NRe):
• This is simulation of a tank filled to half • In 1833, Reynold established a dimensionless flow criterion that give a
capacity that is suddenly slowing unique value of a number comes from combined the different
(breaking). This causes the liquid it parameters that control the flow (Fluid density “r” & viscosity “m“,
contains to rapidly travel to the front of Pipe internal diameter “d” & Flow velocity “Vm”).
the tank.
• This number is known as Reynold’s number (NRe) based on lab
• The upper part shows the behavior that measurements & observation for the change of flowing fluid properties
the liquid would have if there was no with respect to each others in order to determine if the Newtonian fluid
internal baffles, reading high speeds flow is LAMINAR or TURBULENT.
with little control.
Inertia Force ρ d Vm
• In comparison, the behavior of the liquid Reynold’s Number (NRe) = Viscous Force = μ
is shown using intermediate baffles.
• The difference of speed reached by the r & m : fluid density & dynamic viscosity (kinematic viscosity “ν” = μ / ρ)
fluid, with & without baffles, is more d : internal pipe diameter
than double.
Vm : average mixture fluid velocity
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2. Laminar & Turbulent flow − Reynold’s Number (NRe): 2. Laminar & Turbulent flow − Reynold’s Number (NRe):
• Reynold observed based on lab measurements that: • For Laminar Flow, Reynolds Number (NRe) is < 2100 & for Turbulent
Flow, Reynolds Number (NRe) is > 4000.
‒ When viscous force dominates over the inertia force that means
low velocities, the flow is smooth that result-in low Reynold’s • For 2100 < Reynolds Number (NRe) < 4000 that indicates flow transition
number (NRe < 2100) value & the flow is known as laminar flow. from laminar to turbulent where the flow consists of a mixed behaviour.
Velocity profile correction factor
1.0
‒ On the other hand, when inertia force dominates over the viscous 0.9
force, that means the fluid flows faster with higher velocities that 0.8
Turbulent
cause eddies, vortices & other flow instabilities making the flow 0.7
Laminar Flow
(VPCF)
turbulent that in turns result-in high Reynold’s number (NRe > 4000) 0.6
Flow
value & the flow is known as turbulent flow. 0.5
0.4 Transition
‒ With an increase in Reynold’s number (NRe), the turbulence 0.2 region
tendency of the flow increases. 0.1
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Reynolds Number, NRe
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2. Laminar & Turbulent flow in Vertical Pipes: 2. Laminar & Turbulent flow in Vertical Pipes:
• Of course, everyone is aware with this. ─ Dispersed two-phase Bubble flow: pressure drops below bubble
point pressure & gas comes out of solution so gas present in the
• Presence of gases in the Coca Cola causes this flow.
form of discrete bubbles in a continuous carrier liquid phase i.e.,
gas bubbles in liquid (stable flow).
Dispersed Slug (plug) Churn Annular Mist
Bubble flow flow flow flow flow
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─ Slug (plug) flow: with pressure decrease inside the tubing or flow rate ─ Churn flow: it is a chaotic slug foam-like flow occurs @ higher flow
increase, smaller bubbles expand & combines together generating rates than the slug flow where bubble is deformed that has random
larger bubbles known as a discontinuous slug @ the center of the motion because high gas velocity push liquid upward but high liquid
tubing inside a continuous liquid phase (unstable flow). density causing counter liquid flow downward (very unstable flow).
Dispersed Slug (plug) Churn Annular Mist Dispersed Slug (plug) Churn Annular Mist
Bubble flow flow flow flow flow Bubble flow flow flow flow flow
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─ Annular flow: occurs @ much higher flow rates where gas flows as ─ Mist flow: occurs @ very higher flow rates where in this case, gas
a continuous phase in the center of the tubing while liquid forms a phase become the continuous phase & liquid phase is present as
uniform layer on the pipe walls (flow is more stable than churn flow). dispersed droplets (liquid is evenly distributed as a mist) with gas &
liquid velocities are approximately the same (stable flow).
Dispersed Slug (plug) Churn Annular Mist Dispersed Slug (plug) Churn Annular Mist
Bubble flow flow flow flow flow Bubble flow flow flow flow flow
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2. Laminar & Turbulent flow in Vertical Pipes: 2. Laminar & Turbulent flow in Horizontal Pipes:
─ This is the steady-state flow regime map for a VERTICAL pipe. ─ Similarly, horizontal two-phase flow can be bubbly, stratified, slug,
annular, or droplet flow.
Liquid velocity (VL), m/sec
Gas velocity (Vg), m/sec
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2. Laminar & Turbulent flow in Horizontal Pipes: 2. Laminar & Turbulent flow in Horizontal Pipes:
Single Phase Flow: Wavy Flow:
• Liquid enters the pipe as single phase. • This flow regime occurs @ higher velocities.
• Pipe pressure is above the bubble point pressure. • Waves & ripples occurs @ phases boundary in the
direction of flow.
Bubble Flow: Slug Flow:
• Pipe pressure drops below the bubble point • @ much higher velocities, liquid waves reach top of
pressure & gas comes out of solution. the pipe.
• Small gas bubbles distributed everywhere but due to • Different phases velocities result-in sudden
buoyancy it migrate upward. pressure change that cause shocks & vibrations.
• Bubbles acts as foam @ high velocities. • This flow regime should be avoided if possible.
Plug Flow: Annular Flow:
• Liquid flow along & coats the pipe wall.
• Gas bubbles expand as pressure decreases & begin
to coalesce to form plugs. • Due to gravity, coating is non-concentric with
thinner coating on top & thicker coating on bottom.
• Due to buoyancy, these plugs migrate upward. • Gas flow @ the center of the pipe.
Stratified Flow: Spray Flow:
• Due to gas expansion, gas volume is much greater
• Due to buoyancy, phases completely separate into than liquid volume that present as droplets
two phases with a smooth interface between them. distributed as a mist in gas phase.
• Phases velocities are approximately the same
• This flow regime occur @ low velocities. (stable flow).
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─ This is the steady-state flow regime map for a HORIZONTAL pipe. • In fact, these different flow regimes exists inside the tubing during the
flowing condition that cause the pressure losses calculation inside the
tubing is NOT an easy task.
Liquid velocity (VL), m/sec
Gas velocity (Vg), m/sec
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3. Compressible & Incompressible flow: 4. Steady, Unsteady & Semi Steady (Pseudo Steady) State flow:
• Generally, reservoir fluids are classified into THREE main groups based • There are THREE types of flow regimes occurs inside the reservoir
on their compressibility: that must be recognized to describe the fluid flow behavior & reservoir
pressure distribution as a function of time (t) of production & @ any
1. Incompressible fluid (Water):
location (r) everywhere in the reservoir.
Volume or density do not change Incompressible Fluid
1. Steady State Flow.
with pressure changes. (dP/dt)@ any (i) = 0
Steady State Flow
2. Unsteady State Flow.
Semi Steady State Flow
2. Slightly Compressible fluid (Oil):
3. Semi-Steady (Pseudo
Volume or density slightly Steady) State Flow.
Pressure
Volume
changes with pressure changes

due to dissolved gas in solution. • Change of pressure with
time determine which type
of these flow regimes occurs Un-Steady State Flow
3. Compressible fluids (Gas):
inside the reservoir.
There is a large changes in Pressure (i) → any location in the reservoir including wellbore
volume & density as a function of
pressure changes. Time
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4. Steady, Unsteady & Semi Steady (Pseudo Steady) State flow: 4. Steady, Unsteady & Semi Steady (Pseudo Steady) State flow:
1. Steady State Flow: 2. Unsteady State Flow:
• Steady-state flow is a flow condition where flow rate is constant & • Unsteady-state or transient flow is the conditions @ which the
the pressure @ any time (t) of production & everywhere @ any pressure and/or flow rate changes with time (there is no pressure
location (r) inside the reservoir remain constant. support).
• Steady-state flow occurs when there is an external support such as • Pressure @ any time (t) of production & everywhere @ any
gas cap & active aquifer which support the reservoir pressure by location (r) inside the reservoir changes but not in the same way
creating a constant-pressure boundary. i.e., not constant & non-uniform change.
(DP/Dt) ≠ (0) ≠ constant

(DP/Dt) = (0)
ΔP = Pe – Pwf
ΔP = Pe – Pwf
• An example for unsteady flow is the flow
through pipe of variable diameters
Pressure distribution during steady state flow
under variable pressures.
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4. Steady, Unsteady & Semi Steady (Pseudo Steady) State flow: 5. Flow geometry inside the reservoir (Linear, Radial, Spherical flow):
3. Semi Steady (Pseudo Steady) State – PSS Flow: • Shape of the reservoir has a significant effect on the fluid flow
behavior.
• Pseudo Steady State (PSS) or semi steady state is a transition
period between the steady & unsteady state flows. • Most reservoirs have irregular boundaries with many dipping angles
& many thicknesses.
• During the Pseudo Steady State (PSS) flow regime, the reservoir
behaves as a tank & flow rate is constant. • The actual flow geometry inside the reservoir may be represented by
one of the following flow geometries:
• Reservoir pressure decreases in the same uniform constant rate
@ any time (t) of production & everywhere @ any location (r) inside 1. Linear flow.
the reservoir (while production flow rate is constant). 2. Radial flow.
Sealed boundary
(DP/Dt)@ any (r) = constant 3. Spherical & Hemispherical flow.
ΔP = Pe – Pwf
Shape of pressure profile
is unchanged over time
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5. Flow geometry inside the reservoir (Linear, Radial, Spherical flow): 5. Flow geometry inside the reservoir (Linear, Radial, Spherical flow):
1. Linear Flow: 2. Radial Flow:
• Linear flow regime is also called (One Dimensional Flow) that • In the absence of reservoir heterogeneities, flow from away in the
occurs when flow lines are parallel & the fluid flows in a single reservoir into the wellbore will follow radial flow lines that is also
direction. called (Two-Dimensional Flow).
• This linear flow regime results from flow inside a hydraulic fracture • This is because fluids move toward the well from all directions &
or along a horizontal well, or from flow in an elongated converge @ the wellbore.
reservoir, such as a channel reservoirs (formation bounded by
two parallel faults).
P1 P2
Plan view Side view
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5. Flow geometry inside the reservoir (Linear, Radial, Spherical flow): 5. Flow geometry inside the reservoir (Linear, Radial, Spherical flow):
3. Spherical & Hemispherical Flow: 3. Spherical & Hemispherical Flow:
• This type of flow is also called (Three-Dimensional Flow) where the − Partial perforation (Spherical Flow): a well is perforated @ mid of
well is connected to the producing zone through only one fraction. the pay zone.
• As the contact area between the − Partial reservoir penetration or limited-entry completions
reservoir & the well is reduced, (Hemispherical Flow): a well only partially penetrates the pay
fluids will travel further through zone or fully penetrate the pay zone but only partially perforated @
the formation in the area near to the upper or lower parts of the pay zone.
the wellbore to be produced.
• This will create an extra pressure
drop around the wellbore.
• This type of completion is used to avoid gas cap & or active bottom
aquifer.
• Flow converges to a reduced contact between the well & the
reservoir is due to one of the following completions:
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Diffusivity Equation Diffusivity Equation

• The diffusivity equation describe the fluid flow through porous media • By solving the diffusivity equation, we can estimate the change in the
in the reservoir to know the reservoir pressure & fluid saturation @ any 𝜕𝐩
reservoir pressure with time .
location (r) inside the reservoir @ any time (t) of production. 𝜕𝐭
• Generally, it is a mass balance equation based on a combination of • From capillary pressure data we can estimate the change of saturation
𝜕𝑺𝒘
Darcy work & the continuity equation: with pressure .
𝜕𝐩
• Mass rate In – Mass rate Out = Mass rate of Accumulation • Then we can predict the change of
𝜕𝑺𝒘
• Diffusivity equation in the partial differential form is as follow: saturation with time as the
𝜕𝐭
multiply of the change in the
𝜕 2 𝐩 1 𝜕𝐩 ∅𝛍𝐂𝐭 𝜕𝐩 reservoir pressure with time
𝜕𝐩
𝜕𝐭
by
+ = the change of saturation with
𝜕𝐫 𝟐 𝐫 𝜕𝐫 0.000264 ∗ 𝐤 𝜕𝐭 pressure
𝜕𝑺𝒘
.
𝜕𝐩
k → permeability, md r → radial position in the reservoir, ft
𝜕𝑺𝒘 𝜕𝐩 𝜕𝑺𝒘
P → pressure, psia
t → time, hrs
Ct → total compressibility, psi-1
f → porosity, fraction m → viscosity, cp 𝜕𝐭
=
𝜕𝐭
× 𝜕𝐩
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Diffusivity Equation Diffusivity Equation

• The answer is that since compressibility (C) is defined with any of these
𝜕 2 𝐩 1 𝜕𝐩 ∅𝛍𝐂𝐭 𝜕𝐩 equations.
+ =
𝜕𝐫 𝟐 𝐫 𝜕𝐫 0.000264 ∗ 𝐤 𝜕𝐭
• Diffusivity equation contains: 1 𝜕V 1 𝜕ρ 1 𝜕β
C= = =
− Some parameters such as (m & Ct) which are dependent on the V 𝜕P ρ 𝜕P β 𝜕P
pressure.
− Some other parameters as (k) which is dependent on the saturation. Volume Density Formation volume factor
• This term (f m Ct / k) in the diffusivity equation is constant with time (t) &
everywhere @ any distance (r) in the reservoir.
• But why this term (m Ct) in the diffusivity equation is constant while both of • So, the compressibility (C) can be represented by oil formation factor
(Ct) & (m) changes with pressure (i.e., production time)? (b o) changes with pressure.
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Diffusivity Equation Fluid Flow Modeling

• But from fluid PVT analysis we have: 2.0
• Fluid flow modeling process involves:
1.8
bo − Fluid flow in a porous media
Bo, res bbl/STB
− Above bubble point pressure (Pb), 1.6 Pb
decreasing of reservoir pressure 1.4 − Flow through wellbore

with time causes (b o) to increase & 1.2
− Flow through pipelines
(mo) to decrease till the (Pb). 1.0
1.1 pb
0.9 mo
− Below bubble point pressure (Pb),
mo, cp
(bo) start decreasing & (mo) start 0.7
increasing. 0.5
Pb
0.3
• (m Ct) ≈ (m b ) → multiplying of almost 0 2000 4000 6000
equal opposite slopes = constant Pressure, psi

Pressure, psig
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Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR) Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR)

• To flow a well, there must be a • This is a simple schematic for a well producing with flow rate (q) from a
pressure difference (DP) from FTHP formation with a reservoir pressure of (Ps) & the bottom hole flowing
reservoir pressure (Ps) to the pressure is (Pwf).
wellbore bottomhole flowing
• Pressure difference between the static reservoir pressure (Ps) & the
pressure (Pwf) then to Flowing
bottom hole flowing pressure (Pwf) is called the DRAWDOWN (DP).
Tubing Head Pressure (FTHP).
• If the wellbore bottomhole
flowing pressure (Pwf) is equal
𝚫𝐏 = 𝐏𝐬 − 𝐏𝐰𝐟 q
to the reservoir pressure (Ps),
• Flow rate (q) is directly proportional to this
then there will be no inflow.
pressure drawdown (DP) & is inversely
• If the wellbore bottomhole proportional to the corresponding bottom
flowing pressure (Pwf) is zero hole flowing pressure (Pwf).
(theoretically), the flow would be
@ a maximum possible rate Pwf DP Ps kh𝚫𝐏
i.e. maximum well production 𝐪=
r
rate for oil wells & the Absolute μβ Ln e Ps
Open Flow (AOF) for gas wells. rw Pwf
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• As a fact, Bottomhole flowing pressure (Pwf1) that is required to produce • Productivity Index (P.I or “J”) is a measure of well potential & ability to
low production rate of (200 bbl/day) is HIGHER than (Pwf2) that is required deliver reservoir fluids flowing with rate (qt) @ a specific pressure drop
to produce a high production rate of (500 bbl/day). (DP) from reservoir pressure (Ps) to bottom hole flowing pressure (Pwf).
• A subsurface pressure gauge is used to measure both static pressure (Ps)
Pss
after a sufficient shut-in time & the bottom-hole flowing pressure (Pwf) after
the well has flowed @ a stabilized total flow rate (qt) for a sufficient time.
Pwf 200 bbl/day
wf1 1 • Ideal Productivity Index “P.Iideal” (without skin damage) is a ratio between
Pwf 500 bbl/day well TOTAL liquid production rate (qt) @ surface conditions to its
P wf22 corresponding pressure drawdown (DP) @ producing interval midpoint.
Pwf
𝐪𝐭 𝐪𝐭 𝐪𝐭 𝐪𝐭
"𝐎𝐢𝐥" 𝐏. 𝐈𝐢𝐝𝐞𝐚𝐥 = = "𝐆𝐚𝐬" 𝐏. 𝐈𝐢𝐝𝐞𝐚𝐥 = =
𝚫𝐏 (𝐏𝐬 − 𝐏𝐰𝐟 ) 𝚫(𝐏𝟐) (𝐏𝐬𝟐 − 𝐏𝐰𝐟
𝟐
)
qt : surface flowrate @ standard conditions, STB/day

Ps : external boundary radius pressure, psi
Pwf : bottom hole flowing pressure @ producing interval midpoint, psi
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• Productivity Index (P.I) is measured in (STB/day/psi) for oil wells & is • This example illustrate the production from 2 wells with high & low
measured in (STB/day/psi2) for gas wells. productivity indices @ the same pressure drawdown.
• Example: an oil well is producing 1000 STB/day of liquid with a pressure
drop of 500 psi will have a Productivity Index (P.I) = 2 STB/day/psi.
• In fact, gas flow equation is defined in terms of (DP2) not (DP) so it can be
defined in terms of pseudo pressure function (𝚿) as follow.
2 2 P
ሜ s − Ψwf = pǉ − p
∆Ψ = Ψ 2P
𝐬 wf Ψ=න 𝜕P
μg z
0
𝐪𝐭 𝐪𝐭 qt
"𝐆𝐚𝐬" 𝐏. 𝐈𝐢𝐝𝐞𝐚𝐥 = = 𝟐 = (Ψሜ
𝚫(𝐏𝟐) (𝐏𝐬𝟐 −𝐏𝐰𝐟 ) R −Ψwf )
ሜ R : pseudo pressure corresponding to (pǉ )

Ψ R
Ψwf : pseudo pressure corresponding to (pwf )
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• Ideal Productivity Index “P.Iideal” can also be expanded to a semi-steady • In fact, there is no ideal well producing without a skin (either damage or
state Darcy law type formulation : improvement), so to calculate well Actual Productivity Index “P.Iactual”, the
skin (S) value & the pressure drop due to skin (DPs) should be included
𝐪𝐭 𝐪𝐭 Constant ∗ kh
"Oil" 𝐏. 𝐈𝐢𝐝𝐞𝐚𝐥 = = = in the above productivity index equations.
𝚫𝐏 (𝐏𝐬 − 𝐏𝐰𝐟 ) r
μoβ Ln r e
w 𝐪𝐭 𝐪𝐭 kh
"Oil" 𝐏. 𝐈𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 = = =
𝚫𝐏 (𝐏𝐬 − 𝐏𝐰𝐟 − 𝚫𝐏𝐬 ) r
𝐪𝐭 𝐪𝐭 Constant ∗ kh μβ Ln r e + 𝐒
"Gas" 𝐏. 𝐈𝐢𝐝𝐞𝐚𝐥 = = = w
𝚫(𝐏𝟐) (𝐏𝐬𝟐 − 𝐏𝐰𝐟 ഥ Ln re
𝟐 )
zതμഥgT
rw 𝐪𝐭 𝐪𝐭 Constant ∗ kh
k : permeability, md "Gas" 𝐏. 𝐈𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 = = =
𝚫(𝐏𝟐) (𝐏𝐬𝟐 − 𝐏𝐰𝐟 ഥ Ln re + 𝐒
𝟐 − ∆𝐏 𝟐 )
h : net thickness, ft 𝐬 zതμഥgT
r w
m : fluid viscosity, cp
b : formation volume factor, res. bbl/STB • This same concept can be applied to injection wells to calculate an
re & rw : external boundary radius & wellbore radius, ft Injectivity Index (I.I), using the same equations but in this case the
z : gas compressibility factor
T : gas temperature @ reservoir conditions, Fo
pressure drawdown (DP) is the difference between the bottom hole
injection pressure (Pwi) & the bottom hole static pressure (Ps), i.e.,
• This approach is less common, as surface production & pressure data are
pressure drawdown (DP = Ps − Pwi).
more readily available & in most cases is more accurately measured.
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• Note that Productivity Index (P.I) is a valid measure of the well productivity • By monitoring the Productivity Index (P.I) during the life of a well, it is
potential only if the well is flowing @ pseudo steady state conditions. possible to determine if the well has become damaged due to completion,
workover, production, injection operations, or mechanical problems.
• Therefore, in order to accurately measure the productivity index of a well, it
is essential that the well is allowed to flow @ a constant flow rate for a • If the measured Productivity Index (P.I) has an unexpected decline, one
sufficient time to reach the pseudo steady state as shown in this figure. of the above problems should be investigated.
• The figure indicates that during
Productivity
Index
the transient flow period, the Productivity Index

calculated values of the
Productivity Index (P.I) will vary
q&P
depending upon the time @ q
which the measurements of Ps
the bottom hole flowing
Pressures
pressure is (Pwf) are made. Pwf P

(DP = Ps - Pwf)
Transient flow Pseudo steady state

Time
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• Flow Efficacy (F.E) is the ratio between: • Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR) of a reservoir is a relationship
between the flowing bottom hole pressures (Pwf) & the corresponding
− The ACTUAL well drawdown (considering the pressure drop due to
total well production flow rates (qt) that shows the productive capacity &
skin “DPs”) to the IDEAL well draw down (calculated @ zero skin).
well performance.
OR • For single phase flow (oil or water), the ideal straight line connecting
− The ratio between the IDEAL productivity index (calculated @ zero between the points represents the Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR).
skin) of a well to its ACTUAL productivity index (considering the • Slope of this straight line = INVERSE of the well Productivity Index (P.I).
pressure drop due to skin “DPs”) calculated @ the same drawdown. • Extrapolation of the straight line to flow rate = (0) is the current average
static pressure (Ps).
Actual Drawdown Ideal Productivity Index Ps
Flow rate Pressure
Flow Efficiency = =
Ideal Drawdown Actual Productivity Index
Slope = 1 / P.I
𝐉𝐢𝐝𝐞𝐚𝐥 𝐏𝐬 − 𝐏𝐰𝐟 − 𝚫𝐏𝐬𝐤𝐢𝐧

