ELEC-8900 Special Topics:

Advanced Energy Storage Systems

Lecture 08: Battery Capacity Estimation
Instructor: Dr. Balakumar Balasingam
July 14, 2022

Contents
1 Introduction 1

2 Basics of Battery Capacity Estimation 3

2.1 Offline Estimation of Battery Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Real-time Capacity Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

3 Capacity Estimation in the Presence of Noise 5

3.1 LS Estimate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.2 TLS Estimate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

4 Recursive Estimates 9
4.1 Recursive LS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.2 Recursive TLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.3 Kalman Filter Based Fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

5 Experimental Results 12
5.1 OCV-SOC characterization test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.2 Dynamic discharge-charge profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.3 Real-time capacity estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

6 Conclusions 17

1 Introduction
From the moment a battery is made, it starts to go through a process known
as the capacity fade. Capacity fade is caused by ageing, fast charging, heavy
usage, and extreme environmental conditions. A robust battery management
needs accurate knowledge of the battery capacity to estimate all critical states
required for effective battery management: state of charge, state of power, state

1
of health, time to empty, and remaining useful life. Incorrect knowledge of
battery capacity may lead to consequential decisions, such as overcharging.
The simplest approach to track the battery capacity is to use a capacity
fade model. Figure 1 shows the battery capacity against the number of cycles
obtained over 500 identical charge-discharge cycles. This data can be fitted to
a model to obtain a capacity fade model.

1.95

1.9

1.85

1.8
Discharge capacity (Ah)

1.75

1.7

1.65

1.6

1.55

1.5
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Cycle number

Figure 1: Capacity fade over time [2].

The problem with the capacity fade model in Figure 1 is that the data is
from identical charge-discharge cycles that were collected consecutively without
any breaks. Real world conditions could be in a battery: there will be uneven
gaps between cycles, the length of charge/discharge cycles won’t be complete,
and the environmental conditions won’t be fixed.
This chapter explains approaches to estimate the battery capacity in real-
time without the use of a capacity fade model. The approach presented in
this chapter relies on the relative stability (over time) of OCV-SOC curves for
capacity estimation in real time.

2
2 Basics of Battery Capacity Estimation
2.1 Offline Estimation of Battery Capacity
In an offline setting, the battery capacity can be estimated by completely dis-
charging the battery from when it was full until it becomes empty. By denoting
the open circuit voltage (OCV) of the battery as OCVmax and OCVmin when
it is full and empty, respectively, it can be said that the total capacity of the
battery can be estimated by discharging the battery from OCV = OCVmax to
OCV = OCVmin . However, such complete discharge is only possible with an
infinitely small current. That is, computing the total capacity is a time con-
suming process. In typical OCV characterization experiments, an approximate
value of the total capacity is computed by discharging the battery at C/30 rate
— taking approximately 30 hours to compute the total capacity.
Rated capacity measurements can be obtained relatively fast. The C-rate
capacity is estimated by discharging the battery at C-rate from full, i.e., when
the rested voltage measured OCV = OCVmax until the terminal voltage reaches
OCV = OCVmin . The experimental time for C-rate capacity estimation will last
slightly less than one hour.
The battery capacity fades over time depending on the age, environmental
conditions, and usage patterns. It is important to keep track of the battery
capacity to have accurate knowledge of the state of health of the battery. That
is, there is a critical need to estimate the battery capacity in real-time.

2.2 Real-time Capacity Estimation

The open circuit voltage model of a battery can be exploited to estimate the
battery capacity in real-time. Consider the scenario illustrated in Figure 2
where the battery measured OCV = OCV1 at the start of the experiment. The
battery is then discharged by extracting C Coulombs (measured in Ah) from
it. At the end of this discharge, and after sufficiently resting the battery, the
battery measured OCV = OCV2 .
Let us assume that the following combined+3 model is used to represent the
OCV-SOC characterization of the battery
k1 k2 k3 k4
OCV = fOCV (s) =k0 + + 2 + 3 + 4
s s s s
+ k5 s + k6 ln(s) + k7 ln(1 − s) (1)

where s denotes the SOC. Assuming that the parameters k0 , . . . , k7 of the OCV-
SOC model is known, the SOC can be computed for a given OCV, i.e.,
−1
s = fOCV (OCV) (2)

