Biology Notes 1. Observation - the action or process of examining something ex. phenomena/problem 2. Hypothesis - a possible explanation of a specific phenomenon; scientific guess. ‘+ Prediction - a claim about what you can expect to see in nature if a theory or hypothesis is correct. «Theory - a testable explanation of a broad range of phenomena 3. Experiment/Data Gathering - an attempt to produce actual observations that match predicted or expected observatons. 4, Conclusion - a statement about whether a theory or hypothesis should be accepted, rejected, or modified based on tests of the prediction derived from it. 5. Publication B. Properties of Life 1. All organisms share the ff. common characteristics: ‘made up ofthe basic unit of Iife-cel, wich come from pre-existing cls via cell division (Theo {acquire energy ftom the environment and uses energy fo sure By relying on metalieand homeost@ processes ‘have the ally to respond to environmental changes and have the capac forg@fonth, development Shghreproduction ved on antici cae Ui OMA Ceascenic Viruses Consist of el No Yes Metaboize No Yes Respond to still vey (.sidly independent) Bove Yes 2. All living organisms can be viewed at diferent levels of of ‘= Biosphere - Inciudes the whole Earth and al Is iving of ‘+ Ecosystem - a community anc its physical en ‘+ Community - the population ofall species occu ‘+ Population - a group of individuals belong ing a given area at the same time lependent ces arrayed in tissues, organs and often ically, or both * Organ — a structural unit in which 8 ific amounts and patterns that allow them to perform a ‘common task ‘Tissues - a group of cel += Cell -smallest living unit, me ‘molecules (proteins, carbohydrates, fats & nucleic acids) ‘same or different elements bonded together ‘scheme: LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZ‘An Overview of the Six Kingdom Classification Kingdom Characteristics Examples Eubacteria (true bacteria) Prokaryotic, unicellular Streptococcus sp. microorganisms typically having rigid cell | Lactobacil sp. walls and flagella for movement Escherichia coll ‘Archasbacteria Prokaryot, unicellular microorganisms | halophiles, thermophiies and that are commonly viewed as. methanogens extremophiles Protista Eukaryotic unicelldlar or unicelilar-colonial | Trypanosoma sp. Corganisms which form no tissues Plasmodium sp, Dinoflagell Fungi Eukaryotic, spore-bearing organisms with absorptive nutrition (saprophytic) that reproduce sexually and asexually Prantae Eukaryotic, autotrophic, photosynthet multicellular organisms ‘Animalia Eukaryotic, heterotrophic, m organisms, . Cellular Basis of Life 1. Biomolecules: jonosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides according to the they contain, (glucose, fructose, galactose, mannose) e, maltose, sucrose) = oligosaccharides (3-10 monosaccharide units, found in ER, GB) = polysaccharides (starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin, pectin, gum, peptidoglycan) LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZPROTEINS ‘+ Monomer is amino acid, polymer is polypeptide ‘+ Amino acics are linked together by peptide bonds ‘* There are four levels of protein structure: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, Quaternary ‘+ Proteins have the following functions: ‘Function Examples 1. Catahss Enayines (ar/ese, CeMlose, papase/ papa) ‘Collagen (connectve tissue mati) 2, Structure Fibroin (silk), spider web_ Keratin (hair, horns, feathers, hooves) st vista “Actin and tubulln (involved in cll movements in Ampeba and sperm eels; found in Ragela and cia) ‘Skin keratin (ist ine of protection) Fibrinogen and thrombin (blood cet Perce “Antibodies (secreted by lymph Spines of sea urchin 5. Regulation Hormones (insulin & glucagon, Hemoglobin (oxygen and waste m eee ‘Myoglobin (transport oF o 7. Storage Zein corn), glisain (hes ite), casein (rk) UPIDS * Unlike other biological polymers lipids are not defined by s Rather, they are defined by their water-repeling property. «They contain 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol. + They also contain non-polar hydrocarbon groups (-CHs, -Ch Functions include transport, storage, and insulation. + 3 types: oils (saturated and unsaturated), waxes, phi * Oils liquid at room temperature, while wax is solid. += Phospholipids usually assume two forms in * Oilis usually plant-derived, while fat is animal: NUCLEIC ACIDS '* Watson-Crick Model: © Nuclestides (monomer) are conhi hodiester bonds. © Nucleotide is made up of three comp sugar (ribose, deoxyribose) and phosphate group. © Nucleoside = nitrogen eosidic bonds. © The nitrogenous guanine) and pyrimidines (cytosine, thymine, uracil) © Base Pairs are connec ©. # Adenine (A) © # Guanine ©. Chargaff’ ‘= Ttis invoh thesis, and as energy carriers > Examples: jsphate (ATP) & Nucleotide coenzyme (NAD+ & NADP") '» DNA vs RNA: DNA RNA Deoxyribose Ribose AG GT, AGCU ‘Strand Double-stranded | Single-stranded Helix Helical ‘Non-helical LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZ2. Cell Types: Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic cell Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cols Lack nudear membrane ‘Nuclear membrane present ‘Usually circular, ring-shaped chromosome consists only of DNA, without assaciated proteins, and lacks centromere ‘Multiple, not ring-shaped chromosomes consist of DNA with associated proteins and have centromeres Membrane-bounded organelles, (€.g, mitochondria) absent ‘Membrane-bounded organelles present Lack capacity to differentiate into specialized USSues in ‘mutticelllar organisms Great capaci to differentiate in structure and function with multicellular bodies ‘Occur only as bacteria and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) ‘Make up bodies of protsts, Fung, pl ‘animals PROKARYOTE Animal vs. Plant cell ANIMAL CELL LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW EUKARYOTE B.VILLAGOMEZCell Organell ‘and components Cell Component, Function, ‘Orgar Plasma Membrane (Cell Membrane) Structural support, control oF substances in & out of the cell “Fluid Mosaic Model phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins (integral and peripheral) Present in al organisms Cell Wall Protection Present in Bacteria (Peptidoglycan), Nucieus contol activities oF the cell Nucleolus -assembly of ribosomes DNA encoding of hereditary information Ribosome protein synthesis, ‘Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum “CHO & lipids synthesis Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum -protein synthesis ‘Golgi body! apparatus -final modification of proteins, sorting, synthesis & transport & rganelies are present in all ‘and absent in prokarya. Lysosomes Mitachondrion Photosynthetic pigment “Pigments are present in some groups Cf prokarya and eukarya e.g. plants, cyanobacteria Chloroplast Chloroplast and Central Vacuole mostly present in plants Central Vacuole Peroxisome ~presentin most eukaryotic ces ‘of very-long-chain fatty fegradaton of phytanic cid by alpha-oxidation, degradation of hydrogen peroxide -regulates the cell division via assembly of microtubules (spindle -found in animal cels replaced by MTOC (micro-tubule fibers) ‘organizing center) in plants ‘Gytoskeletor cel shape, cell mobon, internal [present in most eukaryotic cels and organization absent in prokarya ‘Complex flagellum, “movement -found in groups of eukarya and prokarya LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZD. Cellular and Molecular Transport 1. Passive Transport ‘© net movement of ions or molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration ‘+ movement is through the gradient to reach equilibrium ‘+ do not require use of ATP (energy) Diffusion ‘+ net movement of molecules or ions from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration ‘© has two types: Simple Diffusion (semi-permeable membrane) and Faciltated Diffusion (with the use of protein channels) Osmosis ‘+ net movement of solvent molecules through a semipermeable membrane from a region of high@Pwater concentration to a region of lower water concentration Effect of Osmosis on Animal and Plant Cell TRANSPORT: OSMOSIS — > 2. Active Transport ‘+ net movement of ions/molecules from an area of ‘= movement is against the gradient ‘© requires the use of ATP (energy) ‘© example: Sodium-Potassium Pump E. Metabolism 1, Cells acquire energy to build, metabolism. 2. A metabolic pathway is a stepwise 2. biasynthetic pathway (a d up the rate of reaction by lowering the activation energy) atalyze reaction, carry electrons, hydrogen o functional groups stripped from substrates tate energy to other molecules at the end of metabolic pathway thetic pathway by which carbon and energy enter the web of fe. 600; + 6120 "™ C.H,20, + 60, ing of water resulting to release of 0, proton and free electron © the reactions produce ATP and NADPH 1 Vightindependont eoactinne °c Dark Reaction or Cavin Cycle 6 take place inthe stroma around the membrane system © ATP and NADPH are used to synthesize C,H,.0, from accumulated CO, «the reactions produce glucose stored as starch LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZb. Energy Releasing Pathways Cellular Respiration CeHi206 + 602 -» 6CO, + GH,0 + energy (ATP) Nearly all metabolic reactions run on énergy delivered by ATP which can be produced by aerobic respiration, fermentation and. ‘other pathways that release chemical energy from glucose and other organic compounds. All 3 kinds of pathways begin with the same reaction, called glycolysis which occurs only in the cytoplasm. pension? te v snes ye . a Siena ota hse ESSERE ante ttn > stais fermen @ fein Tanate cat decane ae as aa) Aerobic Respiration Total Yield: 36-38 ATP 1. crycorysts ~lucnse molecule is partial broken NADH and # ATP ae produced. = net eneray yield i only 2 ATF otherQUATP was Used at the beginning ofthe process. ~ oxygen-independent reaction takes place in the cytoplasm 2. Krebs cycle or Citric. ~ takes place in the matrix of ~ pyruvate is a = by the time the yl reactions: = produces 10 1e molecul cycle ~ Acetyl Co-enzyme A. 1aS been broken down completely to COz and H20. FAH») and 2 ATP ‘eet com eocn aoe wncos yy crete 2, {\ ae LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZ3. Electron Transport Chain takes place in the inner membrane of the mitochondria = coenzymes deliver electron to a transport system = operation of the system sets up H* concentration and electric gradients across the membrane = H* flows down the gradients, through channel proteins ~ energy associate with the flow drives the formation of ATP from ADP and unbound phosphate ~ oxygen (ast electron acceptor) withdraws electrons and combines with H® to form wate. ‘Overwiew of Aerobic Respiration AEROBIC RESPIRATION a energy input to Note: NADH prod jondrion) will generate 3 ATP per NADH. NADH produce will only generate 2 ATP per NADH. NADH generated i glycolysis must be transported across the mitochondrial membrane before it can trans in and this requires energy. The 3 maximum yield of ATP per glucose molecule oxidized by aerobic respiration. Keep in mind, however, ally be generated. Other biomol used as a reactant to generate ATP Lids: glycerol; fatty acids (undergoes beta-oxidation) Proteins: amino acids (undergoes transamination or deamination) LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZ1. Glycolysis = glucose molecule is partially broken down and 2 pyruvate, 2 NADH and 4 ATP are produced. = net eneray yield is only 2 ATP molecules because the other 2 ATP was used at the beginning of the process. - oxygen-independent reaction «takes place in the cytoplasm, 2. Fermentation “ homolactic or aleoholic ~ produces lactate and lactic acid (homolactic) or ethanol and carbon dioxide (alcoholic) takes place in the cytoplasm no ATP generated Overview of Anaerobic Respiration - ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION” on ase a 2x Pyruvic Acid ky poet (ese 2 xt alcohol + CO, 2x Lactic Acid vw TI. CELL BIOLOGY ‘A. Cell Cycle fr» In eukaryotes, the cell cycle consists of the following phases: ~~ G. - gap phase when the cell conducts a series of checks before entering the S phase ial roth, metabo cians Go cob S- synthesis phase i when DNA replication occurs), duplication of chromosomes hase when the cell similarly checks its readiness to proceed to mitesis or meiosis So ceggriure ‘not proceed to the next step but are arrested in Ga) Gy- gap phase when ces are in resting state and will no longer divide. M-- mitosis or meiosis phase 's when the cell vices LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZ10 6. cell Division 1. Comparson between Mitosis and Meioss MITOSIS MEIOSIS Chromosomes # onan 2nn ‘Synapsis x vo Crossing oer x Z Tetrads align (metaphase I) Metaphase Sister chromatids align Sister chromatids align (metaphase II) DNA replication ‘occurs during interphase only ‘occurs during interpha: wo Number of dvsions | one frst rounds re secon our: egustoral Two Four ‘Number of daughter ‘each diploid (2n) each hat Celsand compostion | genetical