Preview-9781466596429 A26657694

Food Science and Technology
Handbook of Functional
Nutraceutical
11
Science
and
Technology
Nutraceutical Science
and Technology
Series Editor: Fereidoon Shahidi
11
Beverages and Human Health
Handbook of
Handbook of Functional Beverages

Handbook of Functional Beverages and Human Health provides potential appli-
cations and new developments in functional beverages, nutraceuticals, and health
foods. In addition to serving as a reference manual, it summarizes the current state
of knowledge in key research areas and contains novel ideas for future research and Functional
Beverages and
development. Additionally, it provides an easy-to-read text suitable for teaching senior
undergraduate and postgraduate students in the relevant areas.
and Human Health

Human Health
The book is divided into seven major sections: Section I covers market trends,
global regulations, flavor challenges, chemistry, and health with specific reference
to cancer chemoprevention and the prevention of postprandial metabolic stress due
to the consumption of functional beverages. Section II, by far the largest part of
the book, has 39 chapters on the most popular fruit juices (apple juice, lemon juice,
pomegranate juice, watermelon juice, etc.). Section III reports on herbal and vegetable
juices (carrot juice, Chinese medicinal herbs and root-based beverages, tomato juice,
and vegetable-containing juices).
Edited by
Section IV details caffeinated beverages, including different varieties of tea (green,
black, oolong, and herbal teas), coffee (coffee and beverages from green coffee beans), Fereidoon Shahidi
and cocoa and chocolate. Section V is on dairy and soy beverages, while Section VI is
on alcoholic beverages (wine) and water (maple water). Finally, Section VII describes
Cesarettin Alasalvar
fermented (kefir, koumiss, and ayran) and fortified functional beverages (applications
of plant sterols and stanols in functional beverages, beverages fortified with omega-3
fatty acids, dietary fiber, minerals and vitamins, probiotics and prebiotics in functional
beverages, functional beverages in weight management, fortified sports drinks, and
peptide-enriched functional beverages).
Shahidi
Alasalvar
K20775
Handbook of
Functional
Beverages and
Human Health
NUTRACEUTICAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Series Editor
FEREIDOON SHAHIDI
Ph.D., FACS, FAOCS, FCIC, FCIFST, FIAFoST, FIFT, FRSC
University Research Professor
Department of Biochemistry
Memorial University of Newfoundland
St. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada
1. Phytosterols as Functional Food Components and Nutraceuticals

edited by Paresh C. Dutta
2. Bioprocesses and Biotechnology for Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals
edited by Jean-Richard Neeser and Bruce J. German
3. Asian Functional Foods
John Shi, Chi-Tang Ho, and Fereidoon Shahidi
4. Nutraceutical Proteins and Peptides in Health and Disease
edited by Yoshinori Mine and Fereidoon Shahidi
5. Nutraceutical and Specialty Lipids and Their Co-Products
edited by Fereidoon Shahidi
6. Anti-Angiogenic Functional and Medicinal Foods
edited by Jack N. Losso, Fereidoon Shahidi, and Debasis Bagchi
7. Marine Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods
edited by Colin Barrow and Fereidoon Shahidi
8. Tea and Tea Products: Chemistry and Health-Promoting Properties
edited by Chi-Tang Ho, Jen-Kun Lin, and Fereidoon Shahidi
9. Tree Nuts: Composition, Phytochemicals, and Health Effects
edited by Cesarettin Alasalvar and Fereidoon Shahidi
10. Functional Foods of the East
edited by John Shi, Chi-Tang Ho, and Fereidoon Shahidi
11. Handbook of Functional Beverages and Human Health
edited by Fereidoon Shahidi and Cesarettin Alasalvar
Handbook of
Functional
Beverages and
Human Health
Edited by
Fereidoon Shahidi
Boca Raton London New York
CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
CRC Press
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© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Version Date: 20160120
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Contents
Preface....................................................................................................................................................... xi
Editors......................................................................................................................................................xiii
Contributors.............................................................................................................................................. xv
Section I Market Trends, Regulations, Chemistry, and Health Aspects

1. Functional Beverages: Market Trends and Market-Oriented New Product Designs................ 3
Joe Bogue and Amy Jane Troy
2. Global Nutraceutical Regulations for Functional Beverages.......................................................17

Anand Swaroop, Manashi Bagchi, and Debasis Bagchi
3. Flavor Challenges in Functional Beverages.................................................................................. 27

Keith R. Cadwallader
4. Chemistry of Functional Beverages.............................................................................................. 35

Shiming Li, Fereidoon Shahidi, and Chi-Tang Ho
5. Cancer Chemopreventive Effects of Selected Fruit Juices......................................................... 47

Joydeb Kumar Kundu, Kyung-Soo Chun, and Juthika Kundu
6. Fruit Juices and the Prevention of Postprandial Metabolic Stress in Humans........................ 69

Giuseppa Morabito and Mauro Serafini
Section II Fruit Juices

7. Acerola Juice.................................................................................................................................... 85
Delia B. Rodriguez-Amaya
8. Apple Juice....................................................................................................................................... 93
H.P. Vasantha Rupasinghe and Surangi Thilakarathna
9. Apricot Juice/Nectar..................................................................................................................... 107

Emine Aytunga Arık Kibar and Hatice İmge Oktay Başeğmez
10. Aronia Juice....................................................................................................................................119