Now, for the two OCV measurements in Figure 2, the corresponding SOC

3
 4.2

3.8

3.6

3.4

3.2

2.8
0 20 40 60 80 100
State of charge (%)

Figure 2: OCV based capacity estimation.

values can be obtained as

−1
SOC1 = fOCV (OCV1 ) (3)
−1
SOC2 = fOCV (OCV2 ) (4)

The change in SOC is equal to the change in Coulombs normalized by the

battery capacity, i.e.,
C
dSOC = SOC2 − SOC1 = (5)
Q
where C denotes the change in Coulombs and Q denotes the battery capacity.
Using the relationship (5), the battery capacity can be estimated.
In real-world setting, the OCV measurements can be corrupted by various
sources of noise. The remainder of this chapter details various filtering ap-
proaches for the accurate real-time estimation of battery capacity in the pres-
ence of noise.

4
3 Capacity Estimation in the Presence of Noise
A typical scenario involving noisy OCV measurement is shown in Figure 3. The
curve in blue shows the true OCV curve and the curve in red shows the envelop
of error. This error could be due to hysteresis and relaxation effects within the
battery. To illustrate this further, consider the equivalent circuit model (ECM)
of the battery, shown in Figure 4. The relaxation effect of the battery is mod-
elled as a series of RC circuits; when the battery is fully at rest the relaxation
effect become zero, i.e., when there is no current activity through the battery for
sufficient time, the voltage across the RC circuits becomes zero. “The hysteresis
in Li-ion batteries is generated due to the thermodynamic entropic effects, me-
chanical stress, and microscopic distortions within the active electrode materials
during Lithium insertion/extraction [3]”. The hysteresis effect does not vanish
when resting the battery. When the battery is fully rested the relaxation error
becomes zero. The measured voltage at time ‘t’ can be written as
zv [t] = V◦ (s[t]) + h[t] (6)
where the hysteresis h[t] corrupts the measured OCV.
The OCV-SOC characteristic curve can be used to get a measure of SOC
whenever the battery is sufficiently rested. The SOC of the battery for a given
at-rest terminal voltage (which is also the open circuit voltage) zv [t], written as
−1
x̂s [t] = fOCV (zv [t]) (7)
can be computed using the OCV-SOC characterization by computing the inverse
of (1). There are several methods for computing the inverse of a non-linear
function, such as Newton’s method and binary search [4].
The SOC estimation error in (7) is modelled as follows
xs [t] = x̂s [t] + x̃s [t] (8)
where the OCV lookup error x̃s [t] is caused by the hysteresis effect as illustrated
in Figure 3. Figure 3 shows that when the battery comes to rest at time t after
a discharging process, the OCV lookup error x̃s [t] will be negative. Similarly,
when the battery comes to rest at time t after a charging process, the OCV
lookup error x̃s [t] will always be positive. However, the magnitude of the error
will vary with the amount of hysteresis, which is a function of the magnitude of
the current before rest, SOC and time.
Let us assume that the SOC1 and SOC2 in (5) are measured at rest-time
‘t1 ’ and ‘t2 ’ respectively. Let us denote these as
xs [t1 ] ≜ SOC1 (9)
xs [t2 ] ≜ SOC2 (10)
According to the model in (8), the above SOC estimates can be written as
xs [t1 ] = x̂s [t1 ] + x̃s [t1 ] (11)
xs [t2 ] = x̂s [t2 ] + x̃s [t2 ] (12)

5
 4.2 OCVmax

4.1

𝑧$ (𝑡" ) 4

EMF (V) 3.9

𝑧$ (𝑡# ) 3.8

3.7

3.6

3.5
OCVmin
3.4

3.3
0 20 40 60 80 100
State of charge (%)

𝑥!! (𝑡# ) 𝑥!! (𝑡# ) 𝑥!! (𝑡" ) 𝑥!! (𝑡" )

Figure 7: EMF voltage of a battery as it is being discharged. In batteries,
the EMF voltage drops as 𝑥
the(𝑡battery
) is discharged
𝑥 (𝑡and
) vice versa.
! # ! "