erica to the mother call and to | genetapnordentcabit the and to ach other each ath Development of mutica edu fom zyaoke production of cel for gronth ane sue egie Imparanceto the | er multecr) " fer by hat ' ity ‘mean of reproduction (fruit) Somat cls caltype Prod Germ Cl Gametes {Spermatogonia & Oogor 2. Summary of Events in Mitosis Stowe iwent{S) Chromatin Prophase Metaphase OF the centromere. hhromasomes move to opposite poles. ells also move apart. romeres toward centrioles (shortening of fibers due to depolymerization). (animal cells) or Cell Pate (plants cells) appears. ds with eytokinesis (cellular division) and the format ‘appears in each daughter cell. 1 will contain diploid number of cells. ‘chromosomes reach the opposite poles where they begin to uncoll. tion of two daughter cells MITOSIS LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW Hi 4 iil B.VILLAGOMEZa 3. Summary of Events in Meiosis ‘Stage Main Event(s) en ‘Symapsis: homologous chromosomes come side by side to form a tetrad, ‘Grossing-over: homologous chromosomes exchange segments at intersections called chiasmata. Metaphase I ‘Chromosomes are now arranged in metaphase plate, sil in hornologous pas. = Homologous chromosomes separate and migrate to opposite poles. ‘Anant Sister chromatids are stil intact. Teiophase Tand | The spindle apparatus continues to separate the homologous chromosomes untl Wey reach the Cytokinesis poles. Each pole now has a haploid chromosome set. Prophase I ‘Spindle apparatus forms and the chromosomes progress toward the metaphase I pate. Metaphase IT ‘Chromosomes aign atthe center “The centromeres of sister chromatids Separate, een Each sister chromatid now becomes individual chromosomes. TTelophase I and | Nuclei begin to form at opposite pols. Cytokinesis There are now four daughter ces, each with 2 haploid number of eromoso A i 7 (reveartote ocnecte” aug isa” a Snr feo ne Chemically composed of DNA | ofall the genes presents in an individual ber of a given pair of genes alleles are identical then the condition is said to be homozygous © ifthe alleles are non-identical, then the condition is said to be heterozygous ‘+ Genotype = genetic composition of an individual + Phenotype — the observable physical properties of an organism; oppearance, development, end behavior. ‘+ Monohybrid Cross = involves a single pair of contrasting genes ‘+ Dihybrid Cross = involves two pairs of contrasting genes ‘+ Polyhybrid Cross = involves three or more pairs of contrasting genes. ‘* Parental Generation (P) = parents of a cross + Filial Generation (F) = offspring of a cross; irs filial generation (children); Fa = second filial generation (grandchildren) LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZ2 B, Mendelian Laws and Principles: 1. Law of Segregation «Factors for alt searegate during gamete formation ‘During gamete formation, members of any given pair of genes separate so that any sex cell transmits only one member Of the pair, this parallels Separation of homologous chromosomes during meiosis. 2. Law of Independent Assortment = during formation of gametes members of any given pair of genes are distributed independently of one another. €. Common Patterns of Inheritance ‘= Complete dominance ‘2 2 form of dominance in the heterozygous condition wherein the allele that is ragarded as dominant completely masks the effect ofthe allele thats recessive ‘© Genotype = Go; Phenotype = G © Example: G - green, g~ yellow; Gq = green = (EE San *[Coalbes ‘= Incomplete dominance ‘2 a form of dominance in the heterozygous condition incompletely masks the effect ofthe allele that is © Genotype = Aa; Phenotype = mixture of A and 2 S Example: A red, 0 white; Aa ~ pink Blood type different heterazygotes are crossed, the offspring ratio can result in 1A:18:1AB:10 . T LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZ23 ‘o Example: C, c*, ¢” and c alleles that code for the color of the fur of rabbits. co Hierarchy: C >c®> cl > ¢ + Epistasis the expression of one gene is affected by the expression of one or more o Example: Gene A codes for the color of the pigment; Gene C codes for, 2 A_= wild-type colored fur agouti (brown); aa = solid-colored fur (blac| _=present pigment; c = absent pigment (lino) © Having cc genotype wil not express any color (albino) as pigment gene A (may it be A_or aa) ‘The expression of gene C masks the effect of gene A. Gene! 012345 6 "Number of ‘darker’ alleles LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB - NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZ14 D. Human Genetics 1. SexcLinked Recessive Disorders/X-linked Traits: «traits or dsorders associated with the sex chromosomes e.g. red-green color blindness, hemophilia + inhertance by which a recessive gene is carried on the X chromosome + Two copies of X with recessive gene are needed to express the phenotype for female XX (homozygous) + Only one copy of X with recessive gene is needed to exoressthe phenotype for male (hemizygous) Females with one copy of X wth recessive gene are carriers (heterozygous) but will nt express the trat (not affected). + Patterns for Transmission of Sex-Linked Recessive Trats/Disorders: «A father withthe trait wil transmit the mutant allele to all daughters but nat to sons. 6 Ifthe mother has the trait, she wl transmit the mutant allele to both sons and daughters. Xlinked recessive, affected mother iil his care: Carer tices om’ denier dager son 2. Autosomal Disorders ‘+ Aneuploidy - failure of members of homol + Polyploidy - presence of an entire extra set separate during meiosis 11, i; tetraploidy = 4n 3. Sex Chromosomal Disorders ‘GENOTYPE | SYNDROME. xO | Turner. female sex characteristics yo | Metatemale ble effects or mild symptoms Superfemale, ‘poor development of secondary male sex characteristics xxy —_| Klinefetter male ))) breast development ‘osteoporosis taller than average height. low muscle tone, or muscle weakness (called hypotonia) very curved pinky finger (called clinadactyly) widely spaced eyes (called hypertelorism) J LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZ15 Replication ‘© DNA replication is the process by which DNA makes @ copy of itself during cell division. 11. The first step in DNA replication is to unzip’ the double helix structure of the DNA molecule. This is carried out by an enzyme called helicase which breaks the hydrogen bonds holding the complementary bases of DNA together (A with T, C with G). 