Maria Glibetić and Aleksandra Konić-Ristić
11. Blackberry Juice.............................................................................................................................135

Mirela Kopjar and Vlasta Piližota
12. Black Currant Juice.......................................................................................................................147

Bradley W. Bolling, Derek A. Martin, Ruisong Pei, Liyang Xie, and Diana M. DiMarco
v
vi Contents
13. Blueberry Juice...............................................................................................................................163

William L. Kerr
14. Cherry Juice...................................................................................................................................175

Gamze Toydemir, Dilek Boyacioglu, Jules Beekwilder, Robert D. Hall, and Esra Capanoglu
15. Cherry Laurel Syrup (Pekmez)....................................................................................................187

16. Coconut Juice................................................................................................................................. 193

Melinda Phang and Manohar Garg
17. Cranberry Juice............................................................................................................................ 205

Monique Lacroix and Khanh Dang Vu
18. Date Syrup......................................................................................................................................217

Sami Fattouch, Karima Dhaouadi, and Manel Belkhir
19. Dragon Fruit Juice.........................................................................................................................231

Lee-Fong Siow
20. Goji Berry Juice............................................................................................................................ 239

Patricia Navarro, Luis Noguera-Artiaga, Santiago López-Miranda,
Ángel A. Carbonell-Barrachina, and Antonio J. Pérez-López
21. Golden Berry and Selected Tropical (Açai, Acerola, and Maqui) Juices.................................251
Coralia Osorio, Maria Elisa Schreckinger, Prerna Bhargava, Woo Young Bang,
Daniel A. Jacobo-Velázquez, and Luis Cisneros-Zevallos
22. Grape Juice.................................................................................................................................... 271

Gian Carlo Tenore
23. Grapefruit Juice............................................................................................................................ 281

İncinur Hasbay
24. Guava Juice.................................................................................................................................... 297

İncinur Hasbay and Emine Aytunga Arık Kibar
25. Hawthorn Juice..............................................................................................................................311

Petras Rimantas Venskutonis
26. Indian Gooseberry (Amla) Juice..................................................................................................321

Neelima Garg and Pushpa Chethan Kumar
27. Kiwifruit Juice................................................................................................................................331

Asim K. Duttaroy
28. Lemon Juice................................................................................................................................... 339

Lucia Maria Jaeger de Carvalho, Lara de Azevedo Sarmet Moreira Smiderle,
Ediane Maria Gomes Ribeiro, and José Luiz Viana de Carvalho
Contents vii
29. Lime Juice...................................................................................................................................... 349

Lucia Maria Jaeger de Carvalho, Gisela Maria Dellamora-Ortiz,
and José Luiz Viana de Carvalho
30. Mango Juice................................................................................................................................... 359

Sui Kiat Chang and Amin Ismail
31. Mangosteen Juice.......................................................................................................................... 373

Mark L. Failla, Fabiola Gutierrez-Orozco, Chureeporn Chitchumroonchokchai,
and Florian Diekmann
32. Melon Juice.................................................................................................................................... 385

Ayse Karadag and Banu Bayram
33. Mulberry Juice.............................................................................................................................. 399

Meltem Türkyılmaz and Mehmet Özkan
34. Noni Fruit Juice............................................................................................................................. 409

Johannes Westendorf
35. Orange Juice.................................................................................................................................. 423

Rita Maria Velázquez-Estrada, José Afid Chávez-Ocegueda,
Ma. Manuela Hernández-Herrero, and Artur Xavier Roig-Sagués
36. Papaya Juice................................................................................................................................... 439

Sui Kiat Chang and Cesarettin Alasalvar
37. Passion Fruit Juice.........................................................................................................................455

Chin-Kun Wang
38. Peach Juice..................................................................................................................................... 463

Emilio Alvarez-Parrilla, Laura A. de la Rosa, Joaquín Rodrigo-García,
Gustavo A. González-Aguilar, and Jesús F. Ayala-Zavala
39. Pear Juice........................................................................................................................................475

Dulcineia Ferreira Wessel, Elisabete Coelho, and Manuel A. Coimbra
40. Pineapple Juice.............................................................................................................................. 489

Nauman Khalid, Hafiz Ansar Rasul Suleria, and Iftikhar Ahmed
41. Plum, Prune, and Ume Juices...................................................................................................... 501

Kent Fanning, Roger Stanley, Bruce Topp, Dougal Russell, and Michael Netzel
42. Pomegranate Juice.........................................................................................................................513

Tao Yuan and Navindra P. Seeram
43. Raspberry Juice............................................................................................................................. 527

Bradley W. Bolling, Diana M. DiMarco, Katherine Lainas, and Sarah Kranz
viii Contents
44. Strawberry Juice............................................................................................................................541

Rong Tsao and Hongyan Li
45. Watermelon Juice...........................................................................................................................553

Beraat Ozcelik and Merve Yavuz
Section III Herbal and Vegetable Juices

46. Carrot Juice................................................................................................................................... 565
Ralf Martin Schweiggert and Reinhold Carle
47. Chinese Medicinal Herbs and Root-Based Beverages............................................................... 583

Chin-Lin Hsu, Chi-Cheng Lu, and Gow-Chin Yen
48. Tomato Juice.................................................................................................................................. 593