Flow Efficency = = Time, hrs
Pwf
𝐉𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐏𝐬 − 𝐏𝐰𝐟
q
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• Darcy showed that if the reservoir is producing kh 𝐏𝐬 − 𝐏𝐰𝐟 • Note that, this constant Productivity Index (P.I) is based on Darcy flow
ABOVE the bubble point pressure (Pb), then flow 𝐪= equation & it is ONLY applied for a single-phase flow (oil) when the
r
rate (q) is directly proportional to this pressure μβ Ln r e drawdown (DP = Ps ‒ Pwf) @ the wellbore leaves the reservoir pressure
w
drawdown (DP) & is inversely proportional to the (Ps) everywhere in the reservoir to remains ABOVE the bubble point
corresponding bottom hole flowing pressure (Pwf). kh𝚫𝐏 pressure (Pb).
𝐪=
Pwf r • But if the drawdown @ the Pwf IPR curve is due to two
μβ Ln r e phase flow (oil & gas)
Drawdown (DP) = Ps – Pwf w wellbore causes a decrees of the
Ps reservoir pressure (Ps) in some Ps
Production rate (q) α Drawdown (DP) parts of the reservoir & in turns
DP1 DP1
the bottom hole flowing
Production rate (q) α (1 / Pwf) Pwf-1 pressure (Pwf) will be BELOW the Pwf-1
DP2
DP2 bubble point pressure (Pb) that
• So, for reservoir inflow, develop TWO PHASE FLOW (oil
reducing the bottom hole Pwf-2 & gas) so in this case the straight- P
wf-2
flowing pressure (Pwf) will line relationship with a constant
result-in increasing of well Productivity Index (P.I) is NO
flow rate (q) & vice versa. 0
q1 LONGER APPLICABLE. 0
q2 q q1 q2 q
565 566

• In this case, a new approach that is called Vogel equation is used for the • This is a typical Vogel plot.
varied (non constant) Productivity Index (P.I) case when the reservoir 2
pressure (Ps) & or bottom hole flowing pressure (Pwf) reaches BELOW 𝐪𝐨 𝐏𝐰𝐟 𝐏𝐰𝐟
= 1 − 0.2 − 0.8
𝐪𝐨(𝐦𝐚𝐱) 𝐏𝐬 𝐏𝐬
the bubble point pressure (Pb) such as for a well performance
producing from a solution gas drive reservoirs.
• Vogel new approach for two phase flow (oil & gas) is summarized by this
equation calculated @ flow efficiency = 1 (no skin).
Pwf / Ps
2
𝐪𝐨 𝐏𝐰𝐟 𝐏𝐰𝐟
= 1 − 0.2 − 0.8
𝐪𝐨(𝐦𝐚𝐱) 𝐏𝐬 𝐏𝐬
qo → oil production rate, stb/d @ the bottom hole flowing pressure (Pwf)
qo(max) → theoretical max. oil production rate, stb/d @ max. drawdown when Pwf = 0
Pwf → producing bottom hole flowing pressure, psig
Ps → static reservoir pressure, psig qo/qo(max)
567 568
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• This is a typical IPR plot with varied Productivity Index (P.I) when • Vogel equation is a quadratic (parabola) equation with dimensionless
reservoir pressure (Ps) & or bottom hole flowing pressure (Pwf) variables ranging from (0) to (1) along each axis.
reaches BELOW the bubble point pressure (Pb).
• So, plotting the ratio (qo / qo(max)) vs. the ratio (Pwf / Ps) will result-in curved
relationship.
• Degree of the curvature is a strong function of the amount of free gas
present in the production.
• For any given oil production rate (q1) & 1
its corresponding measured bottom
hole flowing pressure (Pwf1), theoretical
Pwf / Ps
max. oil production rate (qo(max)) can be Gas flow
calculated using Vogel equation. Two phase
flow
• Once (qo(max)) is established, the
2
equation can be used to estimate the 𝐪𝐨 𝐏𝐰𝐟 𝐏𝐰𝐟
= 1 − 0.2 − 0.8
bottom hole flowing pressure (Pwf2) for 𝐪𝐨(𝐦𝐚𝐱) 𝐏𝐬 𝐏𝐬
any other production rates (q2).
0 qo/qo(max) 1
569 570

• Productivity Index (P.I) in this case is NOT CONSTANT & @ any point it • This is a typical Vogel curves for different flow efficiencies.
is equal to the SLOPE of the TANGENT LINE to the curve @ this point.
• Productivity Index (P.I) increases with increasing of the flow efficiency.
• Mathematically, slope of the tangent line to a curve @ any point is the
DERIVATIVE of the curve @ this point.
• So, Productivity Index (P.I) is defined
as the (-ve) derivative of flow rate (qo)
with respect to bottom hole flowing
1
pressure (Pwf), i.e. (P.I) = −( qo / Pwf) Slope of
Pwf / Ps
tangent
• Differentiating Vogel's equation with lines
Pwf / Ps
respect to the bottom hole flowing

pressure (Pwf) i.e. ( qo / Pwf) defines
the Productivity Index (P.I).
𝜕𝐪𝐨 0.2 𝐏𝐰𝐟

P. I = − = −q o(max) + 1.6
𝜕𝐏𝐰𝐟 𝐏𝐬 𝐏𝐬𝟐
0 qo/qo(max) 1 qo / qo(max) @ flow efficiency = 1
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• This is a summary of Darcy & Vogel work that shows the productivity • This is a summary of the productivity index change with time for single
index ABOVE & BELOW the bubble point pressure (pb) respectively. phase OIL−IPR, single phase GAS−IPR & two phase IPR (P < Pb).
• Bubble point pressure (Pb) is @ the point where Vogel IPR deviates
from the straight-line trend.
• Above the bubble point pressure (Pb), Vogel equation did not work
since there is no free gas & the IPR relationship is a straight-line
following Darcy flow equation.
Bubble point
pressure
Bubble point pressure
573 574

• The INFLOW performance can be improved by perforation, acidizing, • The INFLOW performance curve is affected by oil viscosity.
hydraulic fracturing, horizontalization …. etc.
• This is an example for the enhancement in the well IPR (max. production
Bottomhole flowing pressure (Pwf)
rate increased from q1 to q2) after a successful stimulation job.

Pwf
Enhanced (IPR) after a

successful stimulation job
IPR-2
IPR-1
0 q
q1 q2 Production rate (Q)
575 576
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• The INFLOW performance curve is affected by GOR. Total (Composite) Productivity Index for Multiple Zones:
• Commingled production means that
there are two zones or more
producing through the same
tubing, i.e., single completion.

• When there are more than one
zone with different permeabilities
that are producing commingled with
different rates & different
pressures as indicated from PLT
survey.
• So, in this case, each zone has its
own productivity index & hence its
own IPR curve.
Production rate (Q)
577 578

Total (Composite) Productivity Index for Multiple Zones: Total (Composite) Productivity Index for Multiple Zones:
• Then, Total (Composite) productivity index for these zones, i.e., total • This is the Total (Composite) productivity index for three zones.
well productivity index is the outcome of the sum of two individual IPR
curves for the zones as summarized below.
Pwf
Qa = Q1 + Q2 @ Pwf1
Total Composite
(IPR)
Qb = Q3 + Q4 @ Pwf2 Pwf1 Q1 Q2 Total Composite

Qa (IPR)
Pwf2 Q3 Q4
Qb 5 md 50 md 500 md
zone zone zone
IPR-1 IPR-2
0 Q
Production rate (Q)
579 580
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Outflow Performance Relationship (OPR) Pressure Losses in Production System

• Once the hydrocarbon passed the perforation & entered inside the • Outflow performance involves fluid flow & the pressure difference across
wellbore, NO more Darcy’s equation is applied & the flow is only each segment of the fluid flow pathway (i.e., through production tubing,
controlled by the hydraulic flow through pipes equations. wellhead & surface flow line.
• Flow through tubing is called Outflow Performance Relationship (OPR) • This is a summary of the production flow path from reservoir to surface.
or Vertical Lift Performance (VLP) that describes the flow from bottom of
the well to the wellhead & the ability of the tubing in the well (outflow) to
handle the production coming out from the reservoir (inflow).
• Both IPR & VLP relate the wellbore flowing pressure to the surface
production rate BUT IPR represents what a reservoir can deliver to the
bottom hole while VLP represents what a well can deliver to surface.
• Bottomhole Flowing Pressure (BHFP)
or (Pwf) should be able to overcome
the head pressure & friction losses.
• (OPR) or (VLP) depends on liquid
rate, GLR, WHP & tubing size.
581 582
Pressure Losses in Production System Pressure Losses in Production System

• This is a summary of the overall production flow diagram with INFLOW & • Fluid flow from RESERVOIR to STOCK TANK is due to pressure gradient
OUTFLOW systems. (drop) within the system.
Separator Separator
Horizontal flow Horizontal flow
Bottom hole Bottom hole

restrictions restrictions
Vertical flow Vertical flow
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Pressure Losses in Production System Pressure Losses in Production System

• Total pressure gradient • But which one of these pressure losses represents the Outflow (VLP) &
(drop) from the reservoir to which is the inflow (IPR)? ►
►
the separator = sum of the
individual pressure drops Separator Separator
through these 4 segments: ►
►
Horizontal flow Horizontal flow
►
1. Reservoir
2. Wellbore ► ►
Bottom hole Bottom hole
► ►
3. Completion restrictions restrictions
► ►
4. Flowline
►
► ► ►
►
►
Outflow (VLP) is
Dp3 + Dp4 + Dp7
►
► ►►
►
►►
Vertical flow Vertical flow
Inflow (IPR) is
Dp9 = Dp1 + Dp2
Dp = 𝐩ഥ ‒ pwf
►
►
►
►
►
►
585 586
Pressure Losses in Production System Multiphase Flow Regimes

• This is a summary of the overall pressure losses in the production • In fact, calculating the pressure drop (DP) @ each segment of the
system from reservoir to surface facilities. fluid pathway from perforations to wellhead is serious problem.
• This is because it involves the simultaneous multiphase flow of oil, gas
& water with different flow regimes during flowing inside the tubing.
ΔP1 (Pressure losses DP1
in the porous media)
ΔP2 (Pressure losses

DP2
in the tubing string)
ΔP3 (Pressure losses

in Surface Facilities) DP3
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Multiphase Flow Regimes Multiphase Flow Regimes

• Due to this multiphase flow with different flow regimes, it is very • There are many multiphase flow correlations that are used to estimate
difficult to find a full analytical solution to define the relationship the Tubing Pressures Profiles or pressure losses (DP) inside the
between pressure drop (DP) across the completion components & the tubing then the required bottom hole tubing intake pressures @ the
flow rate inside the tubing to wellhead. given wellhead pressure which is known as the VLP curve.
• Instead, empirical formulas & mathematical models have been • The VLP curve depends on many factors including fluid PVT properties,
developed to be used for predicting the pressure drop (DP) inside the well depth, tubing size, surface pressure, W.C% & GOR.
tubing for multiphase flow that is known as Outflow Performance
• The primary purpose of a
Relationship (OPR) or Vertical Lift Performance (VLP).
multiphase flow correlations is to
• Vertical Lift Performance (VLP) relationship is commonly a plot of predict the flowing mixture
production rate (q) vs. flowing tubing head pressure (FTHP) shows the density & the frictional pressure
Depth, ft
outflow after considering pressure losses in the tubing (DP). gradient. Tubing Pressures Profiles
• In order to obtain the realistic results, it is therefore important to define • There is no universal rule to
the input parameters carefully & to select a proper model that fits with select the best flow correlation for
well & reservoir fluid conditions. a given application. The correlation
you should use is that works best
for your well conditions. Tubing Pressures, psi
589 590
Fluids Flow Through Pipes Fluids Flow Through Pipes

• The main factor in the fluids flow through pipes that control the • Moody developed a chart known as Moody Chart which provides a
pressure drop (DP) @ each segment of the fluid pathway is the correlation between:
FRICTION (f) which is mainly depends on the following parameters:
‒ Friction factor (f).
─ Flow rate (q).
‒ Reynold’s Number (NRe).
─ Internal pipe diameter (D).
‒ Relative roughness (e/d).
─ Type of the flowing fluid (laminar or turbulent).
• Moody Chart is used to determine the friction factors (f) for turbulent
─ Density of the flowing fluid (r). flow in pipe.
─ Roughness of the internal surface of the pipe. • Once the friction factors (f) is estimated, then the pressure drop (DP)
• Once the friction factors (f) is estimated, then pressure drop across the across the tubing can be calculated @ different flow rates.
tubing (DP) can be calculated @ different flow rates.
8ρ𝑓Lq2
∆𝐏 = 𝐏𝐢𝐧𝐥𝐞𝐭 − 𝐏𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐥𝐞𝐭 =
π2 D2
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Fluids Flow Through Pipes Outflow Performance Relationship (OPR)

• This is a Moody Chart. • Now, by knowing such information, we can
Pwf
establish the Vertical Lift Performance
8r f L Q 2 (VLP) that describes the ability of the
DP = (Pinlet − Poutlet ) = tubing in the well (outflow or) to handle
p 2 D2 Outflow (OPR)
the production coming out from the
reservoir (inflow).
q
• This should ensure that the selected tubing size for production is:
1. Big enough to handle the production
2. NOT small that restrict the flow.
3. NOT more than what is normally required to handle the required
production.
593 594
Outflow Performance Relationship (OPR) Outflow Performance Relationship (OPR)

This is a typical OUTFLOW (OPR) or Vertical Lift Performance (VLP) curve This is a typical OUTFLOW (OPR) or Vertical Lift Performance (VLP) curves
@ a specific THP value. for various THP scenarios.
VLP for THP = 3000 psi

Bottomhole pressure
VLP for THP = 300 psi
Liquid rate
595 596
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Production Optimization Production Optimization

• Production Optimization is a fundamental practice to ensure recovery • Production optimization includes:
of developed reserves with maximum recovery.
− Near wellbore gas or water coning & fingering management.
• Production Optimization includes various activities of measuring,
− Remove near wellbore damage using different stimulation techniques.
analyzing, modelling, prioritizing & implementing actions to enhance
productivity of a field, reservoir, well or surface facilities. − Maximize the productivity (hydraulic fracturing & Maximum Reservoir
Contact “MRC” well with multilateral completion).
• Production system include:
− Prevention of organic & inorganic solid deposition in the near
− Reservoir inflow performance
wellbore, completion & pipelines.
(IPR).
− Well integrity (prevention & remediation of casing & cement failure).
− WeIIbore, tubing & completion
vertical lift performance (OPR). − Design of well completion (optimization of artificial lift performance &
sand control management).
− Surface facilities (flow lines,
separator, … etc.). − Design of surface facilities & fluid handling capacity.
• Production systems can be simple − Production system debottlenecking.
to complex with artificial lift & gas − Efficient oil & gas transport system.
or water injection systems.
597 598
Nodal Analysis Nodal Analysis

• Reservoir fluid flows from the reservoir to the stock tank is due to the • Nodal Analysis is a common modelling tool used to DESIGN,
pressure gradients (drop) within the system. ANALYZE, EVALUATE & PREDICT well performance through different
pressures (P) vs. rates (q) plot.
• The total pressure drop from the reservoir to the separator is the sum
of the individual pressure drops through four different segments (in • Given reservoir & separator pressures, along with the physical
reservoir, wellbore, across tubing/completion & through the flowline). properties of each segment, we can estimate well flow rate.
• Nodal Analysis allows to visually assess the impact of a changes in one
Psep. component of the system (separator pressure, flowline size, surface choke
Pwh sizes or tubing size) on the entire system & on the well performance.
• Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR) represents the reservoir
performance from inside the reservoir to the tubing end (solution node),
i.e., the inflow is the flow into the solution node.
• IPR depends mainly on the reservoir properties (permeability, porosity,
reservoir thickness, productivity index, fluid properties, … etc.)
• Outflow Performance Relationship (OPR) or the Vertical Lift Performance
Pwf Pwfs (VLP) represents the downhole completion performance from the tubing
Pr end (solution node) to the X-tree @ surface, i.e., the outflow is the flow
out of the solution node.
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• This is a sketch of the petroleum production system showing IPR & OPR. • OPR or (VLP) depends mainly on the completion
specifications & fluid properties that cause pressure losses
due to friction as well fluids movement inside the completion.
Wellhead & X-tree • Nodal analysis concept is that the sum of rate in = the sum of
the rate out @ the SOLUTION NODE POINT or NODAL
ANALYSIS POINT (tubing end) that is @ one pressure value.
OPR ends here
OPR • This SOLUTION NODE POINT is graphically representing
the upstream system response (reservoir inflow IPR) & OPR
downstream system response (wellbore lift capacity, VLP or (VLP)
Wellbore
outflow OPR) of the NODAL POINT.
• @ this solution node point, pressure of the inflow (IPR) &
that of the outflow (OPR) is the same that is why it is called
the solution point.
Reservoir IPR
• Based on that the analysis is done by splitting the system @
the intersection point between the IPR & OPR curves
IPR ends here IPR known as the optimum operating condition point.
601 602

Nodal analysis is used to: • Just remember that Darcy showed that if the kh 𝐏𝐬 − 𝐏𝐰𝐟
reservoir is producing ABOVE the bubble point 𝐪=
• Optimize oil & gas well production performance considering r
pressure (Pb), then flow rate (q) is directly μβ Ln r e
wellbore geometry & completion limitations. w
proportional to this pressure drawdown (DP) &
• Identify common well performance issues (check each is inversely proportional to the corresponding kh𝚫𝐏
component in the well system to determine whether it is bottom hole flowing pressure (Pwf). 𝐪=
P r
restricting the flow rate) & flow conditions (time when well wf μβ Ln r e
w
loaded or die) & to provide solutions. Ps
• Evaluate well potential (current & future conditions).
DP1
• Decide when it is economically to convert a natural flow well Pwf-1
to the artificial lift using optimum methods.
• Select the optimum tubing size.
DP2
• Create practical operating envelopes that avoid unstable flow. Pwf-2

• Understand flow stability (why a well can exhibit slugging &
surging even if there’s plenty of reservoir energy) & evaluate q
0
remediation options. q1 q2
603 604
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• For a reservoir producing BELOW the kh 𝐏𝐬 − 𝐏𝐰𝐟 • While for the flow through tubing (Outflow Performance Relationship -
bubble point pressure (Pb), the relationship 𝐪= OPR), pressure loss in the tubing (DP) is a direct function of the flow
r
is curved. μβ Ln r e rate (q), tubing specifications, fluid density & frictions.
w
• So, for reservoir inflow, reducing • So, for the outflow (OPR), 8ρ𝑓Lq2
the bottom hole flowing pressure Pwf 𝐪=
kh𝚫𝐏 increasing of flowing pressure Pwf ∆𝐏 = 𝐏𝐢𝐧𝐥𝐞𝐭 − 𝐏𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐥𝐞𝐭 = π2 D2
(Pwf) will result-in increasing of well r (Pinlet) will cause increasing of
μβ Ln r e
flow rate (q) & vice versa. w well flow rate (q).
Ps Ps
DP1 • Pressure losses in tubing (DP) Outflow (OPR)
Drawdown (DP) = Ps – Pwf
Pwf-1
Production rate (q) α Drawdown (DP) DP2 (DP) = Pinlet – Poutlet Pwf-1
Production rate (q) α (1 / Pwf) = Pwf – THP Pwf-2

Pwf-2
Production rate (Q) α Drawdown (DP) q Production rate (q) α Pinlet or (Pwf) q
0 q1 q2 0 q2 q1
605 606

• When combines OUTFLOW (VLP) & INFLOW (IPR) curves in one plot of • This "optimum rate" (qopr) can be improved by:
pressure vs. rate then the intersection point between IPR & VLP curves
− Changing the completion size or surface chokes size.
is called the optimum operating or working point that yields the
optimum well deliverability conditions (q & Pwf) possible for this well − Or by shifting IPR curve through simulation treatment.
with this completion system.
Pwf Pwf
• This optimum operating or
working point ensure that the
Ps Ps
selected tubing size is suitable Outflow (OPR)
enough to handle the required Outflow (OPR)
production without restricting or
Pwf-opr.
accelerating the flow. System operating

pressure
• This "optimum rate" (qopr) is NOT Optimum
operating or
a maximum or minimum rate, working point Bigger tubing size
but it is the rate @ which this well
should efficiently produce for the
tubing system installed. 0 q 0 q
qopr.
607 608
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• This figure summarizes the improvement of the "optimum rate" (qopr) can • But why the Outflow (OPR) VLP curve has a U-shape?
by changing the completion size & by shifting IPR curve through
simulation treatment. • This is because total pressure drops along the tubing (DP/DL) is equal to
DP/DL = DPgravity + DPfriction + DPacceleration
Pwf
• DPgravity: liquid density varies along
the tubing depth due to phase
segregation & liquids holdup.
• DPfriction: friction increases with Outflow (OPR)
increasing the flow rate & with Gravity
tubing size decrease. dominated Friction dominated
Unstable Stable region
• DPacceleration: liquid expansion during region
production along the tubing requires

an energy that is considered as an
additional pressure drop in the
system. 0 q
609 610

• Pressure losses due to liquid expansion (DPacceleration) can be neglected • Pressure losses due to friction (DPfriction) is considered the main factor
compared to the other pressure losses (DPgravity & DPfriction). that control the entire pressure losses during production specially @ high
flow rates.
• For the pressure losses due to gravity (DPgravity),
• @ low flow rates, liquid density Pwf • @ equilibrium conditions @ point Pwf
varies drastically along the tubing (a) without any production (q = 0)
depth due to phase segregation then there is no friction so the
& liquids holdup. bottom hole pressure (Pwf) equal to
DPfriction
the hydrostatic pressure + WHP.
• @ higher flow rates, both phase
segregation & liquids holdup • To produce @ rate (q1), then an
are low since high flow velocity enough additional pressure should
force all phases to move upward. be added to the bottom hole
DPgravity pressure to overcome the friction a
• This result-in the flowing liquid in the pipe corresponding to this
density almost remain constant rate (q1) to be produced to surface.
@ higher flow rates.
0 q 0 q
q1
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• To produce higher rate (q2) then another extra enough pressure should be • Combining the two curves for the pressure losses due to gravity (DPgravity)
added to the bottom hole pressure to overcome the friction in the pipe & the pressure losses due to friction (DPfriction) together will result in the
corresponding to this higher rate (q2) to be produced to surface. known U-shape for the outflow (VLP) curve.
• @ any rate (q), the bottom hole

pressure equal to the hydrostatic Pwf Pwf Pwf
pressure + WHP + pressure
losses due to friction in the pipe
corresponding to this rate (q). DPfriction Outflow (OPR) DPfriction
VLP VLP
vertical vertical
friction friction
a DPgravity
0 q 0 q 0 q
q1 q2 q q
613 614