Figure 3: Generic description of OCV lookup error. The solid line in blue
4.2 trueNominal
shows the OCV-SOCcapacitycharacteristics. The dashed lines in green describe
the effect of hysteresis
Nominal capacity when
is the the battery
maximum comesoftoCoulombs
amount rest after charging
that (above
can be discharged
blue line)
fromor adischarging
battery at (below blue line). In other words, nominal capacity is the
any temperature.
maximum total capacity of the battery. The temperature at which the total
battery capacity is maximum is defined as the nominal temperature of the
where x̂battery,
[t ] and
s 1
i.e.,
x̂ [t ] refer to the computed SOC according to (7) and x̃ [t ],
s 2 s 1
x̃s [t2 ] refer to the SOC estimation error
T̂nom = due argtomaxhysteresis.
Qtot (T ) (1)
By subtracting (11) from (12) and making use T of the relationship in (5) we
can write where Qtot (T ) describes the total capacity of the battery as a function of tem-
perature T. The nominal battery capacity is then
dks = Q−1 dkc + w̃sk (13)
Qnom = Qtot (T̂nom ) (2)
where
The total capacity Qtot increases with temperature up to the nominal temper-
dkc = C (14)
ature. Beyond that, the total capacity starts to decline with increasing temper-
k
ature. It is also important ds to
= note
x̂s [t2that
] − x̂the
s [t1nominal
] (15)
temperature may (slightly)
vary from battery to battery. k It must be noted that the manufacturer specified
w̃ = x̃s [t1 ] − x̃s [t2 ] (16)
nominal temperature (ands nominal capacity) are only approximate. However,
It mustroom temperature
be noted is generallyofconsidered
that, regardless the fact that to be the
an approximate
sign of OCVvalue lookupof the
nominal temperature.
error x̃s [t] is biased towards the battery mode ∈ {charging, discharging}, the
“differential Figure 9 w̃
error” shows
k measured total capacity values of three di↵erent battery
s (defined in (16)) can either be positive or negative. By
cells at di↵erent temperatures.
considering a large number of differential These three we
errors, di↵erent
assume battery
w̃sk iscells were identical,
approximately
white.
10
6
 Hysteresis effect Relaxation effect
h(k)
R0 i1 (k) R1 iN (k) RN i(k)

−
+
+

+ − + − +
V0 (s[k]) C1 CN zv (k)
−

Figure 4: Hysteresis and relaxation effects in a battery. The relaxation ef-

fect can be determined after estimating the equivalent circuit model parameters
of the battery. Accurate hysteresis estimation remains a challenging problem.

Consider that there are N rest states in a batch of measurements — this

will result in N (N − 1)/2 measurements similar to (13).
Remark 1. For example, for N = 4, let us assume the battery is in rest state
at time instances t1 , t2 , t3 and t4 . Table 1 shows the possible rest pairs for dif-
ferential observations.

Table 1: Possible rest pairs for OCV based capacity estimation

First rest Second rest Measurement id (k)

t1 t2 k=1
t1 t3 k=2
t1 t4 k=3
t2 t3 k=4
t2 t4 k=5
t3 t4 k=L=6

Let us assume that a κth batch of L measurements of (13) are made. This
can be represented as

dκs = Q−1 dκc + w̃sκ (17)

where
T
dκs = d1s , d2s , . . . , dL

s (18)
T
dκc = d1c , d2c , . . . , dL

c (19)
T
w̃sκ = ws1 , ws2 , . . . , wsL

(20)

7
 In the practical usage of mobile devices, there will be many time epochs of
rest state within each cycle of usage. It must be noted that the batch length L
can be time varying.

3.1 LS Estimate
Now, the LS estimate of the inverse battery capacity is given by
 −1
κ −1 κ T −1
Q̂−1
LS = (dκ T
c ) (Σw̃s ) dc (dκc ) (Σκw̃s ) dκs (21)

where Σκw̃s is the covariance matrix with noise w̃sκ .