María Jesús Periago and Francisco-Javier García-Alonso
49. Vegetable-Containing Juices (Carrot, Kale, and Sprout)......................................................... 609

Daniel A. Jacobo-Velázquez, Erika Ortega-Hernández, and Luis Cisneros-Zevallos
Section IV Caffeinated Beverages: Tea, Coffee, and Cocoa/Chocolate

50. Teas (Green, Oolong, and Black)................................................................................................. 629
Rui Jiao, Jingnan Chen, Yu Huang, and Zhen-Yu Chen
51. Herbal Teas.................................................................................................................................... 645

Sha Li, Shu-Ke Li, Dong-Ping Xu, An-Na Li, and Hua-Bin Li
52. Coffee...............................................................................................................................................661
Iziar A. Ludwig, Michael N. Clifford, Michael E.J. Lean, and Alan Crozier
53. Beverages from Green Coffee Beans........................................................................................... 677

Yuanyuan Ma and Ronald B. Pegg
54. Cocoa and Hot Chocolate............................................................................................................. 687

Beatriz Sarriá, Raquel Mateos, and Laura Bravo
Section V Dairy and Soy Beverages

55. Dairy Beverages............................................................................................................................. 707
Ranjan Sharma
56. Soybean Beverages........................................................................................................................ 725

Tzou-Chi Huang and Chi-Tang Ho
Contents ix
Section VI Alcoholic Beverages and Water

57. Wine................................................................................................................................................ 739
Andrew L. Waterhouse, Rosa M. Lamuela-Raventós, Paola Quifer-Rada,
and Creina S. Stockley
58. Maple Water...................................................................................................................................757

Tao Yuan and Navindra P. Seeram
Section VII Fermented and Fortified Functional Beverages

59. Fermented Functional Beverages (Kefir, Koumiss, and Ayran)................................................767
Frank Sherkat, Kambiz Shamsi, and Amir Arjmand
60. Applications of Plant Sterols and Stanols in Functional Beverages......................................... 785

Jerzy Zawistowski
61. Beverages Fortified with Omega-3 Fatty Acids, Dietary Fiber, Minerals, and Vitamins...... 801
Fereidoon Shahidi and Priyatharini Ambigaipalan
62. Probiotics and Prebiotics in Functional Beverages....................................................................815

Koen Venema
63. Functional Beverages in Weight Management........................................................................... 829

Debasis Bagchi, Anand Swaroop, and Manashi Bagchi
64. Fortified Sports Drinks................................................................................................................. 839

Hernan Brice Kenmogne-Domguia and Cesarettin Alasalvar
65. Peptide-Enriched Functional Beverages..................................................................................... 853