• The IPR changes with time due to the reservoir pressure depletion • This IPR changes with time due to the reservoir pressure depletion
having the same completion system used in the well. may reach a time that this IPR using the same completion system are
not enough for lifting the well fluids naturally to surface.
• Maximum well deliverability (q) & static pressure (Ps) decreases with
time (t): • When the IPR < VLP, @
Pwf that time any of the
─ (q1 & Ps1) @ time (t1) Artificial Lift (A/L) method
Optimum operating working
─ (q2 & Ps2) @ time (t2) point decline with time is applied to provide the
Ps
Ps 1 energy required to lift
─ (q3 & Ps3) @ time (t3) 2 well fluids to the surface.
Ps Outflow (OPR)
3 t1
t2
• This means that having the same t3
completion system (i.e., same
outflow−OPR) used in the well, this Inflow (IPR)
optimum operating working point
will change with time due to the
reservoir pressure depletion. q
0
q3 q2 q1
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• In prosper, selecting the propre model to match the measured data • This is a sensitivity runs for a well production using different completion
depends on: size with some different IPR scenarios for changing producing W.C.%.
− Measured data that I have.
− What is the physical property or physical situation of the well to model
i.e., is it a hydraulic fracture well, horizontal well, multi layer reservoir,
… etc.).
− And to ensure that the model assumptions is almost meet the actual
conditions for the case under study.
Bigger tubing size
Higher W.C.%
617 618
Nodal Analysis Ejector (Surface Jet Pumps)

• This is a sensitivity runs for a well if it is drilled horizontally with different • Ejector or surface jet pump is a special surface pipeline connection
lateral distances (300, 600, 1200 & 2400 ft) & is completed with two device that is used to flow a low pressure well using the power from
different tubing sizes (3 ½” & 4 ½”). another high pressure well.
• We can see that: • It has 3 connections, Motive, Suction & Discharge.
• Using bigger tubing size Suction
(4½”) allows for more
production @ the same Discharge
bottom hole flowing Motive
outlet
pressure.
• For any tubing size, there
is a little increase in Low pressure suction fluid Diffuser Diffuser
production by drilling a throat
horizontal distance from High pressure Discharge

(1200 ft) to a longer lateral Motive fluid outlet
distances (2400 ft).
Nozzle
619 620
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Ejector (Surface Jet Pumps) Ejector (Surface Jet Pumps)

• Principle of operation of Ejectors is based upon Bernoulli’s principle, as the • The two fluid streams then travel through the diffuser section of the
velocity of a fluid increases, its pressure decreases, and vice versa. Ejector, where fluid velocity is decreased as a result of the diverging
geometry & pressure is increased.
• When a high-pressure motive fluid enters the nozzle, this result in
converting the pressure energy into velocity (decreasing pressure & • Due to this pressure difference, vacuum is created in between the nozzle
increasing velocity of the fluid). & diffuser that sucks the fluids out from the system.
• Around the nozzle tip, where velocity is highest, a low-pressure region is • The low-pressure suction stream experiences a pressure increase
created. This is often called the suction chamber of the Ejector. (compression), whilst the high-pressure motive stream sees a pressure
decrease (expansion) as some of its energy has been used to do work on
• The pressure in this region is lower than the pressure of the suction fluid
the suction stream.
connected to the Ejector side-inlet or suction branch, it will be
entrained/sucked into the body of the Ejector.
Low pressure suction fluid Diffuser Diffuser Low pressure suction fluid Diffuser Diffuser
throat throat
High pressure Discharge High pressure Discharge

Motive fluid outlet Motive fluid outlet
Nozzle Nozzle
621 622
Ejector (Surface Jet Pumps) Questions

• So, the resultant discharge pressure is therefore somewhere between
the motive & suction pressures.
Pwf
Outflow (OPR) for high pressure motive well
Ps
Outflow (OPR) for discharge pressure
Outflow (OPR) for low pressure suction well
0 q
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3.0
DP
2.0
Pressure, psi
1.0
D
0.0
Skin
S0
-1.0
dP -2.0
-3.0
Time, hrs 0 1 2 3 4 5
qg, MMscf/d
Break Pressure Measurements

(SGS, PBU & MDT)
Analysis & Gas Wells
Deliverability Tests
625 626
Depths Definitions
• Before go through the different pressure surveys, we should first know
some about different depths definitions that are used in the
measurements during pressure surveys such as:
1. Measured Depth (MD).
2. True Vertical Depth (TVD).
3. True Vertical Depth Subsea (TVDSS).
Depths Definitions 4. True Vertical Thickness (TVT).
5. True Stratigraphic Thickness (TST).
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Depths Definitions Depths Definitions

1. Measured Depth (MD): 2. True Vertical Depth (TVD):
• Measured Depth (MD) is the entire length along the actual well path • True Vertical Depth (TVD) is the difference in vertical height between
(vertical or slanted or horizontal) from the wellhead to the survey point. the start & end points of depth (vertical distance from the wellhead to
the survey point).
• Measured Depth (MD), inclination & azimuth are the set of measured
data from which other values can be calculated.
629 630

2. True Vertical Depth (TVD): 2. True Vertical Depth (TVD):
• For vertical wells without any deviation so the Measured Depth (MD) is • For a horizontal wells, the True Vertical Depths (TVD) is constant along
the same as the True Vertical Depth (TVD) → (MD = TVD). the horizontal section while the Measured Depth (MD) increases along
• For deviated wells, Measured Depth (MD) > True Vertical Depth (TVD). this horizontal section.
• TVD = MD * Cos (q), where “q” is the deviation angle of the well between
the well path & the vertical plan.
q
TVD
MD = TVD TVD MD MD
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3. True Vertical Depth SubSea (TVDSS): 3. True Vertical Depth SubSea (TVDSS):
• True Vertical Depth SubSea (TVDSS) is the vertical distance from the • TVDSS Is not affected with well trajectory & deviation since it is related
Mean Sea Level (MSL) to the reservoir. to surface sea level elevation.
• It is equal to the difference between the True Vertical Depth (TVD) & the
Kelly Bushing (KB) elevation → (TVDSS = TVD − KB).
• Where “KB” is the Kelly Bushing elevation or the rotary table elevation
from Mean Sea Level (MSL) elevation.
Sea Level Sea Level Sea Level
Kelly Horizontal well

Vertical well Deviated well
q
Kelly Bushing (KB) TVD
TVDSS
MD TVD
TVDSS
MD TVD
TVDSS
Rotary table MD
Drill floor
633 634

4. True Vertical Thickness (TVT): 5. True Stratigraphic Thickness (TST):
• True Vertical Thickness (TVT) is the vertical distance between the top & • True Stratigraphic Thickness (TST) is the distance between the top &
bottom boundaries of a stratigraphic unit. bottom boundaries of a stratigraphic unit measured perpendicularly to
the dip or inclination of this stratigraphic unit.
• TVT did not represent the real reservoir thickness.
• TST represent the real reservoir thickness.
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• These are MD, TVD, TVDSS, TVT & TST depths summary. • For the any drilled well, there is a directional survey prepared by the
directional company during drilling the well that includes the following data
@ some selected depths for reference:
MD DEVI AZIMUTH TVD TVDSS X Y

(FT) (DEG) (DEG) (FT) (FT) (M) (M)
0 0.0 0.0 0 -115 594189 2934605
− MD: 300
measured 0.1depth,69.6 300 between
actual distance 185 594189 2934605
start & end points.
500 0.1 348.3 500 385 594189 2934605
− Deviation (q): angle between the well path & the vertical plane.
900 0.1 353.7 900 785 594189 2934605
− Azimuth: angle in the horizontal plane between well path & the North.
1000 0.2 303.5 1000 885 594189 2934606
− TVD:1300
true vertical
1.1 depth,
166.0 vertical
1300distance1185 between
594189start & end points
2934605
(TVD = MD * Cos (q)).
1700 2.5 191.6 1699.8 1584.8 594189 2934602
− TVDSS: is TVD but is referred to Subsea depth (TVDSS = TVD – KB).
2000 3.6 189.1 1999.4 1884.4 594188 2934597
− X & 2300
Y: location
5.0coordinates
196.8 of the point 2183.5
2298.5 in the horizontal plan.
594187 2934590
2800 11.1 208.8 2794.6 2679.6 594180 2934573
637 638 3100 17.5 210.9 3085.2 2970.2 594169 2934554
3700 31.6 217.8 3627.6 3512.6 594124 2934490
4300 39.0 221.4 4117 4002 594057 2934409
4900 40.3 222.2 4574.2 4459.2 593977 2934322
5200 40.3 221.5 4803.1 4688.1 593937 2934278
5800 38.3 219.1 5269.2 5154.2 593863 2934190
6100 36.5 218.5 5507.4 5392.4 593828 2934147
6400 36.9 217.3 5747.9 5632.9 593795 2934104
7000 35.9 216.6 6231.3 6116.3 593730 2934017
7900 41.0 213.1 6948.1 6833.1 593635 2933881
8200 41.5 212.0 7173.7 7058.7 593602 2933831
8800 40.7 209.3 7629 7514 593542 2933728
9100 41.1 209.0 7855.6 7740.6 593513 2933675
9700 40.3 202.6 8308.1 8193.1 593461 2933567
10000 40.4 199.5 8536.8 8421.8 593439 2933512
10900 47.7 191.8 9207.8 9092.8 593395 2933335
11000 49.4 191.7 9273.9 9158.9 593390 2933313
11150 50.2 192.0 9370.2 9255.2 593383 2933279
11600 50.2 192.0 9658.4 9543.4 593361 2933176

JUST TO REMEMBER: • So, to calculate the True Vertical Depth SubSea (TVDSS) for any given
Measured Depth (MD = 6059 ft) we must refer to the directional survey
• INCLINATION is the deviation angle
data & find the nearest Forward or Backward recorded depths data &
@ any given point of directing the
then calculate the TVDSS as follow:
wellbore from the vertical plan.
Directional survey data Nearest directional survey data
− Inclination is expressed in degrees MD
(FT)
DEVI AZIMUTH TVD
(DEG) (DEG) (FT)
TVDSS
(FT)
X
(M)
Y
(M) 1- Forward point calculation
& ranges from (0°) for vertical well 0
300
0.0
0.1
0.0
69.6
0
300
-115
185
594189
594189
2934605
2934605
MD DEVI AZIMUTH TVD TVDSS
(FT) (DEG) (DEG) (FT) (FT)
X
(M)
Y
(M)
500 0.1 348.3 500 385 594189 2934605
to (90°) for horizontal well. 900 0.1 353.7 900 785 594189 2934605 6100 36.5 218.5 5507.4 5392.4 593828 2934147
Inclination 1000 0.2 303.5 1000 885 594189 2934606
1300 1.1 166.0 1300 1185 594189 2934605 2- Backward point calculation
• AZIMUTH or Direction is the angle 1700
2000
2.5
3.6
191.6 1699.8
189.1 1999.4
1584.8
1884.4
594189
594188
2934602
2934597
MD DEVI AZIMUTH TVD TVDSS X Y
(FT) (DEG) (DEG) (FT) (FT) (M) (M)
compass direction angle of directing 2300
2800
5.0
11.1
196.8 2298.5
208.8 2794.6
2183.5
2679.6
594187
594180
2934590
2934573 5800 38.3 219.1 5269.2 5154.2 593863 2934190
the wellbore in the horizontal plane 3100
3700
17.5
31.6
210.9 3085.2
217.8 3627.6
2970.2
3512.6
594169
594124
2934554
2934490
Azimuth
(typically measured in clockwise 4300
4900
39.0
40.3
221.4 4117
222.2 4574.2
4002
4459.2
594057
593977
2934409
2934322
direction from North). → 5200

5800
40.3
38.3
221.5 4803.1
219.1 5269.2
4688.1
5154.2
593937
593863
2934278
2934190 5800 , 5154.2
→ 6100
6400
36.5
36.9
218.5 5507.4
217.3 5747.9
5392.4
5632.9
593828
593795
2934147
2934104
− Azimuth is usually specified in Inclination 7000
7900
35.9
41.0
216.6 6231.3
213.1 6948.1
6116.3
6833.1
593730
593635
2934017
2933881
TVD ? −5154.2
From
directional
Cos(θ) = → Cos(38.3) = 38
degrees with respect to the North angle 8200
8800
41.5
40.7
212.0 7173.7
209.3 7629
7058.7
7514
593602
593542
2933831
2933728
MD 6059 − 5800 survey
pole & ranges from (0°) to (360°). 9100

9700
41.1
40.3
209.0 7855.6
202.6 8308.1
7740.6
8193.1
593513
593461
2933675
2933567 TVDSS @ MD of 6059 ft is 5357 ft
10000 40.4 199.5 8536.8 8421.8 593439 2933512
Point of interest
10900
11000
47.7
49.4
191.8 9207.8
191.7 9273.9
9092.8
9158.9
593395
593390
2933335
2933313
6059 ?
11150 50.2 192.0 9370.2 9255.2 593383 2933279
11600 50.2 192.0 9658.4 9543.4 593361 2933176
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Depth Measuring Levels Depth Measuring Levels

• Depths measured in the pressure • Original Rotary Kelly Bushing
surveys are the W/L measured (ORKB) elevation or the Original
depths but there are different Derrick Floor Elevation (ODFE) is
depth measurements levels that the original rig floor elevation for the
should be known. rig that drilled the well. ORKB
ODFE
• MSL: Mean Sea Level. • New Derrick Floor Elevation NDFE
(NDFE) or New Rotary Kelly NRKB
• AMSL / BMSL : Above / Below Bushing (NRKB) elevation is the rig
Mean Sea Level. floor elevation for any rig used later.
• Seabed: is the solid surface of
the earth that lies under the water. MSL MSL
• Water depth is the vertical Kelly
Water depth Water depth
distance between MSL & Seabed.
Seabed Kelly bushing Seabed
• Total Depth (TD) is the deepest
point drilled in the well. Rotary table
TD TD
Drill floor
641 642
Depth Measuring Levels Depth Measuring Levels

• Wireline Zero Level (WZL) @ X-tree • This is a real example with different elevations.
Cap level Below Original Derrick 115
Floor (BODF) is the depth @ which
50
start record depth & measurements. 171
ORKB ORKB
ODFE ODFE
NDFE NDFE
NRKB NRKB
X-tree Cap X-tree Cap
X-tree X-tree
• Sometimes this (WZL) is referred to 5 – 8 ft
581 466
5 – 8 ft
531
the Tubing Head Spool (T.H.S) or T.H.F T.H.F
the Tubing Head Flange (T.H.F). MSL MSL
For W/L depth (581 ft) measured
Water depth @ ODFE. Water depth
Seabed It equals to (466 = 581 – 115) if Seabed
it is measured from MSL.
TD It equals to (531 = 581 – 50) if TD
it is measured from X-tree cap.
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Converting Measured Data to Datum Depth Converting Measured Data to Datum Depth
• What is the Datum depth? • Assuming these 3 wells are drilled in a reservoir as shown below.
• It is an agreed & known reference point depth value measured from • The pressure measured in the 3 wells can not be compared with each
surface of a benchmark in the reservoir to which other measurements others since they measured @ different depths.
are corrected.
• Solution is to define a Datum @ which the measurements are corrected.
• This point may be deepest point, highest point or mid point in the
reservoir.
• It is also may be located @ the average depth of the perforated intervals
in the wells completed in the same reservoir.
-- --
-- --
-- --
A ---- ---- Datum C --- ---
-- --
-- --
--
B ---- ----
-- --
-- --
645 646
Converting Measured Data to Datum Depth Converting Measured Data to Datum Depth
• How are the pressure measurements corrected to the Datum depth? • If the pressure measurements depths are above the datum depth (well−C),
then the pressure is corrected to datum by adding a pressure value to
the measured pressures that is equal to the difference in depths (DD)
multiplied the pressure gradient (DP/DD).
Pressure
Depth
-- -- -- --
-- -- -- --
-- -- -- ΔP --
A ---- ---- Datum C --- --- A ---- ---- Datum DD
ΔD C --- ---
-- -- -- --
-- -- -- --
-- --
B ---- ---- B ---- ----
-- -- -- --
-- -- -- --
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Converting Measured Data to Datum Depth

• If the pressure measurements depths are below the datum depth (well−B),
then the pressure is corrected to datum by subtracting a pressure value
to the measured pressures that is equal to the difference in depths (DD)
multiplied the pressure gradient (DP/DD).
Pressure Gauge Characteristics

Pressure
& Terminologies
Depth
-- --
-- --
-- --
A ---- ---- Datum C --- ---
-- --
-- --
-- DD ΔP
B ---- ---- ΔD
-- --
-- --
649 650
Pressure Gauge Characteristics & Terminologies Pressure Gauge Characteristics & Terminologies
• Before go through the different pressure surveys, we should first know 1. Gauge Accuracy:
some about pressure gauge characteristics & terminologies such as:
• Gauge accuracy is defined as a
1. Gauge Accuracy. deviation in readings between the
2. Gauge Drift. real calibrated pressure in the lab
(Actual Load) & the recorded
3. Gauge Resolution. pressure by the gauge @ a given
4. Gauge Recording Capacity. temperature.
5. Gauge Sampling Rate.
• Accurate gauges such as quartz gauge has the min. deviation.

• There is an acceptable limit for the gauge accuracy as shown in the
gauge certificate above which the gauge must not be used in the
pressure surveys.
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Pressure Gauge Characteristics & Terminologies Pressure Gauge Characteristics & Terminologies
2. Gauge Drift: 3. Gauge Resolution:
• Gauge drifting refers to the ability of pressure gauge to retain its • Resolution of the gauge is referring to the ability of the gauge to detect &
measuring stability over a long period of time without any declining in sense with any small changes or variation in the recorded pressure data
the recorded pressure data away from the real calibrated pressure in during the test.
the lab (Actual Load).
• By another words, it is the minimum pressure change that a gauge can
• Of course, gauges with smaller drifts are preferred. detect & sense.
• The higher the resolution, the smaller pressure changes can be better
detected.
Pressure, psi
Real calibrated pressure

Low drift
Pressure
High drift
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Time, weeks Time
653 654
Pressure Gauge Characteristics & Terminologies

4. Gauge Recording Capacity:
• Gauge recording capacity is referring to how many data points that the
gauge can record & store in its memory during the survey.
• So, when designing a pressure survey, this number should be considered
to avoid any lost of the test periods especially @ late time that describes
the reservoir boundaries.
5. Gauge Sampling Rate:

Pressure Surveys
• Gauge sampling rate refers to how many pressure points to be
recorded in a minute during the pressure survey.
• We design the gauge sampling rate & program the gauge prior to RIH to
follow this design during the survey.
• This design should consider the battery life since it consumes the battery
life (higher sampling rate, less battery life).
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Pressure Surveys Pressure Surveys

• The main objective of the pressure surveys is to measure the current • There are many pressure surveys are used to monitor reservoir pressure
reservoir pressure & to monitor its change with time to define the such as:
depletion rate which in turns help to identify the areas that need
1. Static Pressure Gradient (SPG) survey.
production control & that need injection support / redistribution.
2. Pressure Buildup (PBU) survey followed by the Pressure Transient
• Reservoir pressure measurements monitoring can be done using one of
Analysis (PTA).
the following methods:
− Downhole Permeant Gauges (DHPG) with 3. Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT).
Surface Readout (SRO) monitoring. 4. Gas Wells Deliverability Tests (flow after flow (FAF), isochronal &
− @ some timelapse periods using surface modified isochronal tests).
units with downhole gauges such as:
o Slickline W/L unit with memory gauges
such as used in the static pressure gradient
survey & pressure buildup (PBU) survey.
o Electrical W/L unit with gauges & Surface
ReadOut (SRO) monitoring such as used in
the MDT.
657 658
1− Static Pressure Gradient (SPG) Survey

• Static Pressure Gradient (SPG) survey is one of the most applicable
easy pressure survey since it does not require any complexity or
special equipment.
• Just use downhole memory gauges & close the well for enough time
prior to the survey. Pressure
1− Static Pressure Gradient • The objectives of this survey is to:

► Measure current bottom hole static pressure.
(SPG) Survey ► Define the fluids types inside the wellbore which
TVD Depth
are in equilibrium condition due to shut-in the

well for enough time prior to the survey.
► Locate the contacts between the different fluids
inside the wellbore.
• These contacts should be the same as that inside
the reservoir if the shut-in period was long enough
for fluids stabilization.
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3700
1− Static Pressure Gradient (SPG) Survey 1− Static Pressure Gradient (SPG) Survey
3500
• In this survey, the well is closed enough time (1 – 2 days) prior to RIH • This is a summary of the static pressure gradient survey.
Pressure [psia]
with the memory gauges to downhole to ensure the stabilization for both 3300
Static Grd. Stops 0073
bottom hole static pressure & fluids contacts.