2. The separation of the two single strands of DNA creates a shape called a replication fork’. The two separated strands will act as templates for making the new strands of DNA. One of the strands is oriented in the 3'to 5° direction (towards the replication fork), this isthe leading strand. The other strand is oriented in the 5' to 3° direction (away from the replication fork), this is the lagging strand. As a result of their different orientations, the two strands are replicated differently: 3. Leading Strand: ‘© Asshort piece of RNA called a primer(produced by an enzyme called primase) comés along and binds to the ‘end of the leading strand. The primer acts as the starting point for DNA syn ‘© DNA polymerase binds to the leading strand and then ‘walks’ along it, addingymew co tary ‘nucleotide bases (A, C, G and T) to the strand of DNA in the 5° to 3d ‘© This sort of replication is called continuous. 4, Lagging strand ‘© Numerous RNA primers are made by the primase enzyme and bind 2 19 the lagging strand, © Chunks of DNA, called Okazaki fragments, are then adde 1e 5'to ¥ direction. ‘© This type of replication Is called discontinuous as the Okaz ‘Joined up tater 5. Once all of the bases are matched up (A with T, C wi strips away the primer(s). The gans where the primer(s) are then, ary nucleotides, 6. The new strand is then proofread to make sure the new DNA sequence. 7. Finally, an enzyme called DNA ligase seals upithe 0 continuous double strands. ‘©The result of DNA replication is two DI and one old chain of nucleotides. ‘© This is why DNA replication is described as: ive, haf ofthe chain is part ofthe original DNA ‘molecule, half is brand new. © Following replication, the new DNA REPLICATION (INTERPHASE -S) ‘a double helix. DNA Polymerase (POO) ‘ingle strand, Binaing proteins LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZ16 Transcription + Transcription isthe process by which DNA is copied (transcribed) to mRNA, which carries the information needed for protein synthesis. Transcription takes place in two broad steps. 1LFist, presmessenger RNA is formed, with the involvement of RNA polymerase enzymes. ‘2 The process relies on Watson-Crck base pairing, and the resultant single strand of RNA isthe reverse- complement ofthe orginal DNA sequence. 2. The pre-messenger RNA is then "edited" to produce the desired mRNA molecule in 2 process called RNA splicing. ‘+ The mechanism of transcription has parallels in that of DNA replication. As with DNA replication, partial unwinding of the double helix must occur before transcription can take place, and itis the RNA polymerase enzymes that catalyze this process ‘= Unlike DNA replication, in which both strands are copied, only one strand is transcribed. The stfand that contains the ‘+ Ribonucleoside triphosphates (NTPs) align along the antisense DNA strand, with ‘with U). RNA polymerase joins the ribonucteotides together to form a pre-m ‘complermentary Lo ¢ reyivit of Ue enlisense: DNA strand. Transcriplion ends reaches a triplet of bases that is read as a "stop" signal. The DNA molecule TRANSCRIPTION LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZ7 Transiation ‘+ The mRNA formed in transcription is transported out ofthe nucleus, into the cytoplasm, tothe ribosome (the calls protein synthesis factory). Here it directs protein synthesis. Messenger RNA is rot direct involved in protein synthesis ~ transfer RNA (LRNA) is required for this. The process by which mRNA directs protein synthesis with the assistance of tRNA I called translation. ‘+ The ribosome is a very large complex of RNA and protein molecules. Each three-base stretch of mRNA (triplet) is known as a codon, and one codon contains the information for a specific amino acid. As the mRNA passes through the ribosome, each codon interacts with the anticadon of a specific transfer RNA (tRNA) molecule by Watson-Crick base pairing, This tRNA molecule carries an amino acid at its 3'-terminus, which is incorporated into the growing protein chain. The tRNA is then expelled from the ribosome. TRANSLATION RIBOSOME ‘Overview of Transcription and Translation NA] 5! ATGGGGCTCAGCGAC..3' (Sewesiad] coanesrana TACCCCGAGTCGATG. 5 « Antisense strand Template Strand J LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZ18 IV. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY ‘A. TISSUES: 1. EPITHELIAL TISSUE Function: covering, lining, protective, secretory (glands) ‘Types of epithelium Simple ~ one-layered epithelium = Stratified — two or more layers ‘Common examples: Simple squamous ~ lining cheeks, alveoli Simple columnar — lining digestive tract ‘Types of exocrine gland secretion: ‘= Holocrine = Whole cells shed off containing the secretion (whole = hoo) Example: Sebaceous glands (oil / sebum glands) ‘= Merocrine Secretion is via vesicle; vesicles are released out of the cell, no part of the cell is, ~ Example: Sweat glands = Apuuine — Secretion is via pinching off of the top / apical part of the cel; top part is remaved wi ion — Example: Mammary glands (modified sweat glands) 2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE Function: binding, supporting, protecting, insulating, transports substar ‘+ Basic components of all connective tissues: = Ground substance (or extraceluiar material) — Fibers Cells Main categories: ‘* Connective proper (Loose & Dense) — Typical connective tissue substance fo = Example: dermis of the skin, connective et jal tissue intestine, tendons, ligaments = Cartilage = Type of tissue that is more, proper, but less firm then bone — Examples: outer ear, cartldgeia — Lymphatic tissue is rich in lymphocytes & accessory cells such as macrophages, reticular cells LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZ19 3. MUSCLE TISSUE Function: movement * Components of muscle cells: — Myofibrl = 1 muscle cell = multinucleated — Actin + Myosin = contractile units of muscles; responsible for contraction = Sarcomere - from 1 Z-line to another Z-line ‘Types of muscle tissue: + Skeletal Muse — Striated, muiti-nucleated, voluntary — Can be found all ever the body Smooth Muscle ~ Non-striated, uni-nucleated, involuntary + Can be found in walls of internal / visceral organs (e.g digestive tract walls, blood, * Cardiac Muscle — Striated, uni or b-nucleated, involuntary — Spevilized muscle Uissue thal can only be found in Ure treat /ERVOUS TISSUE Function: sensory input integration, control of muscles and glands, * Components of a nerve cell: = Cell body / Soma — equivalent to the cytoplasm of a — Nucleus: — Dendrites — receives information to be processed — Axons ~ sends out information to the target org + Myelin sheath ~ insulates axon, therefore lea Electrical impulses are then jumping from one No ‘and cannot receive electric impulses. B, ORGANS AND ORGAN SYSTEMS 3. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM Function: Protection of the body from t {In addition to its barrier function, thi maintenance, synthesis of Vitamin D, receptors) Notable parts: ‘= Dermis ~ conn ‘+ Hypodermis ~ «= Arrector pill —nvolunta LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZ20 2, SKELETAL SYSTEM Major bones in the boy: «= Cranium (skul) = Frontal bone ~ front top = Parietal bone — top back = Occipital bone — back (near the nape) — Temporal bone (temples) ~ top side = Gaviele ~ colar bone + Sternum ~ chest bone + Scapula ~ shoulder bone + Ribs 7 true ribs (attaches to sternum); 5 false ris (attaches to cartilage ofthe 7th rib) * Humerus ~ Femur + Radius ~ Tibia ~ corresponds to the thumb side + Ulna » Fibula ~ corresponds to the pinky side Carpats ~ Tarsals “+ Metacerpas ~ Metatarsais + Phalanges + Patella ~ knee bone / cap + Pevic Gule = ium corresponds tothe waist bone = Ischium - posteriorly; Lone used for sitting — Pubis ~ anteriorly; bone felt above the vagina / penis a Pectoralis Major — chest muscle ‘= Deltoid ~ shoulder muscle «= Triceps, Biceps ~ arm muscle « Latissimus dorsi ~ back muscle ‘= Gluteus maximus ~ butt muscle '* Gastrocnemius ~ shin muscle (posterior) + Sartorius — longest musce in the body LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZ21 ‘Skeletal Muscle Contraction 1. Release of acetylcholine to neuromuscular junction 2. Release of Ca" from the sarcopiasm 3. Binding of Ca to troponin 4. Conformational modifications of Tropomyasin allow attachment of Myosin head to actin filament (Cross-Bridge) 5. Cross-Bridge cycle 4. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Function: Break down (digest) ingeste and be distributed in the body + Parietal peritoneum: + Visceral peritoneum: do: enzymes (pepsin, trypsin, chymotypsin) and releases bicarbonates — Endocrine fun (lowers blood sugar), and glucagon (increases blood sugar) ure (actually acts as reservoir of microorganisms) = Start of jon (via o-amylase enzyme from salivary glands) astication 2. Epiglottis San of tise that prevents food fm entering the respiratory tract = Uvula ~ hanging structure at the top of the oral cavity, directs food towards the esophagus 3. Esophagus LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZ2 4, Stomach = Start of protein digestion appsiagen cic) is activated by Hl (parietal cells) to pepsin =. HCl + bolus = chyme; HCl denatures the proteins (disruption of quaternary, tertiary, and secondary structures) 5, Small Intestine = 3 parts: Duodenum — Jejunum — Tleum — Pancreatic juice and bile are released in the ‘duodenum: digestion of lipids and continued digestion aa ees of proteins and carbohydrates Hsiao 6. Colon / Large Intestine Ascending colon. Transverse colon = Caecum ~ Ascending Colon ~ Transverse Colon ~ Descending Colon — Sigmoid Colon = water reabsorption Heum: Descending colon ‘Sigmaid calon 7. Rectum = Temporary storage site of feces 8. Anus 5, RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Processes: 1 Inhalation + During inhalation, ckaphragm contracts and pulls the I downward, + Pleural cavity volume increases = pressure in the cavity decreases + Air moves from high pressure (outside). (inside) 2. Gae exchange (alveo!) « Passive transport via alveolar 3. Exhalation + Diaphragm relaxes + Pleural cavity volume decreases pleural cavity incre + Air moves from high (outside) + Parietal pleura: Nasopharynx —+ Oropharynx —+ Laryngopharynx 4, Trachea (Windpipe) 5. Bronchi (2- UR) 6. Dronchioies 7. Alveol LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZ23 6. URINARY SYSTEM ‘Kidneys are retroperitoneal (outside the peritoneal cavity) ‘Goal of kidneys is to retain as much water and salt needed by the body ‘= The body conserves salts but when salt intake is in excess, itis excreted in the urine '* Sugars should never be present in the urine, otherwise, this suggests high blood glucose or possible diabetes Pathway of urine inside the kidney 1. Glomerulus + Glomerull are capillaries 2. Bowman's capsule —+ Capillaries excrete the salts and fluds into the bowman’s capsule 3. Proximal convoluted tubule 4. Loop of Henla 5. Distal convoluted tubule 6. Connecting tubule 7. Collecting duct Pathway of urine outside the kidney 1, Collecting duct 2. Ureter =» Paired, one each kidney; conduit of urine into the bladder 3. Bladder — Temporary sluraye site fur urine 4. Urethra —» Not paired, only one coming from the bladder; final conduit of urine aly 55. Vagina / Penis 7. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM we Male Reproductive System Female Reproductive System prostate gland fallopian tbe Inside View (© 2018 Encyclopedia Britannia, ne LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZ24 MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM ‘+ Seminiferous tubules ~ coiled tubules in the testis, which are responsible for production of sperm cells + Leydig cells ~ secrete testosterone (found within testis) + Sertoli cells — provide nourishment to growing sperm cells (found within testis) Gands + Prostate Gland (Paraurethral Gland) — Prostate fluid secretions ai in sperm mobility — Secretions drecty mix with the sperm «+ Seminal Vesicles — Seminal fluid contains fructose which serves asthe energy source forthe sperm — Helps also to neutralize pH ofthe vaginal tract — Secretes into the prostate gland where it mixes with the sperm + Cowper's Gand (Bulbourethral Gland) “r Secretes alkaline mucus makes the sperm adhere to the semen — Secretes into the urethra where i mixes with the sperm Pathway of Sperm in the Male Reproductive Tract 1. Testes = Houses a number of convoluted seminiferous tubules, which produce the sperm cel 2. Epididymis = Storage of mature sperm cells prior to ejaculation 3. Vas Deferens 4, Prostate Gland — Prostate gland receives four ducts: (2) from the vas deferens, right) ‘the seminal vesicles — Seminal vesicles are not part of the pathway of sperm 5. Urethra = Bulbourethral gland secretes its content ‘seminal vesicles) 6. Penis — Glans (head) of the penis ~ sexval stimulation the urethra, whereliuid Pet cells and semen (from prostate and FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM ‘Follicle Formation = development of egg ‘= Ovulation — Process of releasing an egg = Ovulation happens on Day 14 on a ‘= Menstruation =: Happens when the egg — The endometrium is