Kenji Sato and Tamami Kiyono
Index........................................................................................................................................................861
Preface
The market for functional beverages represents the largest and fastest growing segment of the functional
foods sector, with an annual growth rate of almost 20% in the United States. The production and consump-
tion of functional beverages has gained much importance due to their major contribution to health pro-
motion and disease risk reduction. They constitute an excellent delivery means for nutrients and bioactive
compounds, including vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, omega-3 fatty acids, plant extracts, sterols/stanols,
dietary fiber, amino acids and biopeptides, prebiotics, and probiotics, among others. There have been con-
tinuous innovations in functional beverages and their associated market over the last decade as consumers
seek novelty and health benefits from their beverages. The market for new functional beverages with added
bioactive ingredients with health benefits has grown rapidly with positioning strategies linked to energy, ath-
letic performance, digestion, aging, satiety, cognitive ability, hydration, weight management, cardiovascular
health, cancer, diabetes, bone and joint health, and fatigue and stamina, among others.
This handbook consists of 65 chapters divided into 7 sections. Section I includes six chapters on
market trends, global regulations, flavor challenges, chemistry, health with specific reference to cancer
chemoprevention, and the prevention of postprandial metabolic stress due to consumption of functional
beverages. Section II, by far the largest part of the book, has 39 chapters on the most popular fruit
juices (acerola juice, apple juice, apricot juice/nectar, aronia juice, blackberry juice, black currant juice,
blueberry juice, cherry juice, cherry laurel syrup [pekmez], coconut juice, cranberry juice, date syrup,
dragon fruit juice, goji berry juice, golden berry and selected tropical juices [açai, acerola, and maqui],
grape juice, grapefruit juice, guava juice, hawthorn juice, Indian gooseberry [amla] juice, kiwifruit juice,
lemon juice, lime juice, mango juice, mangosteen juice, melon juice, mulberry juice, noni fruit juice,
orange juice, papaya juice, passion fruit juice, peach juice, pear juice, pineapple juice, plum, prune, and
ume juices, pomegranate juice, raspberry juice, strawberry juice, and watermelon juice). Section III
reports on herbal and vegetable juices (carrot juice, Chinese medicinal herbs and root-based beverages,
tomato juice, and vegetable-containing juices [carrot, kale, and sprout]). Section IV details caffeinated
beverages, including different varieties of tea (green, black, oolong, and herbal teas), coffee (coffee
and beverages from green coffee beans), and cocoa and chocolate. Section V is on dairy and soy bever-
ages, while Section VI is on alcoholic beverage (wine) and water (maple water). Finally, Section VII
describes fermented (kefir, koumiss, and ayran) and fortified functional beverages (applications of plant
sterols and stanols in functional beverages, beverages fortified with omega-3 fatty acids, dietary fiber,
minerals, vitamins, probiotics, and prebiotics in functional beverages, functional beverages in weight
management, fortified sports drinks, and peptide-enriched functional beverages).
We are most grateful to the contributors to this handbook, who are internationally renowned research-
ers, for their comprehensive account of the global perspective on the issues of concern related to nutri-
tional characteristics, bioactive and antioxidant efficacy, phytochemicals, and health effects of beverages.
The book will serve as a major resource for those interested in the potential applications and new devel-
opments in functional beverages, nutraceuticals, and health foods. Biochemists, chemists, food scien-
tists/technologists, nutritionists, and health professionals from academia, government laboratories, and
beverage industries will find the contents of this handbook of much interest. Although this book serves
primarily as a reference manual, it also summarizes the current state of knowledge in key research areas
and contains novel ideas for future research and development. In addition, it provides easy-to-read text
suitable for teaching senior undergraduate and postgraduate students in the relevant areas. Finally, we
trust that this handbook paves the way for better appreciation of the concepts, products, and opportuni-
ties in the field for professionals, regulators, processors, and consumers.
Fereidoon Shahidi
xi
Editors
Fereidoon Shahidi, Ph.D., FACS, FAGFD-ACS, FAOCS, FCIC, FCIFST, FIAoFST, FIFT, FRSC,
is a university research professor, the highest rank the university gives for research, in the Department
of Biochemistry at the Memorial University of Newfoundland (MUN) in Canada. He is cross-appointed
to the Department of Biology, the Department of Ocean Sciences, and the Aquaculture Program. He is a
chair professor at National Chung Hsing University in Taiwan, an honorary professor at the Chung Shan
Medical University, also in Taiwan, a visiting professor at Jiangnan University, and Dalian Polytechnic
University in P.R. China. He collaborates with many other universities in countries such as Brazil,
France, Korea, Japan, Poland, Thailand, Turkey, the United States, and elsewhere around the globe.
He is also an advisor to the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences for special projects on cereals
and oilseeds. Dr. Shahidi has made numerous outstanding and innovative quality contributions to both
the basic and applied areas of food and nutraceutical science and technology and antioxidant phenolics
and omega-3 oils in health and disease. He is the only Canadian on the ISI list of top 10 (3rd to 8th)
most highly cited scientists in agricultural sciences, first recognized as the most highly cited (top 15)
individual and the most productive scientist in the area of food, nutrition, and agricultural science for
the 1991–2001 period and 3rd in citations for 2001–2011, and is now in 6th place. He has received
numerous awards from different societies and organizations for his pioneering scientific achievements.
Dr. Shahidi’s work has led to the publication of more than 760 research articles in the form of peer-
reviewed journals and book chapters. He is also the editor/author of some 64 books and holds 10 patents.
These publications, along with his extensive list of presentations, have led to the advancement of the
discipline of food science at both the national and international levels. Dr. Shahidi has trained more
than 100 Ph.D. and M.Sc. students and research assistants/associates, postdoctoral fellows, and visiting
professors and scholars, and has educated the future generation of scientists. His former students, now
his colleagues, occupy key positions as faculty members, government workers, and industry leaders in
more than a dozen countries on five continents.
Cesarettin Alasalvar, Ph.D., FIFT, is the director of the Food Institute at TÜBİTAK Marmara
Research Centre (MRC) in Turkey and is also an associate professor of food science and engineering.
He received his Ph.D. in food science and technology in 1994 from the University of Lincoln (United
Kingdom) and conducted postdoctoral research at the same university (1995–1997). Dr. Alasalvar is
a recipient of a fellowship award from the Japanese Science and Technology Agency (1997–1998).
He was then appointed as a senior research fellow/lecturer both at the Food Research Centre and the
Department of Food Science and Technology at the University of Lincoln (1998–2005). He has been
working at different positions (chief research scientist, deputy director, and director) at the Food Institute
of TÜBİTAK MRC since 2006. Dr. Alasalvar is a leading international researcher in bioactive compo-
nents from marine resources and plant materials, especially hazelnuts. He is recognized for his impact
in identifying bioactives and phytochemicals present in foods and plant-based products. He has coedited
5 books, published more than 60 scientific articles in peer-reviewed journals and 25 book chapters,
given more than 100 presentations at different international scientific conferences, and holds a patent.
He has delivered invited lectures, served as a session chairperson and poster-award chair for various
international congresses, and has organized international congresses, seminars, and brokerage events.
Dr. Alasalvar has been active in the Institute of Food Technologists (IFT) programs for many years
and has played a leadership role in the Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods Division. He served as a
past chair of the division and serves as an editorial board member of Food Chemistry and the Journal
of Functional Foods. He also served as local chair of the International Society for Nutraceuticals and
Functional Foods (ISNFF) 2014 Annual Conference and Exhibition and is currently the chair-elect of
xiii
xiv Editors
ISNFF (2014–2016). Dr. Alasalvar serves on the expert advisory board of the Turkish Goverment and
Higher Education on R&D projects and as a panelist for projects funded by the European Union (EU). He
coordinates two major EU-funded projects, EU-FP7 (NutraHEALTH) and EU-IPA (INNOFOOD), and
has received a number of international prestigious awards, including the IFT-Fellow Award (2012), the
TÜBİTAK MRC–Most Successful Researcher Award (2012), the ISNFF Merit Award for Outstanding
Contributions to the Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods Discipline and Service to the ISNFF (2014),
and the Sabri Ülker International Science Award on Public Health and Nutrition (2015) in recognition of
his pioneering scientific achievements.
Contributors
Iftikhar Ahmed Manashi Bagchi