• Then RIH with the memory gauges to the possible deepest point & set or
3100
RIH Static
0053
Pressure
hang the gauges for some few hours @ this depth to measure the bottom
]aisp[ erusserP
Pressure
hole static pressure . 2E+5
0033
• Then start POOH with the memory gauges.
Liquid rate [STB/D]

0
• During POOH do the gradient survey by stopping the memory gauges @

0013
Gradient survey with station stops

some depth stations (normally 5 – 10 stations from the deepest point to
-2E+5
(usually 5 – 10 mins for each stop)
the well head) for approximately 5 – 10 mins for each stop to read the
09:00:00 10:00:00 11:00:00 12:00:00
Date & Time 5+E2
History plot (Pressure [psia], Liquid rate [STB/D] vs Time [hr])
]D/BTS[ etar diuqiL

corresponding pressures @ these depths. Date Time Event
0
24 Feb. 2013 08:27:00 Ambient readings (well was closed on 25 Apr. 2000 @ 13:05:00)
• Then retrieve the memory gauges out of the well & open the well for 24 Feb. 2013 08:28:15 Gauges in lubricator
5+E2-
production again. 24 Feb. 2013 10:20:04 Set gauges in R-nipple @ 10527 ft W.L
24 Feb. 2013 12:46:25
00:00:21 Start POOH with the gauges
00:00:11 00:00:01 00:00:90
• For quick QAQC on the memory gauge measurements just compare the 24 Feb. 2013 12:47:55 Stop @ 10300 ft W.L depth
)]rh[ emiT sv ]D/BTS[ etar diuqiL ,]aisp[ erusserP( t olp yr otsiH
24 Feb. 2013 12:58:45 Stop @ 10000 ft W.L depth This is the pressure to compare
recorded Tubing Head Pressure (THP) by the memory gauge with that 24 Feb. 2013 13:11:35 Stop @ 9000 ft W.L depth with that measured by the surface
measured by the surface pressure gauge located on top of the X-tree pressure gauge located on top of
24 Feb. 2013 00:35:22 Stop @ 1000 ft W.L depth
cap prior to the survey. 24 Feb. 2013 00:50:00 Gauge in lubricator.
the X-tree cap prior to the survey.
661 662
• This is a summary of the data file for a static gradient survey. • But we must use the True Vertical Depth SubSea (TVDSS) data in the
pressure gradient calculations.
• The given depths in the pressure surveys are the W/L measured depths TVDSS 𝚫𝐏 𝚫𝐓
(MD) @ Wireline Zero Level (WZL) @ X-tree cap. MD 𝐓𝐕𝐃𝐒𝐒 = 𝐓𝐕𝐃 − 𝐎𝐃𝐅𝐄 𝚫𝐓𝐕𝐃 𝚫𝐓𝐕𝐃
• Summarize the pressure data in a table like this. Gauge DataGauge Data Calculated TVD data Pressure Temp.
Grd. Grd.
Gauge Data Depth Depth
Pressure Pressure Temprature
Temprature TVD TVDSS
O O
Depth Pressure Temprature W.Z.L. ODFE
psia FO
psia F ft ft psi/ft F / 100 ft
W.Z.L. psia FO 10527 10586
3731.8 3731.8
212.9 212.9 9024 8900 0.066 0.37
10527 3731.8 212.9 10300 10359
3719.4 3719.4
212.1 212.1 8835 8711 0.075 0.74
10300 3719.4 212.1 10000 10059
3700.3 3700.3
210.3 210.3 8581 8457 0.077 0.73
10000 3700.3 210.3 9059 3637.5 204.3 7771 7647 0.076 0.77
9000 3637.5 204.3
9000 3637.5 204.3
8000 8059
3577.3 3577.3
198.2 198.2 6980 6856 0.085 0.78
8000 3577.3 198.2
6000 6059
3451.3 3451.3
186.6 186.6 5499 5375 0.086 0.95
6000 3451.3 186.6
4000 4059
3319.3 3319.3
172.1 172.1 3966 3842 0.083 1.05
4000 3319.3 172.1
2000 2059
3160.9 3160.9
152.0 152.0 2057 1933 0.082 2.81
2000 3160.9 152.0
0 59
2997.5 2997.5
95.8 95.8 59 -65
0 2997.5 95.8
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Temprature, FO
• Let’s consider a data for a well with 3 phase fluids existing in the wellbore.
Pressure, psia
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 0 100 200 300
Note that @ static conditions:
0
• In this case there will be fluid Pressure, psi
BHP = WHP + (Grd. * TVDss) 0 1000 2000 3000
1000 levels @ certain depths in the 0
WHP = 2997 psi
3736 = 2997 + (0.083 * 8900) wellbore depends mainly on the
Gas
2000 percentage of each phase. 1000
GOC @ 1800 Ft TVDss
3000
• Current WHP = 675 psi. 2000
• Extrapolated oil gradient line 3000

4000
gives (WHP = 200 psi) that Oil
Depth, ft (TVDss)
TVD, ft
4000
represents the case if the well is
5000
only filled with oil from the total 5000 OWC @ 5200 Ft TVDss
6000 Temp. grd. depth to surface. Depth, ft Pressure Grd.

Avg. gradient TVD.SS psig psi/ft
= 0.87 Fo/ft 6000 675
= 0.083 psi/ft
• Extrapolated water gradient 1804
3186
709
1134
0.02
0.31
7000 4522 1540 0.30
line gives (WHP = 0) that 7000 5199
5865
1773
2094
0.34
0.48 Water
8000
represents the case if the well is 6596
6962
2444
2620
0.48
0.48
BHP = 3736 psi BHT = 213 Fo 8000
7338 2799 0.48
only filled with water from total 7695

8028
2970
3129
0.48
0.48
8326 3271 0.48
9000 depth to surface. 9000

8558 3382 0.48
665 666
1− Static Pressure Gradient (SPG) Survey

Finally, compare these calculated
pressure gradients with the fluids Pressure, psi
specific gravities measured in the 0 1000 2000 3000
0
Lab (should be the same).
Gas
1000
2000
GOC @ 1800 Ft TVDss
Gas
2− Pressure Buildup (PBU)
Oil 3000
Oil
Survey & Pressure
Depth, ft (TVDss)
4000
5000 OWC @ 5200 Ft TVDss Transient Analysis (PTA)

6000
Water
7000
Water
8000
9000
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2− Pressure Buildup (PBU) Survey 2− Pressure Buildup (PBU) Survey

• Pressure Buildup test (PBU) in OIL or GAS producing wells or Pressure • Well test should be designed & planned to meet the required
Falloff test (PFO) in WATER or GAS injection wells using downhole objectives of the test to enable the decision maker for the right actions.
gauges is another type of the pressure surveys to record the continuous
• Most (but not all) well tests follow a sequence of flow periods
measurements of the shut-in bottomhole pressures (Pws) that is acquired
(drawdown).
after produced the well with a constant rate (q) for a period of
production time (tp), then shut-in the well for the buildup period (t). • It is a standard practice to flow the well @ different rates “step rate test”
usually with the same duration & in rate increasing mode.
• Engineers then analyze the responses of pressure change during the
pressure buildup test using pressure transient analysis which is a • Then the final flow period is followed by shut-in period (pressure build
technique based on the mathematical relationships between flow rate, up) to monitor the static reservoir pressure.
pressure & time that give many valuable information about well
• During the flowing period essential parameters are recorded such as:
performance and reservoir behavior & properties such as:
− Oil, gas & water flow rates & fluid samples.
− Average reservoir permeability, degree of permeability heterogeneity.
− Current average static reservoir pressures. − Water Cut (W.C%) & Gas Oil Ratio (GOR).
− Productivity & production potential. − Flowing pressures & temperatures (surface & downhole).
− Skin & formation damage.
− Reservoir size & geometry in addition to boundary shape & distance.
669 670

• This is a typical pressure buildup test consist of sequence of flow • Data obtained during well tests can be used to match & fine tune the
periods (drawdown) followed by shut-in period (pressure build up). inflow performance & the tubing performance models such as Prosper.
• Bottom hole & surface fluid samples collected during the well test give
essential information about:
− Pressure − volume − temperature relationship of the hydrocarbons
that is an essential information for petroleum engineers enabling them
to select the optimum tubing size for the development wells.
− Hydrocarbon chemistry: potential presence of Wax & Asphaltene.
− Water chemistry: to predict scale potential.
− Presence of nonhydrocarbon gasses (Co2, H2s & N2) that is used to
select the propre materials for well completion components & surface
facilities.
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• After shut-in, reservoir pressure will increases & propagate around the • This increase in the reservoir pressure after the shut-in is measured as
wellbore as waves similar to that in case of dropping a stone or water a function of time.
drop in the water.
• Rate of the pressure change with time (DP) is a strong function of flow
rate (q), formation properties, i.e., permeability (k), skin (S) &
boundary conditions (re) as indicated from Darcy’ law.
kh ΔP re
𝐪= 𝐪μβ Ln +𝑆
r rw
• Presence of any barriers inside μβ Ln e + 𝑆 ΔP =
the reservoir such as faults will
rw kh
affect these pressure waves
propagation inside the reservoir.
673 674

• Analysis of the pressure change with time during the shut-in buildup An outline program for the PBU survey includes:
period will give valuable information such as: ► Close the well from wing valve.
► Extrapolated static reservoir pressure (P*). ► R/U wireline unit & the Lubricator, test all before open the well.
► Ability of the reservoir to deliver its fluids (flow capacity “kh”, well ► RIH with the 2 memory gauges (one is a backup for the other) & set
productivity index “P.I” & near wellbore damage or skin factor “S”). inside the completion.
► Reservoir properties (permeability, presence of fractures, dual ► Keep the well closed for 1 – 2 days prior to the test for stabilization
porosity/permeability systems, lateral heterogeneity….. etc.). without any disturbance (optional).
► Reservoir geometry (reservoir drainage area) & boundaries ► Open the well for Flow After Flow (FAF) test (usually @ 3 - 5 different
configurations (faults, constant pressure boundaries …. etc.). choke sizes) in increasing mode (20%, 40%, 60% , 80% & 100%) with
stabilized production rate to avoid any sudden disturbance for the
• By using this information, we can set a suitable remedial action such as: stabilized reservoir regime around the well.
− Rigless stimulation or perforation if formation damage is identified & ► After completing the flow periods, shut-in the well for many days (3 – 10
even, we may need a rig for horizontalization (for tight zones) or days) for the final build up period depending on reservoir permeability.
hydraulic fracturing (for low productivity with potential zones). ► Start POOH with the memory gauges & perform static gradient survey
− Identify the areas that requires production control & that need more station stops (usually 5 – 10 mins for each stop) @ different depths to
injection support or injection redistribution. determine the fluid types & the contacts in the wellbore.
675 676
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• In general, PBU test consists of: • This is a typical PBU test.
Pws-x
− Flowing the well @ a constant flow rate for a period of time (Tp). 3700 Flowing drawdown periods
Pws1
Pre-test @ constant rates (q) Shut-in Buildup period
► Ensure to flow with a constant rate(s) for some period (Tp) that shut-in
3500
(Tp) (Dt)
cause the reservoir to be under a steady state conditions & to period
Pressure
NFA-02 (94224) L #2 [psia]
Pressure [psia]
record the bottom hole flowing pressure (Pwf) during this 3300
stabilized period of production. 3100
RIH
Pwf @ Dt = 0
− Shut-in the well @ time (∆t = 0). 2900 POOH & Static grd. survey
► Shut-in the well for the final build up period (in case of oil
Groups
pre-test survey production #1 build-up #1 (153.8 hr - 110731 data points)
producer) or fall off test (in case of water injection) to record the
Rate
bottom hole shut-in pressure (Pws). 40000
Production [Mscf/D]
Gas rate [Mscf/D]

20000
t1 tx
− Measuring bottom hole pressure increases with shut-in time (∆t). 0
02/04/2013 05/04/2013 08/04/2013 11/04/2013 14/04/2013 17/04/2013
► Study the change in the pressure buildup rate for every time Date & Time
Pressure [psia], Not a unit, Gas rate [Mscf/D] vs Time [ToD]
intervals (slope) that is being affected with the reservoir & fluid q : constant production rate Pwf : bottom hole flowing pressure
properties and geometry. Tp : production time prior to shut-in Pws : bottom hole shut in pressure
677 678
2− Pressure Buildup (PBU) Survey Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

• Declining in the bottom hole flowing pressure (Pwf) during the flowing • Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA) is the analysis of the shut-in
(drawdown) period is an indication of the reservoir volume & bottomhole pressure data acquired in the Pressure Build-up (PBU) survey.
extension as follow:
• This is Horner’s equation which is the fundamental of the well test
1. If it is sharply declines & continue declining during the drawdown analysis for an infinite-acting reservoir.
period, so it is a limited reservoir which may be a closed reservoir
qmb   Tp + D t 
Pws = Pi − 162.6 log 
with small volume. During the buildup, pressures will raise quickly to
the stabilization point. kh   Dt 
Flow rate (q), bpd
(q) is constant
2. But if it is almost stable or Tp

Pws : Shut-in bottom-hole pressure (psi) during the buildup period recorded @
slightly declines, so the each elapsed time (Dt)
Time, hrs
reservoir is relatively huge Production
Pi : Current stabilized static reservoir pressure (psi), NOT the initial reservoir pressure.
Build up
or may be due to strong q : Stabilized flow rate prior to shut-in period (stb/d)
Bottom hole pressure, psi
pressure support from an = Cum. production during the test flow period / Tp
aquifer. During the buildup, (2) µ : Flowing fluid viscosity (cp) b : Formation volume factor (rb/stb)
pressures will take longer (1)
Pwf-2 k : Effective formation permeability to the flowing fluid → keff = kabs * krel
time to stabilize. Pwf-1 h : all net pay thickness (ft) in hydraulic communication with the wellbore, NOT
Pwf Pws only the perforated intervals.
Time, hrs Tp : Stabilized production time (hrs). Dt : Elapsed time since shut-in (hrs)
679 680
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Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA) Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

• In fact, Horner’s equation is a straight-line equation with a constant • But how (m) is constant while both
slope (m) & intersect with Y-axis @ value of (a). (b o) & (mo) change with pressure?
• This is because from fluid PVT
qmb   Tp + D t  This is Horner
Pws = Pi − 162.6 log  analysis we have:
kh   D t 
time (hrs)
2.0
− Above bubble point pressure (Pb), 1.8

bo
Bo, res bbl/STB

decreasing of reservoir pressure 1.6 Pb
Y with time causes (b o) to increase
Y = a ‒ mX & (mo) to decrease till the (Pb).
1.4
a 1.2
− Below bubble point pressure (Pb), 1.0

162.6 𝑞𝜇𝛽 1.1 pb
𝒎= m
(b o) start decreasing & (mo) start
increasing. 0.9 mo
𝑘ℎ
mo, cp
X • So, multiplying of almost equal 0.7
• (Dt) in Horner’ equation is the cum. elapsed time (hrs) @ each time step
opposite slopes (m b ) = constant 0.5
for each recorded value of (Pws) since shut-in the well for buildup. Pb
0.3
• ((Tp + Dt) / Dt) in Horner’ equation is called Horner time (hrs). 0 2000 4000 6000
• When (Dt) INCREASE, Horner time ((Tp + Dt) / Dt) DECREASE. Pressure, psig
681 682

Horner work: Horner work:
• This is typically PBU test & this is the initial shut-in bottom hole • This is a summary for the data collected
pressure (Pws) value immediately @ the time (Dt = 0) when the well was during PBU test. Time Dt PWS DP
hrs hrs psi psi
closed for PBU.
• t1, t2, t3, …… , tn-1, tn are the elapsed
• This bottom hole pressure (P ws) value is used to calculate the (DP) values times since shut-in (hrs). t1 t 1 - t1 Pws-1 Pws-1 - Pws
@ any time (tx) → (DP = Pws-@ tx − Pws). t2 t 2 - t1 Pws-2 Pws-2 - Pws
• Pws-1, Pws-2, Pws-3, …… , Pws-n-1, Pws-n are
the bottom hole shut-in pressures t3 t 3 - t1 Pws-3 Pws-3 - Pws
Pressure
2310
recorded @ each elapsed time.

2290 ----- ----- ----- -----
Pressure [psig]
2270
• (Pws) is the INITIAL shut-in pressure ----- ----- ----- -----
Pws immediately after close the well which is
tn-1 tn-1 - t1 Pws-n-1 Pws-n-1 - Pws
2250
the same as the FINAL bottom hole

4000
flowing pressure directly before shut- tn t n - t1 Pws-n Pws-n - Pws
in the well.
Rate Liquid rate [STB/D]
2000
Production Build up
• Horner plotted the shut-in pressures (Pws) recorded @ the elapsed
times (Dt) on Y-axis vs. Horner time ((Tp + Dt) / Dt) on X-axis.
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Elapsed time, hrs

Time [hr]
History plot (Pressure [psig], Liquid Rate [STB/D] vs Time [hr])
683 684
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• This is Horner work presented on a normal Cartesian plot. • This is typically a Horner plot on a Semi-Log paper where Horner time
((Tp + Dt) / Dt) is on X-axis & the shut-in pressures recorded @ the
• Results will give a meaningless plot because Horner’s equation is a
Horner Plot (Semi-Log)
elapsed times (Dt) is on Y-axis.
Horner
logarithmic equation so it should be Plot (Semi-Log)
plotted on a Semi-Log plot. 5000
5100
162.6 𝑞𝜇𝛽
𝒎=
4900 4800 𝑘ℎ
4700 4600
Curved shape is due to wellbore

psi
psi
4500
Straight line with storage (after production effect)
, psi
4400
P ,, psi
constant slope (m) which is proportional to well fluid
Pws,
ws
4300
Pws
Pws
4200 until end of the test properties & well depth
4100
4000
3900
3700 3800 Horner time INCREASES while (Dt)

DECREASES in this direction
3500
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 3600
p + Dt) / Dt (T + Dt) / Dt
(T + Dt)/Dt 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
(Tp
(Tp +pDt)/Dt
685 686

• Horner showed that the slope (m) should be measured @ the straight-line • Horner showed that:
portion of the relationship. − When the shut-in time (Dt) is too long compared to the production time
− The slope (m) is calculated per logarithmic cycle, i.e. (1 to 10, 10 to (Tp) during the flowing period (theoretically to infinity time, i.e., Dt = ∞)
100, 100 to 1000 … etc.) & this is because the relationship between then ((Tp + Dt) ≈ Dt) then value of Horner time @ the end of the buildup
the shut-in pressures & the Horner time is a logarithmic relationship. is ((Tp + Dt) / Dt) = (1) → Log (1) = (0).
− The slope (m) is measured directly from Horner plot as difference
qmb   Tp + D t 
between any successive two pressure readings @ any logarithmic cycle Pws = Pi − 162.6 log 
for Horner time, i.e. (pressure @ Horner time of (10) – pressure @ Horner kh   Dt 
time of (1) or pressure @ Horner time of (100) – pressure @ Horner time
of (10) … etc. considering that the cycle is related to the straight-line − That mean the term Log ((Tp + Dt) / Dt) in Horner’s equation is ZERO &
portion of the relationship. the equation become → Pws = Pi
− This is because the difference between any two successive Horner time − So, extrapolation of Horner time to Horner time = ((Tp + Dt) / Dt)) = (1)
values of the logarithmic cycle is always equal to (1). will intersect with Y-axis @ the estimated current static reservoir
pressure (P*) (not the initial reservoir pressure during the discovery).
➢ For Log cycle#1 → Log(10) – Log(1) = (1 – 0) = 1
− This estimated extrapolated (P*) is useful to estimate the current
➢ For Log cycle#2 → Log(100) – Log(10) = (2 – 1) = 1
static reservoir pressure in low permeability reservoirs that requires
➢ For Log cycle#3 → Log(1000) – Log(100) = (3 – 2) = 1 long shut-in time for stabilization that cause lost of production.
687 688
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This is how the slope (m) & the extrapolated (P*) are estimated from Horner • Another presentation of the pressure buildup data is the Semi-Log plot
plot where it should belong to the straight-line portion of the relationship. where instead of using Horner time ((Tp + Dt) / Dt), we plot the logarithmic
Horner Plot (Semi-Log) value of elapsed time {Log (Dt)} on X-axis vs. the shut-in pressures (Pws)
5100 recorded @ elapsed times (Dt) on Y-axis that give a mirror image plot of
P* = 4980 psi Horner plot. Semi-Log Plot (Shut-in)
4900 5100
4780
4700 4905
4900
4580 4705
psi
4700
4500 Boundary
Pws,, psi
psi
4380 4500 Effect
4300
P ,, psi
Pws
m = 4980 – 4780 = 200 psi/cycle
ws
4300
Pws
4100
m = 4780 – 4580 = 200 psi/cycle 4100
3900
m = 4580 – 4380 = 200 psi/cycle 3900 m = 4905 – 4705 = 200 psi/cycle
3700 3700 (Dt) INCREASES in this direction
while Horner time DECREASES
3500 3500
0.001 0.010 0.100 1.000 10.000 100.000
+ Dt) / Dt
1 10 100 1000 10000
(T
(T +pDt)/Dt
p
Elapsed time (Dt), hrs
Elapsed times (Dt), hrs
689 690

• Another presentation of the data is the Log-Log plot, in this case we Horner & Semi-Log plots are divided into 3 main regions:
plot on a log-log plot the elapsed time (Dt) on X-axis vs. the change in
the down hole shut-in pressure (DPws) on Y-axis. I. ETR (Early Time Region).
• This plot helps to estimate the time @ which wellbore storage effect due II. MTR (Middle Time Region).
to borehole fluids Log-Log
compressibility
plot stop & the reservoir effect start. III. LTR (Late Time Region).
10000
Line with unity Time Dt PWS DP

slope, q = 45o hrs hrs psi psi
1000
t1 t1 - t1 Pws-1 Pws-1 - Pws
, psi
P ,- Ppsi
wf
t2 t2 - t1 Pws-2 Pws-2 - Pws

DPws ws
100 t3 t3 - t1 Pws-3 Pws-3 - Pws
----- ----- ----- -----
10
Time @ which wellbore ----- ----- ----- -----
storage ended
tn-1 tn-1 - t1 Pws-n-1 Pws-n-1 - Pws
tn tn - t1 Pws-n Pws-n - Pws

1
0.001 0.010 0.100 1.000 10.000 100.000
Dt, hrs
Elapsed times (Dt), hrs
691 692
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Horner & Semi-Log plots are divided into 3 main regions: Horner & Semi-Log plots are divided into 3 main regions:
• First region (I) − Early Time Region Horner plot • Third region (III) − Late Time Horner plot
(ETR): is dominated by the wellbore Region (LTR): is the reservoir III
effect. II boundaries effect.
► Analysis for this period give the I ► This late time region begins when
skin and the wellbore storage. the radius of drainage (rd) has
reached the boundaries.
• Second region (II) − Middle Time
Region (MTR): is the transient ► Analysis for this region give some
region inside the reservoir which is Semi-log plot imagination about the boundary Semi-log plot
III
known as Middle part & mainly conditions, is it a fault, constant
describes the radial flow regime II pressure boundary, if there is
period inside the reservoir I some lateral change in the
(represented by the straight line on reservoir properties ... etc.
Horner or semi-log plots).
► Analysis for this region mainly
gives an estimation value of (k).
693 694

Permeability (k) estimation from Horner analysis: Permeability (k) estimation from Horner analysis:
• It is known from Darcy’s equation that the relationship between flow rate • From Horner analysis & based on this qmb   Tp + D t 
(q), pressure drawdown (DP), permeability (k) & reservoir thickness (h) is equation, slope (m) of the straight-line Pws = Pi − 162.6 kh log 
  D t 
given by: portion of the relationship is given by:
0.00708 𝒌𝒉 𝑷𝒘𝒔 − 𝑷𝒘𝒇 162.6 𝑞𝜇𝛽 Y = a ‒ mX

𝒒= 𝒎= Horner Plot (Semi-Log)
𝒓 𝑘ℎ
𝝁𝜷 𝐿𝑛 𝒆
5100
𝒓𝒘 4900
162.6 𝑞𝜇𝛽
𝒎=
4700 𝑘ℎ
• So, the permeability (k) can be calculated from Darcy’s equation using the
162.6 𝑞𝜇𝛽
𝑘ℎ =
4500
Pws, psi
pressure drawdown (DP) during the PBU @ flow rate (q) by this equation: 𝒎 4300
4100
𝒓 kh → Flow capacity or
𝒒𝝁𝜷 𝐿𝑛 𝒆 reservoir conductivity. 3900
𝒓𝒘
𝒌= 3700
0.00708 𝒉 𝑷𝒘𝒔 − 𝑷𝒘𝒇 fh → Storage capacity 3500