shed sZyyole=0 v2 ‘+ Embryo ~ 2 to a, Neurula + Fetus-8 a given period takes place, resulting to the bleeding. Parts of the Vul + Labia Majora ~ in Covering the vagina, internal to the majora lar to the Glans) found anterior to the vaginal opening — Produces the egg cells or the ovum 2. Fallopian Tube Have fimbriae, fingerike extensions, that help in catching the egg cell from the ovary during ovulation This is where fertilization occurs 3. Uterus, — This isthe site where implantation of the zygote occurs + Once an egg call is successfull fertilized by a sperm cell, they both travel into the uterus for implantation in the uterine walls LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZ25, Pathway of Sperm in the Female Reproductive Tract 41. Vagina = Conduit for sperm and the penis during coltus 2. Cervix = Conduit for sperm only (penis cannot get into cervix anymore) 3. Uterus 4. Fallopian Tub ‘8. CARDIOVACSULAR SYSTEM & LYMPHATIC SYSTEM Function: delivers oxygen and nutrients to cells and takes away wastes. BLOOD + Plasma © the liquid portion of biood containing water, electrolytes, waste and ions * Platelets or thrombocytes ‘© smal, round cellular fragments that are vital for normal biood clotting = REC Ur eryuinunytes © transport oxygen and carbon dioxide ‘© WBC or leukocytes «help the body fight infection and other diseases © Types of leukocytes: ** Granulocytes * Basophils ~ responsible for allergic, * Eosinophi = Pus ~ composed of dead ne pathogen jeutrophils are suicidal cells, they die together with the pathogen + Agranulocytes: ‘Acantigens) = Compatible with: B, O ‘= Blood Type AB (universal recipient) = Cell surface: A-antigens, Brantigens (mixed) = Blood plasma: NO ANTIBODIES — Compatible with: A, B, AB, O ‘= Blood Type O (universal donor) — Call surface: NO ANTIGENS = Blood plasma: Anti-A antibodies, Anti-8 antibodies + Compatible with: only LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZVESSELS ‘= Artery ~ conducts blood away from heart +» Vein — conducts blood towards the heart "conducted blood (oxygenated or deoxygenated) deper HEART Atrioventricular valves: ‘Tricuspid valve ~ RA to «= Bicuspid / Mitral va Semrilunar valves: 10. Bicuspid Valve LL. Left Ventrice 12. Aortic Valve 13, Aorta (artery) — Distributes oxygenated blood to the body LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZ 26Pathway of electric signals in the heart 1. Sinoatrial node = Found on the top right atrium — Pacemaker of the heart ~The heart generates its own electric signals for it to contract; this is ‘separate from the signals coming from the brain itself 2. Atrioventricular node = Found near the tricuspid valve 3, Bundle of His — Found on the septum between the two ventricles 4. Purkinje Fibers = Found on the walls of the ventricles 9. NERVOUS SYSTEM ‘Action Potential 7 Electialeystem ofthe heart, (ines neon Pig bate "> KDadiadiba os Kp a@at pag. © Repotarisation etage aK charred Tie (ree) 'Na* channels open first = influx Kc channels open more sk ‘Subdivision of the Nervous @ Resting Potential ‘SUBDIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM NERVOUS SYSTEM. cea, PERIPHERAL NenvoUS SYSTEM (CNS) ‘wenvOUS SYSTEM (PNS) [Brame and spinal Cora) {Werves to and trem eNs} chsmesrng ee; tral senses frou te rasclerinstmove body) ‘Smoot mises n gut) syuraTaEnie (Emergency) Parts of LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW PARASYMPATHETIC (HOUSEKEEPING) B.VILLAGOMEZ110. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 28 Feedback mechanism = biological response of a system to changes in predetermined set points of the body ~ functions in maintaining homeostasis © Negative feedback = the output reduces the effect of the original stimulus; i.e. thermoregulation o Positive feedback = the output enhances the effect of the original stimulus; i.e. oxytocin production during labor Overview of Hormones + Hormones secreted by the anterior pitutary gland Hypothalamus | Pitutary Gland Effects TRH TSH Thyroxine {TThyroxine = 7 metabolism (Thyroid Gland) Too hig ttc, 1 Thyroxine =| metabolism “Too low = Hypothyroidism; Cretinism RH ACTH Cortisol (Acrenal Gland) | Released in response to. GH, LH, FSH/ISH, Prolactin = secreted by anterior pituitary gland, ADI! 6 Onytocin ~ secreted by posterior pituitary gland. aN GH gigantism, acromegaly nartsm ih Ovation and development of corpus uteum Ics simulates testosterone production FSH Development of gametes Prolactin Wik production r ADH Tncrease reabsorpion of wale Tom urna Oxrocia Causes myometrium conration ++ Antagonistic hormones ‘GLUCAGON INSULIN ‘pha cells of pancreas Beta cells of pancreas Terease break down of glucose in liver G Ke Se storage of glucose in Iver Tncreace blood gh Decrease blood glucose al (CALCITONIN Tnerease Ca’* cone. in Decrease Ca** conc. in Blood Decrease in Tnerease PO cone. in blood Theveasa Trereaa reabsorption of Ca to bones += Sex horgnes Estrogen ent of female reproductive system Progesterone Thickening of uterine wall Te e lopment of male reproductive system LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZ29 V. ECOLOGY 'A. Ecological Relationships ‘An organism is usually associated with another organism. Rarely do we find organisms not interacting with another one. Biotic «ecological relationships shape the community to which they belong and promote eneray flow through the food chain/web.. Relationship Organisms Example utuaism (Symboss) nt neti rab rd Sal eindaan Endoparasitism (intestinal worms) Parasitism Ectoparasitism (lice) Parasitoidism (parasitoidal wasp) Predation ra commensaism +0 Competition i: Ammensalism B, Distribution Patterns Individuals occupying a particular area often compete for resources. AS ibution patterns to maximize available resources. ‘Type Pattern ‘An individual has an equal probabil ‘occurring anywhere in the area Random environment jon between individuals or attraction of ‘lumped individuals to @ common resource jesource and Habit Preference) ‘Antagonistic interactions between individuals or local depletion of resources (Territorial) Uniform @ © @ LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZ30 C. Biomes Ecological relationships are best understood in the context of Biomes. Biomes are large-scale ecosystem primarily distinguished by their dominant vegetation and are usually associated with a particular climate “Terrestrial Biomes ‘Name Tocation Climate Biodiversity. Tropical Rainforests | 1° NAS ofthe | Far emeurte ct | High in organic (Evergreen) Equator ier matter content “Tropial Grassland