National Institute for Genomics and Advanced Departments of Pharmacology and Toxicology
Biotechnology Cepham Research Center
National Agricultural Research Centre Piscataway, New Jersey
Islamabad, Pakistan
Woo Young Bang
Cesarettin Alasalvar National Institute of Biological Resources
Food Institute Environmental Research Complex
TÜBİTAK Marmara Research Center Incheon, South Korea
Gebze-Kocaeli, Turkey
Hatice İmge Oktay Başeğmez
Emilio Alvarez-Parrilla Food Institute
Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences TÜBİTAK Marmara Research Center
Autonomous University of Ciudad Juarez Gebze-Kocaeli, Turkey
Ciudad Juarez, Mexico
Banu Bayram
Food Institute
Priyatharini Ambigaipalan
TÜBİTAK Marmara Research Center
Department of Biochemistry
Gebze-Kocaeli, Turkey
St. John’s, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada
Jules Beekwilder
BU Bioscience
Amir Arjmand Plant Research International
School of Science Wageningen University and Research Centre
RMIT University Wageningen, The Netherlands
Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
Manel Belkhir
Jesús F. Ayala-Zavala Faculty of Sciences of Tunis
Department of Technology of Food of Plant University El Manar
Origin Tunis, Tunisia
Research Center for Food & Development
(CIAD) Prerna Bhargava
Hermosillo, Mexico Department of Horticultural Sciences
Texas A&M University
Debasis Bagchi College Station, Texas
Departments of Pharmacology and Toxicology
Cepham Research Center Joe Bogue
Piscataway, New Jersey Department of Food Business and Development
University College Cork
and
Cork, Ireland
Department of Pharmacological and
Pharmaceutical Sciences Bradley W. Bolling
College of Pharmacy Department of Food Science
University of Houston University of Wisconsin–Madison
Houston, Texas Madison, Wisconsin
xv
xvi Contributors
Dilek Boyacioglu Jingnan Chen

Department of Food Engineering School of Food Science and Technology
Istanbul Technical University Henan University of Technology
Istanbul, Turkey Zhengzhou, Henan, People’s Republic of China
Laura Bravo Zhen-Yu Chen

Department of Metabolism and Nutrition School of Life Sciences
Institute of Food Science, Technology, and The Chinese University of Hong Kong
Nutrition (ICTAN–CSIC) Shatin, Hong Kong, People’s Republic of China
Madrid, Spain
Chureeporn Chitchumroonchokchai
Keith R. Cadwallader Department of Human Sciences
Department of Food Science and Human The Ohio State University
Nutrition Columbus, Ohio
University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign
Urbana, Illinois Kyung-Soo Chun
College of Pharmacy
Keimyung University
Esra Capanoglu
Daegu, South Korea
Department of Food Engineering
Istanbul Technical University
Luis Cisneros-Zevallos
Istanbul, Turkey
Department of Horticultural Sciences
Texas A&M University
Ángel A. Carbonell-Barrachina
College Station, Texas
Department of Agro-Food Technology
Miguel Hernández University
Michael N. Clifford
Alicante, Spain
School of Biosciences and Medicine
University of Surrey
Reinhold Carle
Guildford, United Kingdom
Institute of Food Science and Biotechnology
University of Hohenheim
Stuttgart, Germany Elisabete Coelho
Department of Chemistry
José Luiz Viana de Carvalho University of Aveiro
Embrapa Food Technology Aveiro, Portugal
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Manuel A. Coimbra
Lucia Maria Jaeger de Carvalho Department of Chemistry
Department of Natural Products and Food University of Aveiro
School of Pharmacy Aveiro, Portugal
Federal University of Rio de Janeiro
Alan Crozier
Sui Kiat Chang Department of Nutrition
Department of Nutrition and Dietetics University of California–Davis
Universiti Putra Malaysia Davis, California
Selangor, Malaysia
Laura A. de la Rosa
José Afid Chávez-Ocegueda Department of Chemical and Biological
Integral Laboratory of Food Research Sciences
Tepic Institute of Technology Autonomous University of Ciudad Juarez
Tepic, Mexico Ciudad Juarez, Mexico
Contributors xvii
Gisela Maria Dellamora-Ortiz Francisco-Javier García-Alonso