1 10 100 1000 10000
(storativity). (Tp + Dt)/Dt
695 696
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Skin factor (S) estimation from Horner analysis: Skin factor (S) estimation from Horner analysis:
• Skin factor (S) is a DIMENSIONLESS quantity • In fact, skin effect is not only attributed to formation damage but all the
describes the damage or enhancement near-wellbore conditions that deviate from the homogeneous radial flow.
which is created due to either a reduction or
• Total skin factor (S) that is calculated from PBU analysis is also known as
an increase in the permeability of the skin
effective or apparent skin which is a sum of several skin components.
zone around the wellbore.
• This skin zone can extend from a few inches ℎ
to several feet away from the wellbore to 𝑆 = 𝑆 + 𝑆𝑝𝑝 + 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐 + 𝑆𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏 + 𝑆2−𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠
inside the reservoir. ℎ𝑤 𝑑
• Thus, the permeability nearby the wellbore is always different than that 1.000 1.000
is away from the wellbore where the formation has not been affected by 0.800 0.800
drilling fluid invasion or stimulation. 0.600 0.600
Krw
Kro
0.400 0.400
• Skin could be caused by several reasons. Zw

0.200 0.200
0.000 0.000
• The common is skin due to damage that causes more pressure drop
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Sw %
Kro Krw
Skin due to Skin due to partial Skin due to

(DPskin) around the wellbore that in turns decrease the bottom hole flowing damage or penetration (flow Skin due to inclination
turbulence flow
Skin due to 2
pressure (Pwf) & hence well productivity is affected. stimulation convergence) of the deviated wells phase flow
(in gas wells)
697 698

• The common skin is the skin due to damage that causes more pressure
ℎ drop (DPskin) occurs within the altered (damaged) region around the
𝑆 = 𝑆 + 𝑆𝑝𝑝 + 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐 + 𝑆𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏 + 𝑆2−𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠
ℎ𝑤 𝑑 wellbore that in turns decrease the bottom hole flowing pressure (Pwf) &
Skin hence well productivity is affected.
→
• These skin components may be either (-ve) or (+ve) Pressure Pwf-ideal (without skin)
based on nature of the skin. − 0 +
Pr
S : total skin factor of the system (Static reservoir pressure)
Sd : skin due to damage or stimulation

Wellbore
h : total zone thickness
hw : partial perforated zone thickness Damaged kskin DPskin (Pressure drop across the Skin)
Spp : skin due to partial penetration (flow convergence) zone
Sinc : skin due to inclination of the deviated wells Undamaged
Sturb : pseudo skin due to turbulence (in gas wells) zone (k) Distance from well center (r)
S2-phases : skin due to two phases flow Pwf-actual (with skin)
699 700
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• Extra pressure drop (DPskin) due to formation damage. • Extra pressure drop (DPskin) due to formation damage.
701 702

• Extra pressure drop (DPskin) due to formation damage can be eliminated • The altered region around the wellbore affecting the well radius that act
by any of the stimulation techniques that results in less pressure drop. with the reservoir with different apparent well radius than what it has
(higher in case of stimulation & lower in case of damage).
Pressure profile before entering the altered (stimulated or damaged) zone
Improved (k)
DP < 0
Altered Non-
DP > 0
Reduced (k) region Altered
region
rw
rskin
703 704
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31/03/2023

• But why do we always say that skin is good when • Note that skin can be positive to infinity, but negative to about (-6),
it is (-ve) value & it is bad when it is (+ve) value? possibly (-7). The theoretical minimum is (-8).
0.00708 𝒌𝒙𝒉 𝑷𝒘𝒔 − 𝑷𝒘𝒇
• The answer is from Darcy equation. 𝒒𝒙 = 𝒓
𝝁𝒙𝜷𝒙 𝐿𝑛 𝒆 + 𝑺
Mathematically: 𝒓𝒘
• When (S) is (-ve), the denominator decreases & the value of (qx)
increases that means that productivity is higher than the zero-skin case
such as in case of enhancement of production by stimulation.
• When (S) is (+ve), the denominator increases & the value of (qx)
decreases that means that the productivity is lower than the zero-skin
case such as in case of reduction of permeability around the wellbore
due to damage during drilling by mud invasion.
• When (S) is (0), the denominator is not affected & the value of (qx)
stabilizes such as if there is no alternation in the permeability around
the wellbore.
705 706

• What is the optimum skin factor? • Horner analysis for the pressure build up data gives an estimation for the
total skin factor (S) which is calculated from this equation.
• No skin factor is optimum, but we should aim to the lowest possible
skin value, the negative skin is even better. 𝐏𝟏𝐡𝐫 − Pwf k ro
𝐒 = 1.151 − Log 2 + 3.23
• The table below shows some typical skin factors. m ∅ uo Ct rw
• P1hr is the bottom hole static pressure after (1) hour of shut-in the well for
Horner Plot (Semi-Log)
the build up (psia). 5000
P1hr
• In Horner plot, it is the shut-in 4800
pressure @ time "Dt = 1 hr" 4600

P1hr
equivalent to "Log (Tp + 1)" on
Pws, psi
4400
Horner time. 4200
• It should be measured @ the 4000

Log (Tp+1)
straight-line portion or the 3800
extrapolated straight line in the 3600

1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
relationship on the plot. (Tp + Dt)/Dt
707 708
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Wellbore Storage (Cs) estimation from Horner analysis: Wellbore Storage (Cs) estimation from Horner analysis:
• WellBore Storage (WBS) effect was introduced by Van • Fluids segregation cause the WBS to vary with time.
Everdingen & Hurst in 1949.
• WBS effect can be minimized by using the downhole
• WellBore Storage (WBS) effect occur immediately after shut-in tool.
shut-in the well from surface since flow from the reservoir
• WBS value (Cs) measured in bbl/psi & time when it is
does not stop immediately but continues @ a slowly
ended (twbs) measured in hrs are calculated as follow.
diminishing rate until the well pressure stabilizes
(equilibrium height in the wellbore) & there is no more Awb qβ ∆t 170,000 Cs e0.14 S
feed from the reservoir to the wellbore. Cs = 25.65 = ∗ t wbs =
ρwb 24 ∆P kh/μ
• Value of the WBS referring to how long the effect of
− Awb: wellbore area, ft2
shut-in the well from the surface for the pressure build- − rwb: wellbore fluid density, lbm/ft3
up test will continue compressing the existing fluids in − b : formation volume factor, bbl/stb
the wellbore before reaching stabilization @ which there − (DP)&(Dt) values are taken from any point on the unit slope line only.
is no more reservoir fluids feed into the wellbore. − S : skin factor
− k : formation permeability, md
• WBS effect is dominated by wellbore fluids type & their − h : formation thickness, ft
compressibilities, tubing size & depth. − m : fluid viscosity, cp
709 710

Wellbore Storage (Cs) estimation from Horner analysis: Wellbore Storage (Cs) estimation from Horner analysis:
• Flow inside the wellbore during the WellBore Storage period is mainly • So, plotting the change in the down hole shut-in pressure (DPws) vs. the
dominated by the compressibility of the existing fluids in the wellbore. elapsed time (Dt) on Log-Log plot will result-in a straight-line relationship
with slope (m = 1 → q = 45o) during the WellBore Storage (WBS) period.
• From the compressibility law we have:
MDH Analysis Plot
Δ𝑉 1 𝑞Δ𝑡 1 𝑞 • Start deviation of this 10000
𝐶= → 𝐶= → Δ𝑃 = Δ𝑡 relationship rather than the

Line with unity slope, q =45o
𝑉 Δ𝑃 𝑉 Δ𝑃 𝐶𝑉 straight line (nonlinear)
1000
• This can be written in the logarithmic form as: reflect that the storage
now is ended & the build
DPws, psi
DPws, psi
Time when wellbore

q up due to the reservoir 100
Log ΔP = Log + Log Δt effect started & the storage ends

VC pressure waves are now  q 
propagating inside the 10
a = Log  

reservoir to reflect the V C 
Y = a + mX
reservoir response for the
• This is a straight-line equation with slope (m = 1 → q = 45o) &
1
pressure buildup. 0.001 0.010 0.100
Dt,Dt,
hrshrs
1.000 10.000 100.000
intersects with Y−axis @ value of (a = q / VC).
711 712
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Drainage Radius (rd) estimation from Horner analysis: Drainage Radius (rd) estimation from Horner analysis:
• Drainage radius (rd) refers to the Pressure Profile • Once the disturbance occurs by changing the
distance @ any certain time (t) that Pe production rate or shut-in the well, the transient
the transient effects caused by these effect caused by pressure waves propagation will
pressure waves propagation will q move from time to time inside the reservoir (r).
travel inside the reservoir. Pwf • The animation below illustrate the idea of pressure
• Well drainage area is the area that is rw rd re waves propagation with time (t) & distance (r).
drained by a well production. Distance
• If several wells drain the reservoir, @ the same distance (r) @ the same time (t)
each well has its own drainage area.
• For the production best practice, rd t = 10 hrs
t = 100 hrs
Pressure
Pressure
t = 1 hr
reservoir engineer should ensure that
t = 0.1 hrs
there will be no interference between
the drainage areas for the adjacent rd t=0
producing wells.
Time (t), hrs Distance (r), ft
713 714

Drainage Radius (rd) estimation from Horner analysis: Drainage Radius (rd) estimation from Horner analysis:
• In fact, drainage radius (rd) is NOT a rd for low (k) • The most common definition for equivalent
constant number around the wellbore. drainage radius (rd) @ any given time (tx) is 𝒌 𝒕𝑥
𝒓𝑑 =
• BUT it varies from direction to another
given by this equation: 𝟗𝟒𝟖 ∅𝝁𝑪𝑡
rd
direction around the wellbore based on the
reservoir properties in that specific direction rd : drainage radius (rd) reached by the pressure waves after shut-in the well
& the overall reservoir heterogeneity. during the build up test @ any given shut-in time (tx), ft
rd for high (k) k : permeability in the area around the well bore and is dominated by the
• Drainage radius (rd) is a function of rock & fluid properties & the shut-in drainage radius (rd), md
time (t) to reach a specific distance in the reservoir away from wellbore. tx : build-up time till disturbance by the pressure buildup waves end, hrs.
− Increasing porosity (f), viscosity (m), or total compressibility (Ct) f : average porosity around the well bore within the drainage radius (rd)
increases the time required to reach a given drainage radius (rd).
m : flowing fluid viscosity, cp
− Increasing permeability (k) decreases the time required to reach a
given drainage radius (rd). Ct : total compressibility = CoSo + CwSw + CgSg + Cf , psi-1
Co, Cw, Cg & Cf : oil, water, gas and formation compressibility respectively
− Changing the rate will change only the drawdown (DP = Ps - Pwf) but
has NO effect on the drainage radius (rd). So, Sw & Sg : oil, water and gas saturations respectively
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Pressure Derivative Analysis: Pressure Derivative Analysis:
• In the previous analysis we knew how to estimate the reservoir pressure • Difference (D): is the change between two values.
& the near wellbore conditions (skin & permeability). ∆𝑥 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏
• But until now we do not know anything about the reservoir
configurations & the boundary conditions.
• Derivative (𝜕): is the rate of 𝑓(𝑥 + Δ𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)
• With time, it was not enough for the engineers to just acquire the data & change between two values. 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝐿𝑖𝑚
then plot it to know some information around the well, but the level of 𝑥→∞ Δ𝑥
knowledge increased & reached beyond what the data showed on
simple plots.
• The new approach go inside the data itself & studied the change in
• Rate of change of a function
pressure change from time step to another time step that is known as f(x) with respect to the changes 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 → 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0
a derivative & to relates this change mathematically & physically with
in one of its variable (x) can be.
reservoir geometry. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 → 𝑓 ′(𝑥) = 1
• Remember pressure difference (DP) is that between any pressure (Pwsx)
@ any time (tx) & the pressure directly prior to shut-in the well (Pws). 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 → 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
717 718

• To apply this for the reservoir, (x) is time (t) & f (x) is the pressure (P). • As mentioned earlier that the Log-Log analysis plot is a graphical
representation plot of the pressure difference (DPx = Pws-x – Pws) vs. the
• Pressure Difference (DP) → is the normal mathematical difference elapsed time (Dt) on a log-log plot.
between two values DP = P2 – P1 → Pws – Pwf
• As in the Log-Log analysis, the pressure derivative is also plotted on a
• Pressure Derivative (𝜕P) → is the change of pressure with respect to Log-Log plot vs. (Dt).
the natural logarithm of time.
𝐏(t + Δt) − 𝐏(t) 𝐏@ (t+Δt) − 𝐏@ (t) 𝐏@ (t2 ) − 𝐏@ (t1 ) DP
𝛛𝐏 = P ′ (t) = Lim = =
t→∞ Δt Δt t 2 − t1
Pressure, psi
𝐏2 − 𝐏1 Δ𝐏
𝜕𝐏 = =
t 2 − t1 Δt
• The derivative equals the pressure derivative with respect to time
multiplied by the elapsed time (Dt) since the beginning of the period.
𝜕 Δ𝐏 𝜕 Δ𝐏 𝜕 Δ𝐏 𝜕P
Pressure derivative = Δ𝐏′ = = Δt =t
𝜕Ln Δt 𝜕t 𝜕t Time, hrs
719 720
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• In mathematics, the derivative @ any point on the curve is the slope of • Applying this concept to all points on the semi-log plot we have:
the tangent to the curve @ this point.
7 Semi-log plot (Horner) Derivative log-log plot
• Applying this concept on the pressure-time relationship, so we can
calculate the derivative @ any point on the (DP – Dt) relationship by 6
calculating the slope of the tangent line to the curve @ this point. 4
5
• Slope = Tan (q) 3
4 5
Skin
Shut-in pressure
2
3 7
2 1 6
q WBS
1
Wellbore
Radial Flow Skin Wellbore storage Skin Radial Flow
storage
• Early Time Region (ETR): on the Semi-Log plot:
0 100 200 300
− Between points 1 – 3 is the WellBore Storage (WBS) effect.
D time − Between points 4 – 5 is the skin effect.
721 722

• Applying this concept to all points on the semi-log plot we have: • Applying this concept to all points on the semi-log plot we have:
7 Semi-log plot (Horner) Derivative log-log plot 7 Semi-log plot (Horner) Derivative log-log plot
Slope = 1 (q = 45o)
6 6
4 Skin 4
5 5
4 3 4 3
5 5
Skin
2 2
3 7 3 7
2 1 6 2 1 6
WBS
1 1
Wellbore Wellbore
Radial Flow Skin Wellbore storage Skin Radial Flow Radial Flow Skin Wellbore storage Skin Radial Flow
storage storage
• Early Time Region (ETR): on the Derivative plot: • Middle Time Region (MTR):
− Because portion of the curve on semi-log plot between points 1 – 6 is − Between points 6 – 7, pressure will buildup inside the reservoir showing
with different slopes, so data on derivative will follow different trends. the reservoir contribution to the pressure transient.
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31/03/2023

6 6
Slope (m) = Const. 4 Slope (m) = Const. 4
5 5 m = const.
4 3 4 3
5 5 Slope = 0
2 2
3 7 3 7
2 1 6 2 1 6
1 1
Wellbore Wellbore
storage storage
• Middle Time Region (MTR): on the Semi-Log plot: • Middle Time Region (MTR): on the Derivative plot:
− Between points 6 – 7, pressure transient response is characterized by − Between points 6 – 7 with constant slope (m) “derivative of constant
a straight line with constant slope (m). = (0)” so it will be a horizontal straight line characterize this period.
725 726

6 6
Slope (m) = Const. 4 Boundary 4
5 m = const. 5
4 3 4 3 Boundary
5 Slope = 0 5
2 2
3 7 3 7
2 1 6 2 1 6
1 IARF 1
Wellbore Wellbore
storage storage
This horizontal portion of the derivative is the main flow regime of interest that is • Late Time Region (LTR): on the Semi-Log & Derivative plots:
called Infinite Acting Radial Flow (IARF) & occurs inside the reservoir after well − Pressure transient disappears once reaching the boundary @ point 7
effects & before reaching the boundaries. It provide the avg. reservoir permeability. & derivative shape will respond to boundary conditions & geometry.
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• Always remember that the selected straight-line portion (highlighted) • The first portion of the derivative line is controlled by the wellbore
on Horner plot corresponds to where the derivative is flat. storage (Cs) effect which is characterized with a unity slope line (q = 45o).
Δ𝑉 1
𝐶=
𝑉 Δ𝑃
q
Log ΔP = Log + Log Δt
VC
Y = a + mX
This s a straight-line Wellbore storage increases
equation with slope in this direction with (Dt)
(m = 1) → (q = 45o).
• Shifting of the derivative towards the right direction (increasing of Dt)
mean that more storage (longer time) was required for pressure waves
until stabilization to start the transient radial flow inside the reservoir.
729 730

• Hump of the derivative curve directly after the early WellBore Storage • From the Darcy equation, value of the skin factor (S) is proportional to
(WBS) is a characteristics & dominated by the skin factor (S). pressure drawdown (DP).
𝐾𝑒𝑓𝑓−𝑥 ℎΔ𝑃
𝒒𝑥 =
Skin increase in this direction 𝑟𝑒
𝜇𝑥 𝛽𝑥 𝐿𝑛 +𝑆
𝑟𝑤 Skin increase
in this direction
Skin decrease in this direction DP
• So, an increase in the vertical distance between (DP) & the derivative
• Generally, this hump tends to move upward when the skin (S) increases lines @ late time corresponds to an increase in the value of the skin
& tends to move downward when the skin (S) decreases. factor (S).
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162.6 qμβ
• From Horner equation, slope @ late time (psi/cycle) = 𝐦 = • Position of this IARF horizontal line on the derivative plot is used to
kh
calculate the permeability (k).
• So, from Horner equation, (m) is inversely proportional with (k).
Horner Plot (Semi-Log) Horner Plot (Semi-Log)
5000 5000
4800 4800
4600 4600
(m) increases & (m) increases &

Pws, psi
Pws, psi
4400 4400
m (k) decreases in m (k) decreases in

4200
4000
this direction DP 4200
4000
this direction DP
3800 3800
3600
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
3600
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 IARF
(Tp + Dt)/Dt (Tp + Dt)/Dt
Value of the slope (m)

• So, an increase in the vertical distance between (DP) & the derivative • If this horizontal line moved upward, it means 162.6 qμβ
lines @ late time corresponds to a decrease in the permeability (k). that the slope (m) increases, & the permeability 𝐦=
(k) decreases & vice versa. kh
733 734

• Summary of the different signatures on the derivative plot. • Derivative shape will respond to:
(S) increase or (k) decrease − Reservoir geometries (is it homogeneous, double porosity, two layers
Unity slope line (q = 45o) or composite reservoir).
(S) decrease or (k) increase
(C) or (S)
− Boundary configuration & conditions (is it infinite, faulting system,
increase closed system or constant pressure boundaries).
• It was found that, each reservoir geometry & boundary configuration or
(C) or (S) condition has its own effect on the derivative shape.
decrease
• For this reason, many models were developed in order to match the
derivative of the measured data that help in identifying the reservoir
(C) decrease
geometry & the boundary configuration conditions.
(C) increase (k) decrease
IARF
Horizontal straight line

(k) increase characterize the radial flow
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Derivative shapes Derivative shapes
1− Homogeneous Reservoir – Vertical FULL Completed Well: 2− Homogeneous Reservoir – Vertical PARTIALLY Completed Well:
• Homogeneous reservoir has the same (k) • This type of partially perforation
& (f) everywhere in all horizontal directions or partially completion create a
(but may vary in the vertical direction). Spherical or Hemispherical flow
around the wellbore.
• On the derivative plot, the • This cause the flow converges to
Homogeneous reservoir a reduced contact between the
response starts directly after well & the reservoir that create an
ending of WBS & skin effects. extra pressure drop around the
IARF wellbore.
• It is characterized by a horizontal
line that describes IARF inside the • This effect will appear as (-½)
homogeneous reservoir. slope line on the derivative
• k = derivative value & both is a directly after the skin hump.
(-½) slope line on the derivative
function of (m) k = derivative value & both is a function of (m) directly after the skin hump
737 738

3− Homogeneous Reservoir – Horizontal Well: 4− Homogeneous Reservoir – Hydraulic Fractured Well:
• @ early time, after the WBS effect is • Hydraulic fracture acts as a tube connecting
end, an early radial flow develops between the reservoir & the wellbore where the flow
around the horizontal section that gives is perpendicular to the fracture length.
the value of vertical permeability (kv). • Flow regime when the conductivity of the fracture is
• @ middle time, upper or lower finite is called a Bi-Linear flow regime which is a
sealing boundary will act as a flow regime due to.
sealing fault & the derivative will 1. Transient linear flow inside the IARF
deviate upward follows a positive IARF fracture to the wellbore.
half unit slope (+½ slope). +½ slope line 2. Formation linear flow inside
the formation toward the
• @ late time, 2nd radial flow is fracture which is perpendicular
developed inside the reservoir due to surface of the fracture plane.
to flow comes from all directions
that gives the value of horizontal 1st early radial flow around 2nd radial flow in
• On the derivative plot, it is shown as
permeability (kh). the horizontal section (kv) the reservoir (kh) two parallel lines with (¼ slope). ¼ slope lines for Bilinear flow regime
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5− Two (double) Porosity reservoir: 6− Composite Reservoir models:
• Two (double) porosity model • Composite models (Linear or Radial)

refers to the presence of natural are used to model the lateral change Li ri
fractures or fissures inside the away from the wellbore such as.
rock matrix of the entire reservoir.
• Rock matrix is characterized with Linear Composite Model
Linear Radial Composite Model
composite Radial composite
model model
high storativity (fm) & low
permeability (km).
Lateral change in lithology type,
• Fractures or fissures are Fissures system i.e., reservoir permeability (k)
Lateral change in fluid type (m)
characterized with low storativity reproduce again
→
(ff) & high permeability (kf).