Seasonal drought, (Savannah) ace intense ightring | __Recky sol Tropical Desert | between 5° and30° (Sandy) N&S latitudes | Priest and hottest Sndy Temperate Desert | 55. — 30° N& S latitudes Hot Lthosol Wetter tan Tenperte cae bar th rasslands North America serts but with | Thin in nutrients Cras) aah Temperate forest | Japan, China, | Receive winter (Deciduous) Siberia precipitation pal re al diversity Tags Wintor Tongar Dominated by tribor eee (Polar Foresty | Mske, Canada| than 6 months a animals are usualy large Tundra eee Noth Pole | coldandy prea Lowest bodvesty Arctic LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZa1 D. Population Ecology =a branch that deals with the dynamics of species populations and how they interact with the how species maximize their reproductive strategies to survive their changing environments. '* Biotic Potential: refers to the maximum rate of increase per individual under ideal conditions. ‘+ Carrying Capacity: refers to the maximum number of individuals in a population that can be sustained indefinitely by a given ‘environment. ‘= Biological Magnification: refers to the increasing concentration of a non-degradable or siowly degradable substance in body tissues as its passed along the food chain. ‘+ Survivorship: survival of a given group of species from the time of the birth until the time the last one dies. «= Population Density ~ no. of individuals in a given area. It is affected by Birth Rate and Death Rate that in turn are affected by two factors: “Density Dependent Factors ~ age, gender Density Independent Factors ~ natural calamities environment. Central to this is The r/K Selection Theory ‘An “-selected species” predominates in fluctuating and unstable environments wile a fominate in stable ones reelected Traits | Reproduce quickly with short generation times ‘Smaller organisms, Tow level of parental investment — offspring are dispersed over a wide area Population High mortality before maturity “Tend te faver large number of offepring to eneur survival until the next change in environment: mnited resources in a stable environment Examples bacteria, weeds, insects, rodents ans, elephants, whales. Mole Female Male Female Mole Fernale 35-29 20.04 25-29 20-24 1519 10-14 Undor s 664.202 4 6 66 4 2.02 4 66 4 2:02 4 6 Percentage ol population Porcentage cf population Percentage of population (a) Mexico (0) United Statos {) Sweden © Growing = the rate of individuals being born exceeds the rate of individuals dying; Le. figure a © Declining = the rate of individuals being dying exceeds the rate of individuals being born; Le. figure & © Staple = the rates oF potn irtn ana aeatn cance! out, making ine population staove; 12. Ngure C LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZ32 E. Energy Flow Energy Flows in the Ecosystem: = Energy in the form of heat will be released during the transfer of energy within organisms. Therefore, itis not 100% efficent in the energy pyramid. Only 10% is obtained by each trophic level. F. Succession Ecological succession - the process by which the structure of a biological co = Primary succession occurs in essentially lifeless areas—regions in whic 1*Sere is defined as the sequence of development climax stage 1 Seral Stage is stage found in ecological succession in 1. Nudation: ‘The process of succession begi ‘oleanic eruption, landslide, flood ‘New lifeless bare areas ar flooding large land a 2 or nudation by several reasons, such as , disease, of other catastrophic agency. le, wall, stone quarrying, burning, digging, invaders (pioneers) in any area because the animals depend on spores or other propagules of the species reach the bare area through The process starting from the time a propagule leaves the parent plant ea is called migration. Becessful establishment of migrated plant species into the new area. It includes is or propagules, growth of seedlings and starting of reproduction by adult plants only a gules are capable of doing this under primitive hard conditions, and thus most of them nal stage of invasion, the successful immigrant individuals of a species increase their luction and aggregate in @ large population in the area and in consequence individuals of sof individuals of a species increase due to multiplication and all aggregate at the limited place, petition for space and nutrition is started among them (Intraspecific competition). They also ipete with individuals of other species that may enter the area (interspecific competition). CAI individuals also interact with the environment. Consequently due to increased intra-and interspecific ‘competitions and other type of biotic and a biotic interactions, the environment is modified and progressively becoming unsuitable for the existing community which sooner or later is replaced by new invaders or anather community. ‘oFinding the modified environment more suitable more species enter the area and compete with the previous ‘occupants. This results in a balance among the species in which the former species is brought down to a ‘subdominant status or is completely eliminated. The addition of organic matter, nutrients and more moisture in the substratum by small plants make it suitable for larger ones. LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZ33 clncrease availabilty of food allows various kinds of animals to jin the community and the resuiting interactons further mocify the environment ane pave the way for fresh invasion by other species of plants ‘and animals to move on the process of succession. 4, Stabilization or dimax: cE ventually a stage is reached when the final terminal community becomes more or les stabilized fo @ longer peti of time and it can maintain itsetf in the equibrium or steady state withthe climate ofthat area, ‘Theoretically a least, this last seri stage is mature, self-maintaning, self reproducing through evelopment stages and relatively permanent. The vegetation is tolerant ofthe environmental conditions it imposed upon itsetf. This terminal community is characterized be equilibrium between gross primary production and total respiration, between the energy captured from sunlight and energy released by decomposition, between the uptake of nutrients and the return of nutrients by iter fal cothas a wide diversity of species, a well-developed spatial structure, and complex food) chains; and its living biomass is in a steady state. This final stable community ofthe sere isthe cl wnurity, and the ‘vegetation supporting it isthe cimax vegetation. Primary Succession LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZ34 VI. Botany ‘A. Plant Cell Structures = bound by a cell wall consist mainly of cellulose = a pectic middle lamella lies between the primary cel walls of adjacent plant cells - the outer boundary of the protoplasm (cytoplasm and nucleus) is a sandwich-lke, flexible plasma membrane. - special ‘organelles in plants: a. Chloroplasts (©. Specialized subunit that conduct photosynthesis where the chlorophyll is found ‘© Inside a chloroplast is a matrix called the stroma, Enzymes are found in the stroma as well as grana—stacks of ccoin-shaped discs, called thylakoids. ‘+ where photosynthesis takes place. + contain their own DNA. + rely on proteins from the nucleus and are considered semi-autonomous organelles. . Vacuoles ‘© 90% of the volume of the cell may be taken up by single large vacuole or several vacudles. © Bound by a membrane, tonoplast ‘© Contains cell sap ~ composed of dissolved substances and may include pigments B, Plant Characteristics ode OF HOUTEN ‘RaLoTopTIC Extent of growth Tndeterminate. ‘Cell wall Cellulose; rigid; inert Nervous system ‘Absent, Mobility Mostiy immobile Primary food reserve Starch; unsaturated ois Waste products Photosynthesis; COs from migtabolism . Plant Basic Anatomy 1. Types of Piant Cells *Parenchyma- least specialized; serves for generallmetabolie synthetic and'storage functions; retain the ability to divide and differentiate nto other cell types under certaliconditions, * Collenchyma- occur in strands or cylindersfipectn alternates with elulose; for strength. ‘= Sclerenchyma- which signifies secondary walls; Unable to elongate ab maturity; consist of fibers and sclereid types; for support and protection. 2. Plant Tissues Plant tissues are characterized id classified according WBthelr structure and function. The organs that they form will be ‘organized into pattems within a plantyshich will 2id in furthet classifying the plant. a, Meristematic Tissues - primarily condemned with prOtoBlasnic synthesis and cell division, i. Apical Meristem © located at or near the tips foots and Shoots © responsibior vertical grow (primary grown) © producesthree types ‘oh pxiiary mefistems: protoderm, ground meristems, and procambium which will produ the cals that will form the primary tissues. Lateral Meristem’ © occupiesia latefl position, Batlle! to roots and stems © account fOr Secondary grown {horizontal growth), ie. girth, diameter, width vascular cambium > Responsible forithe pfoduction of cells and tissues that increase the thickness, gith, of the plant that runs the lenath of the roats_and stems of most perennial plants and many herbaceous annuals. © €6rk cambium, li, Interealary Mefistem + Derived from apical meristem + May be intercalated between tissues that are more or less mature b. Permanent Tissue Systems: + Dermal Tissue System- an externa layer of tightly packed cells for protection; includes the epidermis (formed during primary growth) and periderm (Formed during secondary growth). ‘+ Epidermis - outermost layer of cells on al plant organs (roots, stems, leaves) + Periderm - made of semi-rectangular and boxike cork cells; dead at maturity and secretes suberin, a fatty substance that make cork cells waterproof thus aid in protecting tissues beneath the bark. + Ground Tissue System- fundamental tissue that functions for organic synthesis, storage and support; includes parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma and endodermis. + Vascular Tissue System- conducting tissue of plants; includes xylem and phioem ‘+ Xylem = carries water and dissolved substances Phloem — carries dissolved tood substances throughout the piant. LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZ35 D. Plant Physiology 1. Plant Metabolism a. Photosynthesis process by which light energy is captured, converted and stored in simple sugar molecule. Equation: 660; + 12H1,0 + light energy ~> CelHa0g + 603 + 61120 ~ occurs in two successive processes: the light reactions and the carbon-fxing reactions, + The Light Reactions =~ Involve light striking the chlorophyll molecules embedded in the thylakoids of chloroplasts = Results in conversion of light energy to chemical energy = Water molecules split into H" and e° and Oss released, and ATP are created ‘+The Carbon-Fixing Reactions (Dark Reactions) = Light does not play a direct role = Take place outside the grana in the stroma of the chloroplast = Most common type in plants is the Calvin Cycle. = _ The ATP and NADPH molecules from the light reactions provide the er resoure8® for the reactions Mechanisms of Converting C03 to Sugar ‘a. The Calvin Cycle (3-Carbon Pathway) = Wilh Ure essistante uf the Enzyte rubisuy (RUDP Lar Luxylase), ‘© The sugars produced can either add to an increase in the sugar tent) OF the plant or they can be used in pathways that lead to the production of lipids o b. 4-Carbon Pathway (C4 Plants) ‘© This process is enzyme mediated and occurs in the mesoy the leaf ‘+The C4 cycle furnishes carbon dioxide to the Calvin ‘+ greatly reduces photorespiretion in C4 plants c. CAM-Photosynthesis (Crassulacean Acid Metal ‘© accumulate malic acid in their chlorenichym: during the day ‘= generally, lose their stomata during reduce wat b. Respiration: Equation: Catt:05 + 602 —»6H0 + 6002 ‘Comparison of Photosynthesis and Respiration Photosynthesis. “Takes in CO} Release COs Binds O2 Degrades sugar & other organic compounds Results in decrease in dry weight ‘Occurs in all ving cells Releases energy (Occurs throughout Ife LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZ2. Sexual Reproduction Overview toroguments vera 36 Functions: Stimulate stem elongation, root growth, evelopment of fruit, apical dominance & differentiation Cell division & growth root & differentiation germination flowering Promote seed & bud germination, stem sellin al bud meristem, young leaves, embryo | ee a oe dewcopent Inhibits growth, closes stomata, counteracts Abscisic Leaves, stems & green fruit reskncot aaenaney Eitviene ‘Tissues of ripening fruits, nodes of stem, | Promotes fruit ripening, opposes some auxin enezeent leaves and flowers cffects 4. Tropism = plant movement that is determined by the direction of an environmental stimulus. = Movement toward an environmental stimulus is called a positive tropism, and movement away from a stimulus is called a negative ~ Phototropism (light), Thigmetropism (touch), Gravitropism (gravity) & Chemotropism (chemicals). LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEW B.VILLAGOMEZ