Department of Natural Products and Food Department of Food Science and Nutrition
School of Pharmacy Catholic University of Murcia
Federal University of Rio de Janeiro Murcia, Spain
Manohar Garg
School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy
Karima Dhaouadi The University of Newcastle
National Institute of Applied Sciences and Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia
Technology
University of Carthage
Tunis, Tunisia Neelima Garg
Department of Post Harvest Management
ICAR–Central Institute for Subtropical
Florian Diekmann Horticulture
Food, Agricultural, and Environmental Sciences Lucknow, India
Library
The Ohio State University Maria Glibetić
Columbus, Ohio Centre of Research Excellence in Nutrition and
Metabolism
Institute for Medical Research
Diana M. DiMarco University of Belgrade
Department of Nutritional Sciences Belgrade, Serbia
University of Connecticut
Storrs, Connecticut Gustavo A. González-Aguilar
Department of Food Technology of Plant Origin
Research Center for Food and Development
Asim K. Duttaroy
(CIAD)
Department of Nutrition
Hermosillo, Mexico
Faculty of Medicine
University of Oslo
Oslo, Norway Fabiola Gutierrez-Orozco
Interdisciplinary Ph.D. Program in Nutrition
The Ohio State University
Mark L. Failla Columbus, Ohio
Department of Human Sciences
and Robert D. Hall
Interdisciplinary Ph.D. Program in Nutrition Department of Bioscience
The Ohio State University Plant Research International
Columbus, Ohio Wageningen University and Research Centre
Wageningen, The Netherlands
Kent Fanning and
Department of Agriculture and Fisheries
Agri-Science Queensland Laboratory of Plant Physiology
Coopers Plains, Queensland, Australia Wageningen University
Wageningen, The Netherlands
Sami Fattouch
National Institute of Applied Sciences and İncinur Hasbay
Technology Food Institute
University of Carthage TÜBİTAK Marmara Research Center
Tunis, Tunisia Gebze-Kocaeli, Turkey
xviii Contributors
Ma. Manuela Hernández-Herrero Ayse Karadag

Special Research Centre–Food Technology Plant Food Institute
(CERPTA) TÜBİTAK Marmara Research Center
XaRTA Gebze-Kocaeli, Turkey
Tecnio, Malta
and Hernan Brice Kenmogne-Domguia
Department of Animal and Food Science Food Institute
School of Veterinary Medicine TÜBİTAK Marmara Research Center
Autonomous University of Barcelona Gebze-Kocaeli, Turkey
Barcelona, Spain
Chi-Tang Ho William L. Kerr

Department of Food Science Department of Food Science and Technology
Rutgers University The University of Georgia
New Brunswick, New Jersey Athens, Georgia
Chin-Lin Hsu
Nauman Khalid
School of Nutrition
Graduate School of Agricultural and Life
Chung Shan Medical University
Sciences
and
The University of Tokyo
Tokyo, Japan
Chung Shan Medical University Hospital
Taichung, Taiwan, People’s Republic of China
Emine Aytunga Arık Kibar
Tzou-Chi Huang Food Institute
Department of Biological Sciences and TÜBİTAK Marmara Research Center
Technology Gebze-Kocaeli, Turkey
National Pingtung University of Science and
Technology Tamami Kiyono
Pingtung, Taiwan, People’s Republic of China Division of Applied Life Sciences
Graduate School of Life and Environmental
Yu Huang Sciences
School of Biomedical Sciences Kyoto Prefectural University
The Chinese University of Hong Kong Kyoto, Japan
Shatin, Hong Kong, People’s Republic of China
Amin Ismail Aleksandra Konić-Ristić

Department of Nutrition and Dietetics Centre of Research Excellence in Nutrition and
and Metabolism
Halal Products Research Institute Institute for Medical Research
Universiti Putra Malaysia University of Belgrade
Selangor, Malaysia Belgrade, Serbia
Daniel A. Jacobo-Velázquez
Mirela Kopjar
Biotechnology Center–FEMSA Monterrey
Department of Food Technologies
Institute of Technology
Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek
Monterrey, Mexico
Osijek, Croatia
Rui Jiao
Department of Food Science and Engineering Sarah Kranz
Jinan University Department of Nutritional Sciences
Guangzhou, Guangdong, People’s Republic University of Connecticut
of China Storrs, Connecticut
Contributors xix
Pushpa Chethan Kumar Hongyan Li

Department of Post Harvest Management State Key Lab of Food Science and Technology
ICAR–Central Institute for Subtropical Institute for Advanced Study
Horticulture Nanchang University
Lucknow, India Jiangxi, Xinjian, People’s Republic of China
Joydeb Kumar Kundu Hua-Bin Li

College of Pharmacy Department of Nutrition
Keimyung University School of Public Health
Daegu, South Korea Sun Yat-Sen University
Guangzhou, Guangdong, People’s Republic
Juthika Kundu of China
College of Pharmacy
Keimyung University Sha Li
Daegu, South Korea Department of Nutrition
School of Public Health
Monique Lacroix Sun Yat-Sen University
Research Laboratories in Sciences Applied Guangzhou, Guangdong, People’s Republic
to Food of China
Canadian Irradiation Centre
Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique–
Shiming Li
Institut Armand-Frappier
College of Life Sciences
Université du Québec
Huanggang Normal University
Laval, Québec, Canada
Huanggang, Hubei, People’s Republic of China
Katherine Lainas and
Department of Nutritional Sciences
Department of Food Science
University of Connecticut
Rutgers University
Storrs, Connecticut
New Brunswick, New Jersey
Rosa M. Lamuela-Raventós
Department of Nutrition and Food Science Shu-Ke Li
School of Pharmacy Department of Nutrition
University of Barcelona School of Public Health
Barcelona, Spain Sun Yat-Sen University
Guangzhou, Guangdong, People’s Republic
and
of China
The Spanish Biomedical Research Centre
Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition Santiago López-Miranda
Health Institute of Carlos III Department of Food Science and Nutrition
Madrid, Spain Catholic University of Murcia
Murcia, Spain
Michael E.J. Lean
College of Medical, Veterinary, and Life Sciences
University of Glasgow Chi-Cheng Lu
Glasgow, United Kingdom Department of Food Science and Biotechnology
National Chung Hsing University
An-Na Li Taichung, Taiwan, People’s Republic of China
School of Public Health Iziar A. Ludwig
Sun Yat-Sen University Department of Food Technology
Guangzhou, Guangdong, People’s Republic University of Lleida
of China Lleida, Spain
xx Contributors
Yuanyuan Ma Mehmet Özkan