→
• On the derivative plot, this valley is

due to pressure support from the This valley is due to pressure support from Lateral change in reservoir Lateral change in all of them (k), (h) & (m)
matrix porosity to the fractures. the matrix porosity to the fractures
thickness (h)
741 742

6− Composite Reservoir models: 7− Constant Pressure boundary:
• Pressure waves propagation through the two regions with different • Constant pressure boundary model is used
mobilities (l1 & l2) of the inner & outer regions will create another when there is a strong aquifer, or a strong
radial flow regime (m2) than the initial radial flow (m1). gas cap expansion that support the reservoir
pressure @ any time.
• On the pressure derivative
plot, the 2nd radial flow regime M>1 • Due to this continuous pressure
(m2) will cause an UPWARD support from the aquifer or the
or DOWNWARD deviation in M<1
m2 gas cap, reservoir pressure will
the pressure derivative. remain constant.
m1 M>1
• (m1 & m2) are slopes of the • Since the derivative of a
straight lines portions on M<1 constant = (0) → this will cause IARF
m2
Horner plot. the derivative shape to strongly
162.2 𝑞 𝛽1 𝜇1 162.2 𝑞 𝛽2 𝜇2 concave downward towards
𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = Time (t) to reach the boundary
𝑘1 ℎ1 𝑘2 ℎ2 zero @ late time.
between inner & outer regions
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8− Fault boundary: 9− Closed-Circle boundary reservoir:
• Faulting system cause breaking of the reservoir • @ early time, before the circular boundary is seen,
section to segments that move either upward or the response corresponds to that of an Infinite
downward ends with forming either transmitting Acting Radial Flow (IARF) system.
or barrier boundaries to fluid flow & pressure
• When the influence of the closed circle boundary is
communication around the reservoir.
seen this (IARF) response is affected.
• In case of a single sealing fault, • On the pressure derivative curve
presence of fault will cause extra for the drawdown test, this type
pressure drop @ late time like if of flow is characterized by a
there is a low permeability there. unity slope line @ the late Unity slope
m2 = 2 m1 time. line
• On the derivative plot, derivative m1
will stabilize @ a 2nd (IARF) value
double that of the 1st (IARF)
period (m2 = 2 m1). Time (t) @ which pressure waves response
due to presence of the fault
745 746

Derivative shapes • This is a summary of the responses of different type of reservoir
boundaries on pressure derivative.
9− Closed-Circle boundary reservoir:
• On the pressure derivative curve for a buildup
test, the pressure stabilizes & then the
derivative curve plunges.
derivative
curve plunges
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3− Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT)

• Main objectives for the reservoir engineer is to know:
1. The initial reservoir pressure for the new exploratory fields.
2. The current reservoir pressure for the developed fields.
3. Estimation of the reservoir fluid mobility & rock permeability.
3− Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT) 4. And to get representative fluids samples for PVT analysis.
• A wireline Formation Testing (FT) tool provide the above information.
749 750
3− Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT) 3− Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT)

• An openhole wireline Formation Testing (FT) tool was introduced early • There are many types (modules) of the MDT tool that provides specific
1955 & since that time it is under development with a new features (RFT functions such as:
then MDT) that help in understanding the reservoir properties.
1. Single-Probes Module
• An electric wire line is used to FT RFT MDT
2. Dual-Probes Module
RIH with the formation testing
tool that is used to send an 3. Pressure Xpress ─ XPT
electrical signals that operate 4. Two Packers Module (Straddle Dual Packers Module)
the tool downhole & to display
the real time data on a screen 5. Cased Hole Dynamic Tester (CHDT) tool
on the surface monitor in the • Let’s see how these modules work & applied in the field.
logging truck.
• Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT)
is the last generation that helps
to obtain current static &
flowing bottom hole pressures
& to sample formation fluids @
the reservoir conditions.
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1- Single-Probes Module: • MDT simply consist of two pistons that are driven from one side of
the MDT tool to force a packer assembly firmly against the
• Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT) tool with a single probe (MRPS)
formation to be tested.
contains of different modules each to provide a specific
function which were not available in the old fashion RFT (Repeat
Formation Tester) tool such as:
1. Pump-out module: to pump the mud filtrate from the
formation until reservoir fluid is identified with the resistivity cell
or Optical Fluid Analyzer (OFA).
2. Fluid Analysis: using Optical Fluid Analyzer (OFA) & Live Fluid Two pistons
Analyzer (LFA) modules for real-time flow resistivity
measurements to differentiate mud filtrate, water,
hydrocarbons during cleanup & sampling
3. Multi Sample Module: Modular Reservoir Multi-Sample module
(MRMS) that has 6 sample bottles each with volume of 450 cc.
753 754

• @ the center of these two pistons, there is a retractable probe • This is the MDT tool in both CLOSED & OPENED positions.
(sealed by rubber packer) that is extended into the formation to
create a pathway between the formation & a chamber inside the
MDT tool to withdraw formation fluids.
Probe
Rubber • When the probe expand against the borehole wall, then a
packer pressure draw-down is applied by opening a chamber & the
pump-out module inside the tool that cause formation fluids
to start flowing through the probe to inside the tool chamber.
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• A quartz pressure gauge measures & records bottom hole • Formation fluids (red arrows) flow
flowing & static pressures. into the probe & into flow lines.
• The fluids are pumped into the
wellbore until they are sufficiently free
of contamination as determined by
downhole fluid analysis (green &
brown cylinders).
• Uncontaminated fluids are directed
into storage bottles (orange) where
the fluids are kept in situ conditions.
Quartz pressure gauge • Multiple samples can be taken on one
trip into the well.
• When all tests are completed, the
samples are brought to surface & are
sent to lab for PVT testing.
757 758

• Once formation fluid move • Then the fluid passes through
from the formation into the tool, the pump out module that to
It will pass through a resistivity divert the mud filtrate
gauge to identify the true outside the tool until get the
Formation Formation
formation fluid rather than the Fluid clean formation fluid before Fluid
borehole mud. sampling.

• Then the formation fluid will • Once the reservoir fluid is
pass through a 20 cc pre-test confirmed by the Optical Fluid
chamber that is connected to a Analyzer (OFA), formation fluid
quartz gauge that measure the flow is diverted to the sample
formation pressure. chamber to be preserved
there.
• Measured pressure by the tool
will equilibrate to the formation • MDT can sample up to 6
→
pressure if the formation is samples (450 cc each) from
→
sufficiently permeable with different points in one run

enough waiting time @ the that are used for the PVT Mud filtrate is pumped out into borehole
measuring point. analysis.
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• Note that pump out continue until remove all the dirty fluids & reach • Pressure differential (DP) between sampling (flowing) pressure &
the clean fluid then start sampling the clean fluids. formation static pressure coupled with the flow rate (q) which is
equivalent to the total recovered fluid volume divided by sampling
time during the test is sufficient to estimate the formation permeability
(k) as defined by Darcy law.
𝐪=
total recovered fluid volume 𝟓𝟔𝟔𝟎𝑞 𝜇
time 𝑘=
k : Formation Permeability, md.
Δ𝑃
q : Flow rate, cc/sec.
µ : Fluid viscosity (mud filtrate or formation fluid viscosity), cp.
DP : Final pressure drawdown before shut-in, psi.
• Since formation permeability (k) & flow

𝑞 0.00708 𝑘ℎ
rate (q) are calculated then well 𝑃. 𝐼 = =
productivity index (P.I) can be roughly Δ𝑃 𝜇 𝛽 𝐿𝑛 𝑟𝑒
estimated. 𝑟𝑤
761 762

2- Dual-Probes Module: 2- Dual-Probes Module:
• MDT dual-probe module (MRDP) is • Without moving the MDT string,
used to determine both horizontal & expand the second probe against
vertical permeability & to conduct a zone#2 & drawdown it for some time.
vertical interference testing to
• Start to drawdown zone#1 again
determine near-wellbore permeability
while continue drawdown zone#2
anisotropy.
meanwhile monitor the pressure
• It is equipped with TWO PROBES response for zone#2.
separated with some distance
• Change of pressure responses
allowing testing of tow zones @ the
indicate that there is a vertical
same time.
communication between the zones.
• The interference test starts by setting
& expanding one probe against
zone#1 & drawdown it till finish the
normal test procedures then close the
pumps against this zone.
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3- Pressure Xpress ─ XPT: 4- Two Packers Module (Straddle Dual Packers Module):
• This tool is a unique type of MDT which is slim & short in length (3 – 5 ft) • In some cases, normal MDT with one probe module (MRPS) has some
that was developed to be combined with the open hole logs string to limitation such as in case of:
measure the current reservoir pressure @ any point in the formation ► Naturally fractured reservoirs when
during recording the open hole logs (reservoir pressure while logging). the packer set against the fractures,
• It contains only a probe & one chamber with volume of 50 cc that is used seal is lost.
only to record pressure without collecting any formation fluid sample. ► Thin laminated reservoirs where it is
difficult to set the probe @ the
required certain depth.
► Low permeability reservoir, i.e., low
mobility (k/m < 0.5 md/cp) where filling
the chambers through the normal
single probe requires very long time.
• MDT with single probe will not properly work in the above conditions,
so MDT dual packer module was developed for such application.
765 766

4- Two Packers Module (Straddle Dual Packers Module): 5- Cased Hole Dynamic Tester (CHDT) tool:
• MDT dual packers module consist of two • The Schlumberger Cased Hole Dynamics Tester (CHDT) tool is a
inflatable upper & lower packer elements that technologically advanced tool capable of measuring multiple pressures
seal against the borehole wall to isolate an measurements & sampling fluids behind a cased wellbore.
interval required for the test. Upper • The CHDT cased hole dynamics tester conducts multiple pressure &
Packer
• Length of the test interval between the two collects fluid samples behind the casing in a well.
packers is (3.2 ft) & can be extended to (11.2 ft). • @ every single point of measurement, the CHDT tester do the following:
• For the (3.2 ft) test interval, the bore isolated Suction − Drills through a casing & into the formation.
interval area for test is about 3000 times larger Valve
− Performs multiple pressure measurements.
than that of the single probe module resulting
in much more area to be subjected to flow. − Recovers fluid samples.
• MDT dual packer module can also be used to Lower
− Effectively plugs the hole made in the casing to restore pressure
create micro hydraulic fractures by pumping Packer integrity.
borehole fluids into the test interval that can be • In a single run, the CHDT tester can drill up to six holes (one per
pressure tested to determine the min. in-situ station) and @ each station perform multiple pressure tests & acquire
stress magnitude. multiple high-quality fluid samples.
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5- Cased Hole Dynamic Tester (CHDT) tool: Problems during the MDT test:
• This is the MDT Cased Hole Dynamic Tester (CHDT) tool. 1. Packer seal lost:
• Due to bad hole conditions (caving or washout), the packer is set
against non isolated area and the recorded pressure is always equal
to the borehole mud hydrostatic pressure.
2. Supercharged formation:
• In low permeability zones due to exposed for the borehole mud
hydrostatic pressure for long time during drilling, the mud invaded
pressure will be retained in such low permeability zones.
• So, the pressure measured against this tight zones is relatively higher
than the offset points in the same reservoir unit, & it requires very long
time to stabilize to the real reservoir pressure value known from the
offset points.
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Problems during the MDT test: How to select MDT Pressure & Sampling Points:
3. Tight permeability zone: • Selection of the MDT measuring points play the main role to find fluid
properties, formation pressure, reservoir connectivity & permeability.
• Occurs when we spent long time against the formation & retracted the
probe several times without success to move enough volume of the • Selection of the MDT measuring points starting with looking to the open
formation fluids into the chambers to measure the reservoir pressure. hole logs to define the required depth to measure the reservoir pressure
& sampling points to collect representative formation fluid samples.
• This is of course will consume the rig time and cost if we continue
sampling @ such points. • Avoid depths that have bad hole conditions (caving or washout) as
detected from the caliper log to avoid seal lost.
4. Probe Plugging:
• Ensure that the selected depths are representative for the information you
• After setting the packer & expanded the probe towards the formation, want from the readings (i.e., if you want to detect for barrier try to select
there is no pressure recorded. some considerable points above & below the expected barrier depth to
• Unset the packer & move upward or downward to another location to obtain representative gradients showing the continuity).
measure but also still there is no pressure recorded. • Try to optimize the sampling points as it consumes the rig time.
• in this case the probe may be plugged with the mud cake or any of the
formation flow back materials specially in the loose formations.
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Analysis of MDT Pressure & Sampling Data: MDT Pressure Data:
Mud Hydrostatic Reservoir Test
• MDT data files comes from the service company contain this data @ Depth
MD (ft/kb)
Pressure
psi
Pressure
psi
Mobility
md/cp
Permeability Remarks
md
every tested depth: 8661 4225 3530 0.4 Tight Permeability
8664 4226 3531 9.5 5 Poor Permeability
− Measured depths (ft/kb) 8666 4227 3532 103.3 33 Very Good Permeability
8668 4228 3532 285.7 44 Excellent Permeability
− Measured Mud hydrostatic pressure 8671 4230 4230 78 22 Seal lost (recorde reservoir presure = mud hydrostatic pressure)
8674 4231 3534 1.1 0.1 Tight Permeability
− Measured Reservoir pressure 8680 4234 3561 4.4 1 Poor Permeability

8681.5 4235 3561 1.7 0.3 Poor Permeability
− Estimated Test Mobility 8683 4235 3562 16.8 2 Good Permeability

− Estimated Test permeability 8726 4257 3600 5.2 2 Poor Permeability

8734 4261 3602 Tight zone (long time and the pressure nit reach the expected reservoir presure)
8738 4263 3603 7.5 1 Poor Permeability
8742 4265 3605 147 12 Very Good Permeability
8746 4267 3606 0.2 Very Tight
8750 4269 3607 32.9 3 Good Permeability
8754 4271 3609 54.2 3.6 Good Permeability

8759 4273 3611 22.5 2.1 Good Permeability
8761 4274 3612 108 4.2 Very Good Permeability
8763 4275 3613 58.1 14 Good Permeability
773 774

MDT Sampling Data: Analysis of MDT Pressure & Sampling Data:
MD
Date: Time Start
Time Pumping
Total
Volume
Formation
Press
Flowing
Press
Expected • Convert all test depths to True Formation pressure
ft/kb Finished Time (min) Contents
(litres) (psia) (psia) Vertical Depths subsea (TVD/ss).
8663 10-Jan-09 0:09 9:30 122 2670 3531 3432 Oil
8674 10-Jan-09 12:00 14:50 88 1333 3534 3446 Oil • Define the zonation (which group of
8682 10-Jan-09 15:35 21:00 88 233 3561 3450 Water + Oil points are related to the same zone).
Depth (TVD/ss)
8729 11-Jan-09 13:30 18:15 151 1193 3601 3523 Oil
8735 12-Jan-09 1:02 3:30 125 33 3602 3517 Oil+Gas

• Plot the MDT measured reservoir
8751 12-Jan-09 5:46 8:30 120 22 3607 3523 Oil+Gas
pressures values vs. the True
Vertical Depths subsea (TVD/ss) to Gas Oil Contact
define the fluid gradients then fluids (GOC)
• For data quality check:
contacts inside the reservoir which
− Mud hydrostatic pressure data should be plotted vs. depth to are the intersection points between
calculate the equivalent mud weight then to be compared to the two different gradient lines.
actual mud weight in hole while recording the MDT pressure data.
− Compare the lab-measured core permeability data with that is Free Water Level
estimated from the MDT test to ensure consistency. (FWL)
775 776
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31/03/2023

Analysis of MDT Pressure & Sampling Data: Analysis of MDT Pressure & Sampling Data:
• Calculate the pressure gradient between every two successive points • This is a schematic shows the pressure gradients for two well in different
which is the difference in pressures between these two points divided reservoirs where the Gas Water Contacts (GWC) can be easily identified.
by the True Vertical Depths subsea (TVD/ss) @ these two points.
• Note that, water gradient line is the same for the two wells since they are
connected with the same aquifer while the gas gradient lines for the
𝑃2 − 𝑃1 two-gas reservoir are not the same since they are located in different
𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝑝𝑠𝑖/𝑓𝑡) = reservoirs however, they are parallel indicating the same gas gradient.
𝑇𝑉𝐷2 − 𝑇𝑉𝐷1 Depth
Well-1 Well-2
(TVD/ss) Pressure plot
• Pressure gradient calculated from MDT data help to identify fluid types. Gas
GWC
• Pressure gradient calculated between points that have berries between Water
them should be removed form the graphs because it is inconclusive GWC Gas
since the barriers break the continuity of the fluids.
Water
Formation pressure
777 778

Analysis of MDT Pressure & Sampling Data: Analysis of MDT Pressure & Sampling Data:
• The mobility value (m) @ every depth is • It is better to combine pressure & gradient plots with the open hole
𝑞 ∗ 𝐿𝑛(𝑟𝑒 /𝑟𝑤 )
calculated using Darcy’s equation. 𝑘/𝑢 = logs in one presentation to compare the calculated parameters from
0.00708 ∗ ℎ ∗ (𝑃𝑠 − 𝑃𝑤𝑓 ) MDT with the real formations recorded by the open hole logs.
Reservoir pressure Porosity Log Resistivity Log
• But since the term of Ln(re/rw) is almost
𝑞
approximately equal to (7) & if (k) is in 𝑘/𝑢 =
Depth, TVD
Depth, TVD
Darcies, so the above equation becomes. ℎ(𝑃𝑠 − 𝑃𝑤𝑓 )
• Well Productivity Index (P.I) can GOC GOC
be calculated either by means of 𝑞

the production data (q & DP) or 𝑃. 𝐼 = (𝑃 −𝑃 = 𝑘/𝑢 * ℎ
𝑠 𝑤𝑓 )
by the mobility data, (k/m) while OWC
(k) is in Darcies.
FWL FWL
779 780
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31/03/2023

Analysis of MDT Pressure Data: Analysis of MDT Pressure Data: Reservoir pressure, Grad.,
psi psi/ft
• This is the calculation for the MDT measured pressure data. For zone-I:
→
→
→
Formation Formation
Depth Depth
Mud Hydrostatic Mud Reservoir
Gradient Mobility
Test Core
• Gradient = 0.32 psi/ft → Oil
tops tops Pressure Gradient Pressure Permeability Permeability Remarks
ft/kb ft/ss psi/ft md/cp
ft/kb ft/ss psi psi/ft psi , md , md
Although the two sets of points have Zone#I
8660 8124 8661 8125 4225 3530 0.4 Tight Permeability
8664
8666
8128
8130
4227
4228
0.55
0.55
3531
3532
0.32
0.32
9.5
103.3
5
33
7
35
Poor Permeability
Very Good Permeability
the same gradient, but they are
Zone-I
8668
8671
8132
8134
4229
4230
0.55
0.55
3532
4230
0.32 285.7
78
44
22
33
15
Excellent Permeability
Seal lost (recorde reservoir presure = mud hydrostatic pressure)
geologically separated due to
8674 8137 4232 0.55 3534 1.1 0 Tight Permeability different reservoir pressure values.
8680 8143 4235 0.55 3561 4.70 4.4 1 Poor Permeability
8681.5 8144 4236 0.55 3561 0.33 1.7 0 Poor Permeability
8686 8149 8683 8146 4237 0.55 3562 0.32 16.8 2 Good Permeability For zone-II:
8720 8181 8722 8183 4257 0.55 3600 165.9 30 33 Excellent Permeability
8726 8187 4259 0.55 3600 0.11 5.2 2 Poor Permeability • Gradient = 0.12 psi/ft → Gas
• Gradient = 0.35 psi/ft → Oil
8730 8191 4261 0.55 3601 0.13 1106.7 88 84 Excellent Permeability
→
8734 8194 4263 0.55 3602 0.29 Tight zone (long time and the pressure nit reach the expected reservoir presure)
8738
8742
8198
8202
4265
4267
0.55
0.55
3603
3605
0.32
0.34
7.5
147
1
12
1
15
Poor Permeability
• Gradient = 0.43 psi/ft → Water
Zone-II
8746 8206 4270 0.55 3606 0.37 0.2 Very Tight
8750 8210 4272 0.55 3607 0.37 32.9 3 6 Good Permeability Continuity of the MDT pressure Zone#II →
8754 8213 4274 0.55 3609 0.43 54.2 4 5 Good Permeability
8759 8218 4276 0.55 3611 0.43 22.5 2 1 Good Permeability points even with different slopes
8765 8224
8761
8763
8220
8222
4277
4278
0.55
0.55
3612
3613
0.43
0.44
108
58.1
4
14
3
11
Good Permeability
(different fluids) indicating that they →
• Tight permeability → wait long time without measured flow. all are in a vertical communication
• Seal lost → measured pressure = mud hydrostatic pressure.
• Poor permeability → wait long time to fill the chamber. with each others in one unit.
781 782
3− Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT)

Analysis of MDT Sampling Data:
• This is the calculation for the MDT sampling data.
Estimated
Estimated
Total Formation Flowing Formation flow rate @
MD TVD/ss Pumping Expected K/m P.I rate @
Date: Volume Press Press Thickness sampling
ft/kb ft/kb Time (min) Contents md/cp bbls/day/psi Pwf =
(litres) (psia) (psia) ft (TVD/md) pressure
3000 psi
bbl/day
8663
8674
8127
8137
10-Jan-09
10-Jan-09
122
88
2670
1333
3531
3534
3432
3446
Oil
Oil
16
32
198
137
123.7
48.2
2.0
1.6
1063
832
4− Gas Wells Deliverability
8682 8145 10-Jan-09 88 233 3561 3450 Water + Oil 7 24 30.5 0.2 121
8729
8735
8751
8190
8195
8211
11-Jan-09
12-Jan-09
12-Jan-09
151
125
120
1193
33
22
3601
3602
3607
3523
3517
3523
Oil
Oil+Gas
Oil+Gas
25
6
72
2
36.3
3.5
3.3
0.9
0.0
0.0
551
17
12
Tests
435 2597
𝑞 𝑞 0.00708𝑘ℎ 𝑃𝑠 − 𝑃𝑤𝑓
𝑘/𝑢 = 𝑃. 𝐼 = = 𝑘/𝑢 * ℎ 𝑄 =
𝑟
ℎ(𝑃𝑠 − 𝑃𝑤𝑓 ) (𝑃𝑠−𝑃𝑤𝑓 ) 𝜇𝛽 𝐿𝑛 𝑒 + 𝑆
𝑟𝑤
• Total well flow rate based on sampling drawdown = 435 b/d.