Σκw̃s = E(w̃sκ (w̃sκ )T ) (22)

For independent and identically distributed noise,

Σκw̃s = σ 2 I (23)

where σ 2 = E[(w̃sk )2 ] is the variance of the noise, w̃sk . The variance of the LS
inverse capacity estimate is
 −1
−1
RLS [κ] = (dκc )T (Σκw̃s ) dκc (24)

3.2 TLS Estimate

It must be noted that dκc in (17) is constructed from measured current values
that are known to be noisy whereas the LS and RLS estimation methods assume
that dκc is perfectly known. For a more realistic solution, one should consider the
uncertainty in dκc . In this section, we propose an approach based on total least
squares (TLS) optimization that addresses errors in both dκs and dκc . For more
details about the TLS method, the reader is referred to [5] and the references
therein.
Let us construct the following augmented observation matrix
h i
Hκ = dκs dκc (25)

The information matrix associated with the augmented observation matrix

is

SκH = (Hκ )T Hκ (26)

Let us write the eigen decomposition of SκH in the following form

SκH = Vκ Λκ Vκ T (27)

where
– Λκ is a diagonal 2 × 2 matrix of non-negative eigenvalues arranged from the

8
largest to the smallest, i.e., Λκ (1, 1) denotes the largest eigenvalue and Λκ (2, 2)
denotes the smallest eigenvalue.
– Each column of the 2 × 2 matrix Vk = v1κ , v2κ has the corresponding eigen-
 

vectors, i.e., the first column v1κ is the eigenvector corresponding to the largest
eigenvalue and the second column v2κ is the eigenvector corresponding to the
smallest eigenvalue.
The TLS estimate of the inverse battery capacity is then given by the ratio
of the components of v2κ , namely,

v2κ (1)
Q̂−1
TLS [κ] = −
v2κ (2)
SκH (1, 2)
= κ (28)
SH (1, 1) − Λκ (2, 2)

where v2κ (i) is the ith element of v2κ and SκH (i, j) is the (i, j)th element of SκH .
The derivation of (28) is shown in Appendix ??.
Remark 2. The TLS estimates are useful when the noise in the model is very
high. It was shown in [1] that when the noise in the model is low, both the LS
and TLS estimates coincide.

4 Recursive Estimates
The capacity estimates shown in (21) and (28) were based on a batch of at
least two measurements. For examples, the batch κ may refer to measurements
taken in a certain day and the batch κ + 1 may refer to measurements taken
from another day. The number of measurements in each batch may differ from
one batch to another. Recursive approaches presented in this section can be
used to update the capacity estimates based on batch measurements over long
time.

4.1 Recursive LS
When a new batch of {dκ+1
s , dκ+1
c } pair arrives, the LS estimates can be recur-
sively updated by
−1 −1 −1 κ+1
PRLS [κ + 1] = λPRLS [κ] + (dκ+1
c )T (Σκ+1
w̃s ) dc (29)

−1 κ+1
 
Q̂−1 −1 −1
) (Σκ+1
κ+1 T
RLS [κ + 1] = PRLS [κ + 1] λPRLS [κ]Q̂RLS [κ] + (dc w̃s ) ds (30)

−1
where PRLS [κ] is the L × L information matrix for capacity estimation and λ
is the fading memory constant. Figure 5 shows a block diagram of the RLS
approach for recursive estimation of capacity.

9
 Figure 5: Block diagram of the RLS approach.

4.2 Recursive TLS

The information matrix in (26) can be updated with a fading memory, as follows

κ−1 (Hκ )T Hκ
SκH = λSH + (31)
L−1
Now, based on [6], the TLS estimation error covariance is (approximately)

M
!−1
1 X
RTLS [κ] = hκ (hκ )T (32)
(zκ )T SκH zκ i=1 i i

where hκi is the ith row of Hκ , M is the number of rows in Hκ and

T
vκ (1)

z = − 2κ
κ
−1 (33)
v2 (2)

Figure 6 shows a block diagram of the recursive TLS approach for recursive
estimation of capacity.

4.3 Kalman Filter Based Fusion

The recursive approaches presented in Section 4.1 and Section 4.2 both treat the
capacity as a parameter that doesn’t change over time. This section presents
an approach to model the slow change in capacity over time and to track its
change over time based on batch estimates.