Department of Food Science and Technology Department of Food Engineering
The University of Georgia Ankara University
Athens, Georgia Ankara, Turkey
Derek A. Martin Ronald B. Pegg

Department of Food Science Department of Food Science and Technology
University of Wisconsin–Madison The University of Georgia
Madison, Wisconsin Athens, Georgia
Raquel Mateos Ruisong Pei

Department of Metabolism and Nutrition Department of Food Science
Institute of Food Science, Technology, and University of Wisconsin–Madison
Nutrition (ICTAN–CSIC) Madison, Wisconsin
Madrid, Spain
Antonio J. Pérez-López
Giuseppa Morabito Department of Food Science and Nutrition
Functional Food and Metabolic Stress Prevention Catholic University of Murcia
Laboratory Murcia, Spain
Center for Food and Nutrition, CREA
Rome, Italy María Jesús Periago
Department of Food Science and Nutrition
Patricia Navarro Catholic University of Murcia
Department of Food Science and Nutrition Murcia, Spain
Catholic University of Murcia
Murcia, Spain Melinda Phang
Women’s and Children’s Health Research
Michael Netzel Institute
Centre for Nutrition and Food Sciences Women’s and Children’s Hospital
Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food North Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
Innovation
The University of Queensland Vlasta Piližota
Brisbane, Queensland, Australia Department of Food Technologies
Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek
Luis Noguera-Artiaga Osijek, Croatia
Department of Agro-Food Technology
Miguel Hernández University Paola Quifer-Rada
Alicante, Spain Department of Nutrition and Food Science
School of Pharmacy
Erika Ortega-Hernández University of Barcelona
Biotechnology Center–FEMSA Monterrey Barcelona, Spain
Institute of Technology
Monterrey, Mexico and
The Spanish Biomedical Research Centre
Coralia Osorio Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition
Department of Chemistry Health Institute of Carlos III
National University of Colombia Madrid, Spain
Bogotá, Colombia
Ediane Maria Gomes Ribeiro
Beraat Ozcelik Department of Natural Products and Food
Department of Food Engineering School of Pharmacy
Istanbul Technical University Federal University of Rio de Janeiro
Istanbul, Turkey Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Contributors xxi
Joaquín Rodrigo-García Navindra P. Seeram

Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences Bioactive Botanical Research Laboratory
Autonomous University of Ciudad Juarez Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical
Ciudad Juarez, Mexico Sciences
University of Rhode Island
Delia B. Rodriguez-Amaya Kingston, Rhode Island
Federal University of the Southern Frontier
Laranjeiras do Sul Campus
Parana, Brazil Mauro Serafini
Functional Food and Metabolic Stress Prevention
Artur Xavier Roig-Sagués Laboratory
Special Research Centre–Food Technology Plant Center for Food and Nutrition, CREA
(CERPTA) Rome, Italy
XaRTA
Tecnio, Malta
Fereidoon Shahidi
and Department of Biochemistry
Department of Animal and Food Science
St. John’s, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada
School of Veterinary Medicine
Autonomous University of Barcelona
Barcelona, Spain Kambiz Shamsi
School of Science
H.P. Vasantha Rupasinghe RMIT University
Department of Environmental Sciences Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
Dalhousie University
Truro, Nova Scotia, Canada
Ranjan Sharma
Dougal Russell Dairy Innovation Australia Limited
Department of Agriculture and Fisheries Werribee, Victoria, Australia
Agri-Science Queensland
Nambour, Queensland, Australia
Frank Sherkat
Beatriz Sarriá School of Science
Department of Metabolism and Nutrition RMIT University
Institute of Food Science, Technology, and Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
Nutrition (ICTAN–CSIC)
Madrid, Spain Lee-Fong Siow
School of Science
Kenji Sato Monash University Malaysia
Division of Applied Biosciences Selangor, Malaysia
Graduate School of Agriculture
Kyoto University
Kyoto, Japan Lara de Azevedo Sarmet Moreira Smiderle
Department of Natural Products and Food
Maria Elisa Schreckinger School of Pharmacy
Department of Horticultural Sciences Federal University of Rio de Janeiro
Texas A&M University Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
College Station, Texas
Ralf Martin Schweiggert Roger Stanley

Institute of Food Science and Biotechnology Centre for Food Innovation
University of Hohenheim University of Tasmania
Stuttgart, Germany Launceston, Tasmania, Australia
xxii Contributors
Creina S. Stockley Koen Venema

The Australian Wine Research Institute Beneficial Microbes Consultancy
Urrbrae, South Australia, Australia Wageningen, The Netherlands
Hafiz Ansar Rasul Suleria and