• Total well flow rate based on actual well drawdown = 2597 b/d.
783 784
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4− Gas Wells Deliverability Tests 4− Gas Wells Deliverability Tests

• Opposite to oil, gas behaves in different ways responding to pressures & • So, in the reservoir for gas wells, gas velocity increased near the
temperatures changes. wellbore & if it exceeds the critical velocity, then the turbulent flow will
be developed.
• In this case, the velocity near wellbore is high enough that Darcy’s law is
no longer true & the flow @ this point is called Non-Darcy flow.
Gas • This high velocity & the turbulent flow near the wellbore will create
additional pressure drop to the reservoir pressure (Ps) which in turns
cause more reduction of the bottom hole flowing pressure (Pwf) then less
deliverability.
Oil
785 786

• The diffusivity equation below in the partial differential form that • These are examples showing gas properties change with pressure.
describe the fluid flow through porous media in the reservoir to know
the reservoir pressure & fluid saturation @ any location (r) inside the
reservoir @ any time (t) of production assumes that constant fluid
viscosity (m) & fluid compressibility (Ct) with pressure changes.
𝜕 2 𝐩 1 𝜕𝐩 ∅𝛍𝐂𝐭 𝜕𝐩
𝟐
+ =
𝜕𝐫 𝐫 𝜕𝐫 0.000264 ∗ 𝐤 𝜕𝐭
• In fact, this assumption of constant fluid viscosity (m) & fluid
compressibility (Ct) with pressure changes is NOT valid for gases
since all gas properties are drastically change with pressure.
• In addition to that, gas compressibility factor (z) or deviation term that
is also change with pressure is required to model the real gas behavior
using the Equation of State (EOS) → PV = znRT.
787 788
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• In order to overcome this problem in the diffusivity equation for gas well • This plot shows the pseudo-pressure “m(p)” vs. pressure (p).
testing, the pseudo-pressure function “m(p)” or (real gas potential) is
used instead of real gas pressure for linearization of gas viscosity (m) &
compressibility (Cg) since both varies with pressure.
• In brief, the pseudo-pressure function “m(p)” account for variation in (m)
& (z) or (mz) as a function of pressure.
Viscosity (cp)
𝒑𝟏
𝒑
Z-factor
𝒎(𝒑) = 𝟐 න 𝝏𝒑
𝒑𝟐 𝝁𝒛
Pressure, psia
Variation of compressibility & viscosity of gas as a
function of reservoir pressure (SG = 0.65, T = 200 @oF)
789 790

• Let’s see the difference between Darcy flow & the Non-Darcy flow • This additional pressure drop due to turbulence is known as non-
behaviors. Darcy skin due to turbulence (Sturb.).
• This is a pressure profile for Darcy flow without skin. • This skin due to turbulence (Sturb.) is a rate sensitive & rate dependent,
i.e., it is a function of gas flow rate (q) that is why it is called RATE
• Non-Darcy flow exhibit extra pressure drop (additional skin) due to
DEPENDENT SKIN (increase with rate).
turbulence flow near the wellbore @ higher velocities (high flow rates).
Pressure • That is why multiple flow rates are required to quantify the non-Darcy
Distance skin due to turbulence (Sturb.).
3 2 1
• (+ve) skin usually means damage however it could represent a
stimulated well with turbulence flow (Darcy law no longer applied) that
Pwf occurs in high-rate wells NOT only gas wells.
Mechanical skin (S0)
Pwf
Total skin (S) • So, the total system apparent or effective skin factor (S) that would be
Rate dependent skin (Dq) measured during the buildup test is composed of two main components:
Pwf (D = 𝜕S/ 𝜕q)
► Constant mechanical skin or rate-independent skin (S0).
1- Darcy pressure diffusion profile without skin
2- Darcy pressure diffusion profile with skin ► Rate-dependent skin (Sturb. = q * D = q * 𝜕s/𝜕q).
3- Non-Darcy pressure diffusion profile with skin
791 792
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• For the Rate-dependent skin (Sturb. = q * D = q * 𝜕s/𝜕q) term, (D) is the 𝜕S
• Physical mechanical skin (S0) & Non-Darcy coefficient (D) = can be
non-Darcy flow coefficient or the turbulence factor measured in 𝜕𝒒
(d/MMscf) which is a measure of non-Darcy or turbulent pressure loss estimated from the skin-rate relationship obtained from testing the well
(i.e., an additional pressure drop due to turbulent gas flow to that for some successive flowing & shut-in periods known as isochronal test &
predicted by Darcy's law) which is always (+ve) value. modified isochronal test.
• Total skin (S) = Mechanical skin (S0) + Rate dependent skin (Sturb.)
pR S1 S2 S3 S4
Pressure
4999.98
psia
𝜕S
Pressure [psia]
S = S0 + Dq = S0 + q Pwf1
𝜕q
4999.94 Pwf2
Pwf3
Pwf4
MMscf/
𝜕S S2 − S1
Gas rate [Mscf/D]

D= = q4
qg
d
𝜕q q2 − q1 2.5
q3
1.25
q1 q2 0
0 0 0 0
0
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400 440 480 520
Time [hr]
History plot (Pressure [psia], Gas rate [Mscf/D] vs Time [hr])
793 794

• Then plot the test flow rates vs. each corresponding apparent (pseudo) • The general form of the pseudo-steady state gas flow deliverability
skin factors. equation that is used to predict the bottom hole flowing pressures (Pwf)
values that would be if the pseudo-steady state condition was reached
• Draw the best fit straight line. 3.0 during the test (which of course required long test time) is given by:
• From the plot we can determine: 2.0
− D (d/MMscf): 𝑟𝑒
1.0 𝑞𝑠𝑐 𝜇ǉ 𝑔 𝑍ሜ 𝑇𝑅 𝐿𝑛 − 0.75 + 𝑆0 + 𝐷𝑞
Non-Darcy coefficient equals D 2 2 𝑟𝑤
to SLOPE of the relationship 𝑝ǉ𝑅 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓 =
0.0
0.703 ∗ 10−6 𝑘ℎ
Skin
best fit straight line. S0

-1.0
− S0 (dimensionless): qsc : surface gas production rate, MMscf/d
-2.0
The physical mechanical skin ഥ𝐑
𝐩 : average reservoir pressure in the drainage area @ (re), psia
equals to the INTERCEPT of -3.0 Pwf : bottom hole flowing pressure @ (rw), psia
the relationship best fit straight 0 1 2 3 4 5
So : mechanical skin
line with Y – axis. qg, MMscf/d
𝜕S
D : Non-Darcy coefficient =
𝜕𝒒
795 796
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• This equation can be written in the following form that is known as • The constants (C & n) in Fetkovich’s equation below are defined as.
Fetkovich’s equation.
2 2 𝑛 𝑛 2 2 𝑛 𝑛
𝑞𝑠𝑐 = 𝐶 𝑝ǉ𝑅 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓 = 𝐶 ∆𝑝𝟐 = 𝐶 ∆𝛹 𝑛
𝑞𝑠𝑐 = 𝐶 𝑝ǉ𝑅 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓 = 𝐶 ∆𝑝𝟐 = 𝐶 ∆𝛹 𝑛
2 2 C : gas deliverability coefficient or flow

∆𝛹 = 𝛹ሜ 𝑅 − 𝛹𝑤𝑓 = 𝑝ǉ𝑅 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓 performance constant, (MMscf/d/psia2) 𝐶=
0.703 ∗ 10−6 𝑘ℎ
𝑟
describe the position of the stabilized 𝜇ǉ 𝑔 𝑍ሜ 𝑇𝑅 𝐿𝑛 𝑟𝑒 − 0.75 + 𝑆0 + 𝐷𝑞
𝑤
deliverability line.
𝛹ሜ 𝑅 : pseudo pressure corresponding to (𝑝ǉ 𝑹 )
n : gas deliverability exponent or the turbulent flow exponent that describe
the inverse of the slope of the stabilized deliverability line
𝛹𝑤𝑓 : pseudo pressure corresponding to (𝑝𝑤𝑓 ) It accounts for the observed deviation from the ideal flow behavior due to
turbulence flow which varies between (0.5 < n < 1)
(1) for laminar (Darcy) flow & (0.5) for turbulent (Non-Darcy) flow.
797 798

Absolute Open Flow (AOF): Analysis of gas flow equation:
• Absolute Open Flow (AOF) is theoretical maximum flow rate that could • This is the general form of the pseudo-steady state gas flow
occur if the sandface back pressure (bottom hole flowing pressure “pwf”) deliverability equation.
was reduced to atmospheric pressure (14.7 psia).
2 2 𝑛 𝑛
• Absolute Open Flow (AOF) can be directly calculated from the pseudo- 𝑞𝑠𝑐 = 𝐶 𝑝ǉ𝑅 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓 = 𝐶 ∆𝑝𝟐 = 𝐶 ∆𝛹 𝑛
steady state gas flow deliverability equation using the constants (C & n) &
replacing the bottom hole flowing pressure (pwf) with the atmospheric • There are two ways to analyze this equation:
pressure (14.7 psia).
2 2 𝑛 1. Empirical Method:
A.O.F = 𝐶 𝑝ǉ𝑅 − 14. 7
Re-arrange the equation in a LOGARITHMIC form & find the
• But since the atmospheric pressure value of (14.7 psia) is too much constants (n) & (C) from the slope & the intercept point of the best
smaller compared to the average reservoir pressure ( 𝐩 ഥ𝐑 ) value so fit straight line, respectively.
sometimes the value of 𝑝𝑅ҧ 2 is directly used to estimate the (A.O.F). 2. Theoretical Method:
2𝒏 Re-arrange the equation in a QUADRATIC form & find the quadratic
A.O.F = 𝐶 𝑝ǉ𝑅 constants (b) & (a) from the slope & the intercept of the best fit
straight line, respectively.
799 800
200
31/03/2023

1− Empirical Method: 1− Empirical Method:
• Re-arrange the equation in a LOGARITHMIC form & find the constants 2 2 1 1 1
(n) & (C) from the slope & the intercept point of the best fit straight 𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝑝ǉ𝑅 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓 = 𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝑞𝑠𝑐 + 𝐿𝑜𝑔
line, respectively. 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝐶
2 2
𝑞𝑠𝑐 = 𝐶 𝑝ǉ𝑅 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓 • Slope (a) & the intercept point (b) with Y – axis of this Deliverability
Inflow Performance line is used to determine the constants (n) & (C).
𝟏
− Slope (a) = → “n” describe the inverse of the slope of the
𝒏
stabilized deliverability line.
1 1
2 2 1 1 1 − Log value of the intersection point (b) with Y – axis =
𝑛
𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝐶
𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝑝ǉ𝑅 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓 = 𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝑞𝑠𝑐 + 𝐿𝑜𝑔 → “C” describe the position of the stabilized deliverability line.
𝑛 𝑛 𝐶 • So, in order to establish a straight line, we need @ least two valid test
2
points through which the line may be drawn.
• This equation (Y = aX + b) suggest that a Log–Log plot of 𝑝𝑅ҧ 2 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓 vs.
(qsc) yield a straight line called Deliverability Inflow Performance line. • In general practice it is suggested that 4 – 6 test points be obtained to
minimize the errors & enable to eliminate any bad test point.
801 802

1− Empirical Method: 2− Theoretical Method:
• Test data may be directly plotted on a Log–Log plot or the Logarithm • Again, the general form of the pseudo-steady state gas flow deliverability
values of the data to be plotted on a normal Cartesian plot. equation is given by:
𝑟
100000000 7.5 𝑞𝑠𝑐 𝜇ǉ 𝑔 𝑍ሜ 𝑇𝑅 𝐿𝑛 𝑒 − 0.75 + 𝑆0 + 𝐷𝑞
2 2 𝑟𝑤
10000000 𝟏 𝑝ǉ𝑅 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓 =
Slope =
𝒏 7.0
0.703 ∗ 10−6 𝑘ℎ
1000000
• This gas flow deliverability equation can be written in a QUADRATIC form
Log (P2ws - P2wf), psia2
Best fit deliverability

P2ws - P2wf, psia2
100000 6.5 inflow performance line

𝟏
known as Forchheimer equation as follow:
10000 1 1 Slope = 2 2 2
𝑝ǉ𝑅 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓 = ∆𝑝 2 = ∆𝛹 = 𝑎𝑞𝑠𝑐 + 𝑏𝑞𝑠𝑐
Log (Intersection) = 𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝐶 𝒏
𝑛 6.0
1000
100
5.5
1 1
aqsc : pseudo pressure drop due to laminar flow & well conditions
10 Intersection = 𝑛
𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝐶 𝟐
𝒃𝒒𝒔𝒄 : pseudo pressure drop due to turbulent flow effect
1 5.0
1 10 100 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 𝜇ǉ 𝑔 𝑍ሜ 𝑇𝑅 𝑟𝑒
𝑎= 𝐿𝑛 − 0.75 + 𝑆0 psi2 / (MMscf/d)
qg, MMscf/d Log (qg), MMscf/d 0.703 ∗ 10−6 𝑘ℎ 𝑟𝑤
𝜇ǉ 𝑔 𝑍ሜ 𝑇𝑅
Log–Log plot Cartesian plot 𝑏=
0.703 ∗ 10−6 𝑘ℎ
𝐷 psi2 / (MMscf/d)2
803 804
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31/03/2023

2− Theoretical Method: 2− Theoretical Method:
• Or to find the values of (a) & (b) graphically by re-arranging the flow
2 2 2
𝑝ǉ𝑅 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓 = ∆𝑝2 = ∆𝛹 = 𝑎𝑞𝑠𝑐 + 𝑏𝑞𝑠𝑐 equation in this form: 2 2
𝑝ǉ𝑅 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓
• This quadratic equation (Y = a + bX) = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑞𝑠𝑐
• This is a quadratic equation that can be mathematically solved to
2
suggests that a plot of 𝑝ҧ𝑅2 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓 vs. 𝑞𝑠𝑐
determine the flow rate (q) that is corresponding to any given pressure (qsc) on a Cartesian plot should yield 600000
𝐩𝐑 ) & (pwf).
values of (ഥ a straight-line with slope = (b) &
P2ws - P2wf /qg, psia2/MMscf/d

intercept with Y–axis @ point = (a). 500000
• So, select any two representative stabilized test points & using their
values of (q1 , pwf-1) & (q2 , pwf-2) to mathematically calculate the values • As in the Empirical Method, a best fit 400000
of the two constants (a) & (b). line is drawn through the test points a b
300000
to establish the deliverability inflow
• These are the two equations with two unknown (a) & (b) that can be performance line. 200000
solved together to find the values of the two unknown (a) & (b). Best fit deliverability
• Once the constants (a) & (b) are 100000
inflow performance line
2 2 2 2 2 2 determined, the gas deliverability

𝑝ǉ𝑅 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓 1 = 𝑎𝑞1 + 𝑏𝑞1 𝑝ǉ𝑅 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓 2 = 𝑎𝑞2 + 𝑏𝑞2 (qsc) can be predicted @ any given 0
0 1 2 3 4 5
− − bottom hole pressure (pwf). qg, MMscf/d
805 806

• There are many tests dedicated for gas well testing that are called gas • These gas deliverability tests are:
deliverability tests.
1. Flow After Flow (FAF) test
• These tests are used to measure well production capabilities under
2. Isochronal test
different conditions of reservoir pressure (Pr) & bottomhole flowing
pressure (BHFP). 3. Modified Isochronal test
• Determine the. • All gas deliverability tests require to flow the wells @ different rates &
record the corresponding bottom hole pressures.
• Based on data from these tests, engineers can determine:
• The only difference is that in the Isochronal & Modified Isochronal tests
− Production potential & Absolute Open Flow (AOF).
the well is shut-in between these flow periods.
− Value of the non-Darcy flow coefficient or the turbulence factor (D).
• The Modified Isochronal test was developed to save the long shut-in
− Rate dependent skin (Sturb.) time required for the Isochronal test to reach stabilization during every
shut-in period.
− Mechanical skin (S0)
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1. Flow After Flow (FAF) Test: 1. Flow After Flow (FAF) Test:
• It is also called a backpressure test in which a sequence of rate changes • This is a typical pressure−rate history for the Flow After Flow (FAF) test.
is applied.
• The well flow under a constant rate @ a specified backpressure until its
bottomhole pressure (BHP) & surface pressures reaches the stabilized
pseudo steady state conditions that is an indication that flow is coming
from the outer reaches of the drainage area.
• After the stabilized rate & pressure are recorded, the rate is changed &
the well flows until pressure stabilizes again.
• The same procedure is repeated three or four times before shut-in the
well for the final pressure build up period.
𝑛
2 2
𝑞𝑠𝑐 = 𝐶 𝑝ǉ𝑅 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓
809 810

1. Flow After Flow (FAF) Test: 2. Isochronal Test:
Analysis of the Flow After Flow (FAF) test data. • An isochronal test is similar to the Flow After Flow (FAF) test, but it
consist of series of flow rates @ different drawdowns & subsequent
2
ҧ 2 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓
• Plot of 𝑝𝑅 vs. (qsc) on buildup periods that requires to shut-in the well between the flow
periods until well bottom hole shut-in pressure (Pws) reaches the
a Log-Log plot should yield a
stabilized static reservoir pressure (Ps).
straight Deliverability Inflow
Performance line with: • The last flow period is extended to longer time that is called extended
𝟏
𝟏 Deliverability Inflow stabilized flow period until stabilized flow conditions are reached to
𝒏
− Slope = Performance Line ensure achieving the pseudo-steady state conditions.
𝒏
− Intercept with Y–axis @ • The objective of this test is to obtain a stabilized deliverability without
1 1 having to FLOW LONG TIME ENOUGH to achieve the pseudo-steady
point = 𝐿𝑜𝑔 state conditions.
𝑛 𝐶
• In this case we produce the well @ some transient rates for the same
period of time (Dt) & record the corresponding bottom hole flowing
pressure (Pwf) @ the end of each flow period.
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2. Isochronal Test: 2. Isochronal Test:
• Between each flow period, close the well until the bottom hole shut-in • This is a typical pressure−rate history for the Isochronal test.
pressure (Pws) reach the stabilized reservoir static pressure “initial
value before flowing” (Ps) then start flowing the well again @ another flow

rate @ the same period of time (Dt) & so on.
Final buildup period
• The duration of each shut-in period is controlled by well performance
itself until reaching the stabilized static reservoir pressure (Ps) for all
shut-in periods.
Equal flow times = Dt
• Finally, @ end of the test, extend the last flow rate to longer time that is
Enequal shut-in times
called the extended stabilized flow period to ensure achieving the
Gas rate, MMscf/d

pseudo-steady state conditions.
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2. Isochronal Test: 2. Isochronal Test:
• This is a typical pressure−rate history for the Isochronal test. Analysis of the Isochronal test data.
2
• Plot of 𝑝𝑅ҧ 2 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓 vs. (qsc) on a Stabilized
Equal flow times = Dt Deliverability 𝟏
Log-Log plot for both transient Line
𝒏
Enequal shut-in times rates & extended stabilized rate.
• Stabilized Deliverability Line for
Transient
q 1 < q2 < q3 < q4 the last Extended Stabilized Deliverability
Line
Flow Period has the same slope
Pwf1 > Pwf2 > Pwf3 > Pwf4 for the transient line for the flow
P1 P2 P3 periods but with different
P1 = P2 = P3
intersection point with Y-axis.
𝟏
• This straight Stabilized Deliverability Line has a slope = & intercept
𝒏
1 1
with Y–axis @ point = 𝐿𝑜𝑔 .
𝑛 𝐶
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3. Modified Isochronal Test: 3. Modified Isochronal Test:
• Modified isochronal test is used when the permeability around the • This is a typical pressure−rate history for the Modified Isochronal test.
wellbore is expected to be relatively low, so the conventional isochronal
test become non-useful as it requires very long time for the pressures to

reach the stabilized pseudo-steady state & hence the stabilized
reservoir static pressure during the shut-in periods.
Final buildup period
• It is a special case of the isochronal test with the same procedure, but it
does not allow the pressure to stabilize @ the stabilized static
pressure during the shut-in periods.
Equal flow times &
• In this test, all flowing (drawdowns) & shut-in (buildup) periods are of shut-in times = Dt
equal durations (Dt) because the test was designed so that there is no
Gas rate, MMscf/d

longer need to wait during the shut-in periods until the bottom hole shut-
in pressure (Pws) reaches the stabilized static reservoir pressure (Ps).
• Similar to the isochronal test, @ end of the test, extend the last flow rate
to longer time that is called extended stabilized flow period to ensure
achieving the pseudo-steady state conditions.
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3. Modified Isochronal Test: 3. Modified Isochronal Test:
• This is a typical pressure−rate history for the Modified Isochronal test. Analysis of Modified Isochronal test.
2
• Plot of 𝑝𝑅ҧ 2 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓 vs. (qsc) on a
Equal Shut-in times & Log-Log plot for both transient Stabilized
Flow times = Dt
Deliverability
rates & extended stabilized rate. Line
q 1 < q2 < q3 < q4 • Stabilized Deliverability Line for 𝟏

the last Extended Stabilized 𝒏
Pwf1 > Pwf2 > Pwf3 > Pwf4 Flow Period has the same slope
for the transient line for the flow Transient
Deliverability
P1 > P2 > P3 P1 periods but with different Line
P2 intersection point with Y-axis.
P3
𝟏
• This straight Stabilized Deliverability Line has a slope = & intercept
𝒏
1 1
with Y–axis @ point = 𝐿𝑜𝑔 .
𝑛 𝐶
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1− Water & Gas Coning

• Coning is the abnormal upward movement of water and/or the
downward movement of gas in the near-wellbore into the perforations of
a high vertical permeability reservoir due to high drawdown pressures
(DP = Ps − Pwf) with high production rates.
• This is a reservoir @ the static • This is the reservoir with coning

condition or flow without coning. phenomena during production.
Downhole Production
Problems
821 822
1− Water & Gas Coning 1− Water & Gas Coning

• Oil production from a well that partly • Variables that could affect coning are:
penetrates an oil zone over water
− Density differences between water & oil, gas and oil, or gas & water
may cause the oil/water interface to
(gravitational forces).
deform into a bell shape, which is
known as water coning. − Fluid viscosities & relative permeabilities.
• Coning can seriously reduce well − Vertical & horizontal permeabilities.
productivity & influence the
− Distances from contacts to perforations.
overall recovery efficiency of the
oil reservoirs. • Whether a cone will move toward perforations depends on the relative
significance of viscous & gravitational forces near a well.
• Coning occurs when viscous forces dominate.
• Gravitational forces tend to cause the undesired fluid to stay away from
the perforations.
• Pressure drawdown (DP = Ps − Pwf) @ the perforations tends to cause
the undesired fluid to move toward the perforations.
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1− Water & Gas Coning “Control” 1− Water & Gas Coning “Control”
• Water and/or gas coning can be reduced by: • The last two options (Partially penetrating the pay zone & Selectively
partial perforation) will result-in Hemispherical & Spherical flows that in
− Decrease well production rate.
turns create additional pressure drop around the wellbore due to fluid
− Drilling horizontal wells instead of vertical wells to reduce the converges towards the partially penetrating or perforated sections &
pressure drawdown (DP = Ps − Pwf) along the horizontal section. hence additional +ve skin.
− Partially penetrating the well in the pay zone only @ the top part of − Partial perforation (Spherical Flow): a well is only perforated @
the reservoir in the case of water coning. middle of the pay zone.
− Selectively partially perforating the well: − Partial reservoir penetration or limited-entry completions
(Hemispherical Flow): a well that is only partially penetrates the pay
► @ the top of the reservoir in the case of water coning.
zone or completely penetrate the pay zone but only partially perforated
► @ the bottom of the reservoir in case of gas conning. @ the upper or lower parts of the pay zone.
► @ the middle of the reservoir in case of water or gas conning.
825 826
1− Water & Gas Coning “Prediction” 2− Condensate Blockage (Banking)

• Most prediction methods for coning predict a "critical rate" @ which a • Condensate BLOCKAGE or condensate BANKING occurs in retrograde
stable cone can exist from the fluid contact to the nearest perforations. gas−condensate reservoir when the reservoir pressure (Pr) drops below
the dew point pressure (Pdew).
• The theory is that, @ rates below the critical rate, the cone will not
reach the perforations & the well will produce the desired single phase.
Gas
• @ rates equal to or greater than the critical rate, the second fluid will
Dew pressure
eventually be produced & will increase in amount with time.
• These theories based on critical rates do not predict when breakthrough
Current pressure
will occur, nor do they predict water/oil ratio (WOR) or gas/oil ratio (GOR)
after breakthrough.
• The calculated critical rate is valid only for a certain fixed distance
between the fluid contact & the perforations.
• With time, that distance usually decreases (for example, bottom water will Gas
usually tend to rise toward the perforations). + Condensate
• Thus, the critical rate will tend to decrease with time, and the economics
of a well with a tendency to cone will continue to deteriorate with time.
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2− Condensate Blockage (Banking) 2− Condensate Blockage (Banking)

• This condition (Pr < Pdew) will cause some condensate to be dropped-out • This condensate blockage will dramatically slow gas flow as result of a
from gas in the reservoir & to be accumulated around the wellbore that reduction in the relative permeability to gas (krg) & gas mobility (kg/mg)
tends to get trapped & motionless in the pores. near wellbore & hence reduction in well gas & condensate productivity.
Separator gas
Condensate & Water rates, Mb/d

Gas
Separator gas rate, MMscf/d

Condensate
Condensate
Water
• Several methods have been suggested to solve this problem.