10
 Figure 6: Block diagram of the recursive TLS approach.

Let us assume the battery capacity to be a random variable that undergoes

the following slowly changing Wiener process
xc [κ + 1] = xc [κ] + wc [κ] (34)
where wc [κ] is assumed to be zero mean white Gaussian noise with variance
Qc [κ]. The capacity estimates, either Q̂TLS [κ] or Q̂LS [κ], fit the following ob-
servation model
zc [κ] = xc [κ] + nc [κ] (35)
where nc [κ] is assumed to be a zero mean white noise with variance

RTLS [κ] if zc [κ] = Q̂TLS [κ]
Rc [κ] = (36)
RLS [κ] if zc [κ] = Q̂LS [κ]
n o
Now, whenever a new measurement zc [κ] ∈ Q̂TLS [κ], Q̂LS [κ] is received,
the Kalman filter based fused capacity estimate is obtained as
x̂c [κ|κ] =x̂c [κ − 1|κ − 1]
Pc [k − 1|k − 1] + Qc [κ − 1]  
+ zc [κ] − x̂c [k − 1|k − 1] (37)
Pc [κ − 1|κ − 1] + Qc [κ − 1] + Rc [κ]
where x̂c [κ−1|κ−1] is the previous update of capacity estimate and Pc [κ−1|κ−1]
is the previous estimation error variance which is updated as
Rc [κ](Pc [κ − 1|κ − 1] + Qc [κ − 1])
Pc [κ|κ] = (38)
Pc [κ − 1|κ − 1] + Qc [κ − 1] + Rc [κ]

11
 Figure 7 shows a block diagram of the recursive TLS approach for recursive
estimation of capacity.

Figure 7: Block diagram of the KF approach.

5 Experimental Results
The proposed approach for estimating the capacity of a battery is demonstrated
using data collected from a commercially available Li-ion battery. The model
number of the battery is Samsung-30T INR21700. The battery is shown in
Figure 8 and the features of the cell are summarized in Table 2. The tested
battery is labelled ‘C1212’ and will be referred using this label in the remainder
of this paper. The data from battery is collected using the Arbin battery cy-
cler (LBT21084, Arbin Instruments, USA). It has 16 independently controlled
channels, each with a voltage range of 0-5V and a current range of ±10A. A
single channel was used to collect data from the battery at room temperature.
A low current slow discharge-charge cycle is pursued to characterize the
battery to model its open circuit voltage (OCV) as a function of its state of
charge (SOC)(5.1). The true capacity of the battery is also determined from its
OCV-SOC test. The characterization test is followed by a dynamic discharge-
charge current profile (5.2) during which the capacity of the battery is estimated
one hour after every rest state in the profile.

5.1 OCV-SOC characterization test

A constant current - constant voltage (CC-CV) charging regime is followed to
fully charge the battery before conducting an OCV-SOC test.
1. A constant current of 0.5A is supplied to the battery until the terminal
voltage reaches 4.2V.
2. The terminal voltage is maintained at 4.2V during constant voltage charg-
ing until the current drops to 0.01A.

12
 Figure 8: Samsung-30T INR21700 Li-ion battery

3. The battery is rested for one hour.

4. A constant current of C/30 is supplied to slowly discharge the battery for
thirty hours until the SOC reaches 0%. A rest of 1 hour is provided after
which the battery is charged by C/30 again for thirty hours until the SOC
reaches 100%.

The terminal voltage and current are recorded from the battery during the
OCV-SOC test. The data is processed to obtain the typical OCV-SOC curve
represented by the combined+3 model in (39). The experimental setup used for
testing the batteries is shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9: Experimental setup for battery testing

13
 Table 2: Specifications of Li-ion battery

Specification Value(unit)
Nominal capacity 3000mAh
Max. continuous discharge current 35A
Nominal voltage 3.6V
Height 70mm
Diameter 21mm
Weight 70g
Internal resistance 15m Ω

The combined+3 OCV-SOC model is given by,

k1 k2 k3 k4
V◦ (s) =k0 + + 2 + 3 + 4
s s s s
+ k5 s + k6 ln(s) + k7 ln(1 − s) (39)

where, it is assumed that the OCV parameters k0 , k1 , . . . k7 are obtained by

linearly scaling s ∈ [0, 1] to lie between [ϵ, 1 − ϵ].
Table 3 gives the values of the obtained OCV parameters for the battery cell
‘C1212’.

Table 3: Obtained OCV-SOC parameters

C1212
k0 -9.931511
k1 146.274963
k2 -25.365256
k3 2.845075
k4 -0.139554
k5 -113.475854
k6 205.066794
k7 -1.349234

The results of OCV-SOC modeling is shown in Fig.(10).