• One of this approaches is to increase well contact area with the reservoir
to reduce the drawdown pressure (Pr - Pwf) to delay time to reach the
dew point pressure (Pdew) by hydraulic fracturing or horizontal wells.
829 830
2− Condensate Blockage (Banking) 3− Diagnosing Excessive Water Production

• PTA for a PBU test using a • Excess water production & high W.C producers are a common global
compositional model due to Li
problem that represents challenge to production maintenance & platform
lateral change in fluid type (m) facilities that can have an impact on the profitability of many oil & gas
is a diagnostic tool that is Lateral change assets in mature fields.
used to detect if a condensate in fluid type (m)
• It is estimated that about 210 million barrels of water are produced daily
banking accumulated around Linear Composite
Linear Model
composite accompanied with 75 million barrels of oil production worldwide.
the wellbore or no. model
• This is because water is commonly co-produced with the hydrocarbons
• Below is an example of a build up test that shows two stabilization zones
saturating the reservoir rock.
which reflect a reduction in permeability when approaching the wellbore
from (22 mD) to (12 mD) that it can be due to condensate Banking. • The annual cost of disposing of this water is estimated to be 40 billion
dollars worldwide in the oil industry.
• Through successful implementation of water shutoff, it is possible to
significantly reduce W.C whilst simultaneously increasing hydrocarbons
production.
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3− Diagnosing Excessive Water Production 3− Diagnosing Excessive Water Production

• Water shutoff is highly advantageous to an operator as it can boost • The severity of excess water problems can generally be categorized
profitability & reduce production problems such as liquid loading & depending on the difficulty to treat the problem & the relative success
save expenditure by spending less on water disposal. achieved post-treatment as summarized in the table below.
• Many different causes of excess water production exist; each of these
problems requires a different approach to find the optimum solution but
not necessarily @ the minimum cost.
• The nature of the problem must first be correctly identified to be able to
achieve a high success rate when treating water production problems
especially in carbonate reservoirs where nature of the reservoir rock with
its fracture & fissure systems are perfect conduits for water to be
produced.
• The severity of excess water problems is more common to categorize
based on the origin of the problem water, whether it being a wellbore
integrity issue or a reservoir-related issue.
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• Identification of the water production problem using different well logs • Well logs that are commonly used to identify water production problems
should be performed before attempting a water shutoff treatment to are summarized in the table below.
indicate the source of water production & potential water zones.
• Open-hole logs are the most widely available source of information for
initial water-oil-contact (WOC) & reservoir fluids saturation.
• A cement bond log (CBL) is the primary tool to evaluate the quality of
cement & diagnose the location of cement failure to pinpoint where the
repair is needed.
• After a well is put on production, cased hole production logging suite is
one of the most commonly used tool that can reveal information on the
fluid type & flow rate using spinner, temperature & pressure data.
• Spectral noise logging & High Precision Temperature tool (HPT-SNL)
are used for leak detection & flow identification behind casing.
• Pulsed Neutron Log (PNL) is used for reservoir saturation monitoring &
remaining oil spotting provide a more in-depth assessment of hydrocarbon
& water saturation behind casing even with multiple barriers.
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• A proper procedure to diagnose & attack excess-water production can • The main objectives of water shutoff treatment are:
be summarized as follow:
− Shut off water without damaging hydrocarbon productive zones.
− Screening for a problem & determining of water source(s).
− Maximize blocking agent penetration into water-source pathways,
− Analysis of geological & well production data. while minimizing penetration into hydrocarbon zones.
− Planning of optimal design(s) for Repair & Isolation (R&I). • Water shutoff methods can be broadly be classified into two main groups
(mechanical & chemical shutoff methods).
− Perform the treatment.
• The mechanical methods are known to be most suitable for wellbore
− Evaluate the results through:
related problems but can as well be used in combination with the
o Well testing & reservoir monitoring. chemical shutoff methods depending on the complexity of the reservoir
problem.
o Production trends after operation.
• Of recent, the chemical methods have gained more industrial
o Surface & downhole samples.
acceptability & thus have higher application than the mechanical
− React as necessary, based on these results. methods.
− Tune & modify the exercised solution in similar cases.
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• Conventional mechanical & chemical treatment methods are • Latest advancements in mechanical & chemical treatment methods are
summarized in the table below. summarized in the table below.
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3− Diagnosing Excessive Water Production

• Decision matrix for water
problem detection & treatment
using chemical techniques
are summarized in this table.
Reservoir
Simulation
841 842
Reservoir Simulation − Basics Reservoir Simulation − Basics

• Early in a field’s life, it is essential to be able to evaluate the following: • You must know that you are making high important decisions based on
limited data with high uncertainty.
► How much hydrocarbon is in place inside the reservoir?
• Before starting reservoir simulation modelling project, it is best practice to
► How to optimize the production?
review all the available data to define the missing input data.
► How much of that hydrocarbon can potentially be recovered?
• Depending on the type of missing data, these gaps can be filled with an
► How will the reservoir perform under various development plan analogue reservoir or a conceptual model.
scenarios?
• A dynamic reservoir simulation model is a useful tool that may help to
answer those questions.
• Reservoir simulation is a well-known tool using a MODEL developed by
combining physics, mathematics, reservoir engineering equations &
historical data in a computer programmed model to predict reservoir
fluids flow through porous media & forecast hydrocarbon reservoir
performance under various operating strategies that helps to decide on the
optimum development strategies.
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• Input data into the simulation model such as: • Numerical reservoir simulation models are used to compute the
changes in reservoir pressures & saturations for all phases for @ any
− Structural information
location inside the reservoir @ any time step.
− Rock & fluids properties.
• Then it is used for forecasting future oil production, decision-making &
− Wells completion data. reservoir management to optimize the field development.
− Historical production. • Simulation is a great tool for reservoir management because of the need
for support decisions & economic justification with accurate technical data
− Operating constraints.
that use for making future development of a field.
• Basic understanding of reservoir modelling is essential so that the
engineer become competent in setting up simulation problems, in
deciding on appropriate input data & in evaluating the results.
• No simulator can replace RELIABLE DATA or the BRAIN of the user.
845 846

• This reservoir simulation model • Generally, using reservoir simulation models enable us to predict fluids
enables reservoir engineer to analyze saturations & the pressures @ any point in the reservoir @ any time.
data that could not be described by
• There are two categories of models used in the market, Material Balance
simple “hand traditional calculations
due to their complexity.
P O simulator (MBAL, … etc.) & the Numerical simulator (ECLIPSE &
VIP…etc.).
• Reservoir simulation model is extremely powerful tool that can be run
many times during field life considering different methods of the field Material Balance Simulator (MBAL):
development that can provide valuable answers to the reservoir
• It is also called tank model or zero-dimensional model.
management team.
• It does NOT CONSIDER the effect of the porous media on the flow
inside the reservoir & treat the reservoir with uniform average properties
& the entire reservoir is in communication without any physical
barriers.
Injection wells
• MBAL is used to determine hydrocarbon in place, gas cap size, aquifer

size & the recovery factor @ different scenarios of development.
• It can not predict the changes in pressure or saturation with time.
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Numerical Simulator: 2. Black Oil Model (ECLIPSE 100 – ECLIPSE Black oil):
• There are 5 types of the numerical simulator: • In this model, fluid compositions is constant & there is NO
CHANGE in both gas or oil COMPOSITION due to pressure
1. Single Phase Model.
depletion with production time & also there is no change in
2. Black Oil Model (ECLIPSE 100 – ECLIPSE Black oil). composition with depth.
3. Compositional Model (ECLIPSE 300 – ECLIPSE Compositional). • It is used to simulate for two phases (water & oil or gas & oil) or three
4. Dual Porosity (Fractures) Model. phases (oil, gas & water) that are moving inside the reservoir.
5. Thermal & Chemical Models (ECLIPSE 500).
3. Compositional Model (ECLIPSE300 - ECLIPSE Compositional):
1. Single Phase Model: • A compositional reservoir simulator is used to simulate for the expected
fluids (gas or oil) COMPOSITIONS CHANGES during the depletion
• To simulate for one phase only moving inside the reservoir.
process or when there is a change in gas or oil compositions with
• If another phase such as water is present, it is considered as an depth (always in structural reservoirs).
immobile (connate) water.
• It is used to simulate the miscible gas injection process that will
• One example of the single-phase model is the dry gas model. change the exiting oil composition.
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4. Dual Porosity (Fractures) Model: Static Reservoir Model:
• Natural fracture simulation (known as dual-porosity & dual- • Static reservoir model is the final
permeability) is an advanced feature complex model. integrated product of the
• It is used to simulate for the performance of the naturally fractured structural, stratigraphic &
reservoirs as for carbonate reservoirs. lithological modeling activities,
where each of these steps is
developed according to its
specific workflow.
5. Thermal & Chemical Models (ECLIPSE 500): • Static reservoir model is

mainly for the geological data
• Thermal simulators allowing temperatures to change within the description before start
reservoir. production.
• It is used to simulate for the enhanced oil recovery (EOR) processes • It is considered as a dynamic
(most commonly used for heavy crude oil applications). model @ zero-time step or @
the initial conditions.
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Static Reservoir Model: Dynamic Reservoir Model:
• Building the static geological model incorporating all the geological • Dynamic reservoir model combine the static model, pressures, production,
features (i.e., structural, sedimentological, … etc.), cores data & the PVT, relative permeability & saturation data, facilities data, wells locations
available petrophysical correlations (Gross thickness, Porosity & Net to & geometries to calculate the pressure & saturation distribution into the
Gross ratio). reservoir.
Gross Thickness Porosity Net to Gross Ratio
853 854

Dynamic Reservoir Model: Gridding:
• Dynamic model is used to simulate several production profiles scenarios • It is to model the reservoir as if it is divided
to prepare the Full Field Development Plan (FFDP) considering different into several individual blocks (grids).
exploitation schemesTh-IV
& (All
operating conditions to optimize the depletion plan.
800,000
Reservoirs) Corrected Production Capacity • Each block corresponds to a location in the
New 30 Infills reservoir with specific values of the
Approved 28 Infills
700,000
W/O properties (i.e., pressure, fluids saturations,
600,000
Existing Wells
Inj. Supported Oil Potential
permeability (k), … etc.).
500,000
Target_IV
• Within a grid block the properties are uniform.
400,000 Local Grid Refinement:

300,000 • Fine grids with smaller sizes are
required for only certain parts of the
200,000
reservoir For some simulation studies
100,000 when saturation & pressure are expected
to vary significantly or to study &
0
2007 2010 2013 2016 2019 2022 2025 evaluate some specific projects.
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• So, by gridding the reservoir, dynamic of each portion may be • This is an example of a gridded reservoir.
different than the others.
857 858

Upscaling: Unit-1
Upscaling:
Unit-2
• In the GEOLOGICAL gridding model, Unit-3 • Upscaling technique is an averaging process that was developed to
Unit-4
reservoir is divided into several individual decreases the geological subdivision units from small cells high-
blocks (units or layers) each with the Unit-5
resolution into another lower number of units with larger cells low-
Unit-6
same properties. Unit-7
resolution that have the same reservoir description to be used in the
dynamic simulation model.
• This is for more detailed geological Unit-8
studies & description.

Unit-9
• This upscaling process is done to decrease the resolution of the fine grid
GEOLOGICAL model classification model (scale the cell size) to an acceptable level to be manageable by
the dynamic simulators without losing the accuracy of its calculation.
• But in the RESERVOIR gridding model, • Upscaling help to reduce the computing memory & simulation time to
Unit-1
the main concern of the reservoir engineer accelerate the full field evaluation & EOR strategies with different
is the Hydraulic Flow Units (HFU) that are scenarios.
dynamically in communication more Unit-2
than for those with the same properties, • Note that after the upscaling process, we must ensure that we did not:
i.e., less geological units. ► Affect the total pore volume of the reservoir.
Unit-3
► Lose the layering thickness & sequence.
RESERVOIR model classification
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Upscaling: Upscaling:
• These are examples of the upscaling technique. • This is another example for the effective porosity upscaled from the
100x100m fine grid to the 150x150m coarse grid.
861 862

Dynamic Model Simulation Process Steps: Dynamic Model Simulation Process Steps:
• Simulation process go through several steps before establishing the 1. Initialization:
final reservoir simulation model which are:
• The initialization of the reservoir simulation models simply is the
1. Initialization process for description of the initial oil, gas & water pressure
gradient distribution & the initial saturations distribution.
2. History Match
• The main objectives of the initialization process are to:
3. Prediction
− Understand the initial condition of the reservoir (pre-production
state).
− Verify that the reservoir simulation model accurately represents
the structure & the properties in the static geologic model.
− Define the number of phases flowing inside the reservoir (single,
single or multi phases flow) to define the suitable model.
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2. History Match: 2. History Match:
• History Matching is to adjust a numerical model of a reservoir until it • These two examples of BAD & PERFECT history matches.
closely reproduces the past actual behavior of this reservoir.
• Before performing the prediction for the future performance, we
must check model validity by calibrating it with the actual
historical data (oil rate, GOR, W.C, WOR, reservoir pressure, .. etc.).
• If there is a match between the model & the actual historical data,
then the prediction will be accurate & representative.
• If not, so check & modify some of the input data to do the required
model adjustments until get a reasonable match with the actual
historical data that give us a confident about the model to be used for
the prediction & for a propre decision making.
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2. History Match: 2. History Match – Example#1:
• This is another example of the history matches. • This is a comparison between the Actual & Simulated W.C%
increase with time to check for the history match.
• It is clear that the model predicate late W.C% increase.
W.C%
• Rapid increase in the producing
W.C% is due to that water
saturation increased in the Actual W.C%
reservoir & reached to the increase @
this time
critical gas saturation (Swc).
Simulated W.C%
increase @ later time
Time
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2. History Match – Example#1: 2. History Match – Example#1:
Just remember that: • This is oil-water relative
permeability plot that shows
• Critical saturation refers to the minimum saturation @ which a
both critical or initial water
phase becomes mobile & start flowing inside the rock. It is called
saturation (Swi) for water or
the initial water saturation (Swi) for water or residual oil saturation
residual oil saturation (Sor)
(Sor) for oil.
for oil.
• Irreducible (Swirr.) or connate (Swc) water saturation is the amount of
water adhering to the rock grains & cannot be moved or displaced
from it.
Swirr So
Sor ≠ Swi .
Swi
r
Swc < Swi Sw% So%
869 870

2. History Match – Example#1: 2. History Match – Example#2:
• Actual & simulated W.C% curves are paralleled after the sudden • Another example, the simulated W.C% started to increase @ the
W.C% increase indicating that all the other parameters except the same time as the actual W.C% but the simulated performance after
critical water saturation (Swi) are reasonable enough & there is no the increase is deviated away from the actual W.C% (not paralleled).
need to adjust any of them to improve the match.
W.C%
• Increasing both W.C% @ the same
W.C%
• So, in this case it seemed that the time reflecting that the critical
critical water saturation (Swi) water saturation (Swi) is well
was defined relatively HIGHER Actual W.C% defined in the model.
than the actual data in the model. increase @
this time • That is in turns mean that the end
• So, in this case review the relative points in the relative permeability
permeability curves & check/adjust curves that was used in the model
the critical water saturation (Swi) is well defined too but the relative
Simulated W.C% Actual & simulated W.C%
in the model & run the model again increase @ later time permeability curvatures requires increased @ the same time
until have a better match. some adjustments.
Time Time
871 872
218
31/03/2023

2. History Match – Example#2: 3. Prediction:
• This is the equation that relates the 𝑘𝑟𝑜 • Prediction is an important step since it has a lot of uncertainties.
relative permeability ratio (kro/krw) to = 𝑎𝑒 −𝑏𝑆𝒘
water saturation (Sw). 𝑘𝑟𝑤
• So, we must adjust the values of 1.E+03
the constants (a & b) by moving a
1.E+02
the best fit straight line in the
1.E+01
saturations vs. relative permeability
𝑘 𝑟𝒐
1.E+00
relationship to pass trough the most
kro / krw
𝑘 b
representative data points. 𝑟𝒘
1.E-01
1.E-02
• This will result-in a new shape for
1.E-03
the relative permeability curves that
1.E-04
will give a new simulated W.C% that 0 Swi 0.2 0.4 0.6 Sor 0.8 1
should match with the actual W.C%. Sw𝑆𝒘
873 874

3. Prediction: 3. Prediction:
• Prediction process that is run once history match has been • The most important recommendations while simulating are:
completed to predict the future reservoir performance under
− It is not a matter of getting a good match between the actual
different exploitation scenarios such as:
data & the simulated model using fake information but to have a
► Evaluate the ultimate recovery from certain process that enable to representative model that can rely on it for prediction.
select the optimum EOR recovery process.
− The QAQC measured parameters that were introduced to the
► Prediction of the oil reservoir performance under natural model should not be changed except for some acceptable &
depletion, water injection or other injection process. reasonable smoothing in some parameters in order to adjust
► Determine the effects of wells locations, spacing & producing the match.
rates on the recovery. − For data smoothing for model adjustment purpose, you must first
► Determine the effect of different production plateaus on the understand which parameter should be adjusted or smoothed
recovery. within a reasonable change to have a better match.
► Future W.C & GOR evolution with time.
875 876
219
31/03/2023

3. Prediction – Example#1: 3. Prediction – Example#2:
• This is many simulated production profiles scenarios to prepare the • This is the simulation output after running several case scenarios to
Full Field Development Plan (FFDP) considering different exploitation select the best case to sustain the production target @ level of
schemes & operating conditions to optimize the depletion plan.
Th-IV (All Reservoirs) Corrected Production Capacity
53,000 bopd.
800,000
New 30 Infills
700,000
Approved 28 Infills Thamama IV Sector-1 Simulation
W/O
Existing Wells 60000
600,000 Inj. Supported Oil Potential
Target_IV
Production Rate (BOPD)

50000
500,000
40000
400,000
30000
300,000 Base Case
20000 10 New Producers
200,000 15 New Producers
100,000
0
0 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030
2007 2010 2013 2016 2019 2022 2025
877 878
Reservoir Simulation − Basics Questions

Dynamic Model Simulation Process Steps:
3. Prediction – Example#2:
• Of course, the base case could not achieve the production target.
• Drilling new producers is beneficial; however, there is no big
difference between 15 new producers and 20 new producers hence
the number of the drilled infills is optimized to be 15 wells only.
Thamama IV Sector-1 Simulation
60000
Production Rate (BOPD)
50000
40000
30000
Base Case
15 New Producers
0
2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030
879 880
220
31/03/2023
Break
881
221

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31/03/2023

Reservoir Topics − Basics

• Downhole Production Problems

Reservoir Management Team Formation Evaluation

Formation Evaluation Reservoir Life Process

Reservoir Life Process Types of Production Agreements

• The state, however, remains the owner of the hydrocarbon produced

Permanently close the

Types of Production Agreements Production Phases

4. Joint Development & Production Sharing Agreement (DPSA). Peak oil 2

Peak oil Plateau

Adsorption & Absorption Boiling & Evaporation

Condensation Saturated & Undersaturated Reservoir

Equilibrium Undersaturated Saturated

• Bubble point pressure (Pb) is the saturation pressure @ in case of

Phase Diagram − Phase Envelop Phase Diagram − Phase Envelop

Phase Behavior of a Pure Component Phase Behavior of a Pure Component

Phase Behavior of a Pure Component Phase Behavior of a Pure Component

Phase Behavior of a Pure Component Phase Behavior of a Pure Component

Phase Behavior of a Pure Component Phase Behavior of a Pure Component

Compressible liquid Compressible liquid

Critical point Critical point

Vaporization or Condensation Curve Melting or Freezing Curve

Compressible liquid Compressible liquid

Critical point Critical point

Sublimation or Deposition Triple Point

Compressible liquid Compressible liquid

Critical point Critical point

Critical Point Phase Behavior of Multi Component

Phase Behavior of Multi Component Phase Behavior of Multi Component

Phase Behavior of Multi Component Phase Behavior of Multi Component

• Maximum pressure defined by

• Maximum temperature defined

Classification of Hydrocarbon Reservoirs Classification of Hydrocarbon Reservoirs

• Wet Gas reservoir.

Classification of Hydrocarbon Reservoirs Classification of Hydrocarbon Reservoirs

reservoir pressure (Pi) ≤ bubble

Classification of Hydrocarbon Reservoirs Classification of Hydrocarbon Reservoirs

Classification of Hydrocarbon Reservoirs Classification of Hydrocarbon Reservoirs

− But when pressure reaches

condensate dropped out a complex history.

tubing & produced @ the A1 a dry gas (vapor phase) in the

Classification of Hydrocarbon Reservoirs Classification of Hydrocarbon Reservoirs

− If reservoir pressure reduce does not occur in the

Classification of Hydrocarbon Reservoirs Classification of Hydrocarbon Reservoirs

Pressure path in reservoir →

Separator Conditions line Separator

Retrograde Gas Condensate Pressure path

 Pressure path in reservoir

 Pressure path in reservoir

2 2 Pressure depletion in the reservoir

Pressure depletion in the reservoir

Low pressure at the surface separator

Separator G2 Low pressure @ the surface separator

Classification of Hydrocarbon Reservoirs PVT Analysis

2.0 Saturated Under-saturated

1.8 𝐕𝐨 @ res. cond.

Gas Formation Volume Factor (βg) Gas Oil Ratio (GOR)

Gas in Solution or Gas Solubility (Rs) Instantaneous GOR

Instantaneous GOR Total Formation Volume Factor (βt)

• This Cumulative GOR (Rp) should be distinguished from the

4 Stock tank oil

Total Formation Volume Factor (βt) Oil Viscosity