The true capacity of the battery is determined as the average of the discharge
and charge capacities. The discharge and charge capacities are evaluated as the
amount of Coulombs drawn out of the battery during the full discharge cycle
and the amount of Coulombs supplied to the battery during the full charge cycle
respectively. The evaluated true capacity of the battery ‘C1212’ is 2.9625Ah.

14
 OCV-SOC Characterization
4.2
OCV
Terminal Voltage
4

3.8

3.6
Voltage (V)

3.4

3.2

2.8

2.6

2.4
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
State of Charge (%)
Figure 10: OCV-SOC characterization

5.2 Dynamic discharge-charge profile

The battery is subjected to a dynamic discharge-charge current profile as shown
in Fig.(11). The profile mimics a driving cycle with rest states interspersed in
discharge-charge cycles. The battery rest states are equivalent to when a vehicle
stops. At these rest states, the battery is neither charging nor discharging (i.e)
the battery current is zero. The proposed approach takes advantage of these
rest stops to determine the capacity of the battery one hour after every rest is
identified.
In the experiment conducted, six rest states are identified (i.e) states at
which the battery current is close to zero. One hour after every rest state is
highlighted in black and numbered. This is shown in Fig.(11).

5.3 Real-time capacity estimation

As seen in Sec.(3), for six rest states, N = 6, fifteen rest pairs are possible.
The fifteen possible rest pairs from the experiment are identified using Table
(1). With the identified rest pairs, differential measurements of the form of (13)
can be written. The following observation model considering a batch of fifteen

15
 Random current profile
1

0.8

0.6

0.4
Current profile (A)

0.2

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110
Time (hours)

Figure 11: C1212 current profile

measurements (17) is written

   
−0.1027 −0.2998
 −0.1333  −0.4018
   
 −0.0348  −0.1039
   
 −0.0356  −0.1054
   
 −0.2699  −0.8071
   
 −0.0306  −0.1020
   
 0.0679   0.1959 
 0.0670  = Q−1  0.1943  + w̃sκ
   
   
 −0.1672  −0.5074
   
 0.0985   0.2979 
   
 0.0977   0.2964 
   
 −0.1366  −0.4053
   
−0.00085 −0.0015
   
 −0.2351  −0.7032
−0.2342 −0.7017

A linear least squares estimation method is pursued to estimate the capacity

of the battery considering noisy measurements. The noise covariance matrix is

16
of the form in (23) with σ 2 = 0.001. The estimated inverse of capacity by
the least squres estimator (21) is, Q−1 = 0.3340(Ah)−1 . The transformation
of the inverse capacity estimate following Taylor’s series expansion in (??) is,
Q = 3.0047Ah.

6 Conclusions
This chapter presents a real-time approach to estimate the total capacity of the
battery. The proposed approach a minimum of two OCV measurements and the
amount of Coulombs needed to go from one OCV measurement to the other.
The advantage of this approach is that it does not require complete discharge
of battery for capacity estimation. The OCV measurements can be corrupted
by noise due to hysteresis and relaxation effects of the battery. To minimize
errors, a least squares approach is presented. The least squares approach uses
a batch of OCV measurements and corresponding Coulomb computations to
estimate the battery capacity such that the square error is minimized. When
the Coulomb counting noise is significant, an alternate approach based on the
total least squares estimates is suggested. In order to reduce the variance in the
estimates, a Kalman filter based approach can be used to fuse estimates from
multiple batches.

References
[1] B. Balasingam and K. R. Pattipati, “On the identification of electrical
equivalent circuit models based on noisy measurements,” IEEE Transac-
tions on Instrumentation and Measurement, 70, 2021.
[2] B. Balasingam, G. V. Avvari, B. Pattipati, K. R. Pattipati, and Y. Bar-
Shalom, “A robust approach to battery fuel gauging, part II: Real time
capacity estimation,” Journal of Power Sources, 269, 949-961, 2014.
[3] M. A. Roscher, O. Bohlen, J. Vetter, OCV hysteresis in li-ion batteries
including two-phase transition materials, International Journal of Electro-
chemistry 2011.

[4] R. Hamming, Numerical methods for scientists and engineers, Courier

Dover Publications, 2012.
[5] I. Markovsky, S. Van Huffel, Overview of total least-squares methods, Sig-
nal processing 87 (10) (2007) 2283–2302.

[6] L. Crassidis, Y. Cheng, Error-covariance analysis of the total least square

problem, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.

17