School of Agriculture and Food Sciences Department of Human Biology
The University of Queensland Maastricht University
Brisbane, Queensland, Australia Venlo, The Netherlands
Anand Swaroop Petras Rimantas Venskutonis
Departments of Pharmacology and Toxicology Department of Food Science and Technology
Cepham Research Center Kaunas University of Technology
Piscataway, New Jersey Kaunas, Lithuania
Gian Carlo Tenore Khanh Dang Vu
Department of Pharmacy Research Laboratories in Sciences Applied
University of Naples “Federico II” to Food
Naples, Italy Canadian Irradiation Centre
Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique–
Surangi Thilakarathna
Institut Armand–Frappier
Department of Environmental Sciences
Université du Québec
Dalhousie University
Laval, Québec, Canada
Truro, Nova Scotia, Canada
Chin-Kun Wang
Bruce Topp School of Nutrition
Centre for Plant Science Chung Shan Medical University
Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Taichung, Taiwan, People’s Republic of China
Innovation
The University of Queensland Andrew L. Waterhouse
Nambour, Queensland, Australia Department of Viticulture and Enology
University of California–Davis
Gamze Toydemir Davis, California
Department of Food Engineering
Okan University Dulcineia Ferreira Wessel
Istanbul, Turkey Department of Food Industry
Agrarian School
Amy Jane Troy Polytechnic Institute of Viseu
Department of Food Business and Development Viseu, Portugal
University College Cork Johannes Westendorf
Cork, Ireland Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and
Toxicology
Rong Tsao
University Clinic Hamburg–Eppendorf
Guelph Food Research Centre
Hamburg, Germany
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
Guelph, Ontario, Canada Liyang Xie
Department of Nutritional Sciences
Meltem Türkyılmaz University of Connecticut
Institute of Food Safety Storrs, Connecticut
Ankara University
Ankara, Turkey Dong-Ping Xu
Rita María Velázquez-Estrada School of Public Health
Integral Laboratory of Food Research Sun Yat-Sen University
Tepic Institute of Technology Guangzhou, Guangdong, People’s Republic
Tepic, Mexico of China
Contributors xxiii
Merve Yavuz Tao Yuan

Department of Food Engineering Bioactive Botanical Research Laboratory
Istanbul Technical University Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical
Istanbul, Turkey Sciences
University of Rhode Island
Kingston, Rhode Island
Gow-Chin Yen Jerzy Zawistowski
Department of Food Science and Biotechnology Department of Food, Nutrition, and Health
National Chung Hsing University The University of British Columbia
Taichung, Taiwan, People’s Republic of China Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Section I
Market Trends, Regulations,

Chemistry, and Health Aspects
1
Functional Beverages:
Market Trends and Market-Oriented
New Product Designs
Joe Bogue and Amy Jane Troy
CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Global Functional Beverage Market................................................................................................. 4
1.3 Consumer-Oriented New Product Development Case Study: Functional Beverages....................... 5
1.4 Semiotic Approach to Market-Oriented Product Concept Optimization......................................... 5
1.5 Consumer Insights on Functional Beverages.................................................................................... 6
1.6 Semiotics and Functional Beverages................................................................................................ 7
1.6.1 Stage 1: The Semiotic Sort................................................................................................... 8
1.6.2 Stage 2: Interpretation of Package Signs by Respondents................................................... 8
1.7 Semiotic Results................................................................................................................................ 9
1.7.1 Stage 1: Results..................................................................................................................... 9
1.7.2 Stage 2: Results....................................................................................................................11
1.8 Preferences and Purchase Habits toward Functional Beverages.....................................................11
1.9 Semiotics and New Product Development...................................................................................... 12
1.10 Lessons from the Case Study.......................................................................................................... 13
1.11 Conclusion........................................................................................................................................14
References..................................................................................................................................................14
1.1 Introduction
There have been many changes and innovations in the beverage market over the past years as consum-
ers seek new benefits from their beverages. One of the most important benefits sought by consumers
is health and wellness. The market for new functional beverages with added ingredients and related
health benefits has grown rapidly with positioning strategies linked to energy, digestion, aging, satiety,
cognitive ability, hydration, weight management, and fatigue, among others. While the opportunity for
developing functional beverages is high, manufacturers often struggle to achieve market success, and
the challenges new functional beverage developers face include the technological challenge of develop-
ing and marketing new products with new ingredients; differentiating brands in ultracompetitive mar-
kets; identifying the most appropriate positioning platforms of convenience; and marketing science and
technology to consumers, as well as health, natural, and legal obstacles. The high failure rates suggest
an inability to understand consumer preferences and choice motives in relation to the purchase of func-
tional beverages.
This chapter examines the main trends in the functional beverage market and identifies the key issues
related to the consumer and the functional beverage market. Following this, a case study is introduced
that focuses on developing market-oriented functional beverages based on consumer insights. It exam-
ines the importance of market-oriented approaches in developing new functional beverages and views
3
4 Handbook of Functional Beverages and Human Health
how firms can use the voice of the consumer information to design products that more closely meet con-
sumer needs. The case study examines utilizing qualitative research techniques to generate information
at the early stages of the new product development (NPD) process. In particular, it looks at using semiot-
ics to generate information on beverage packaging as it can greatly influence consumers’ first purchase
of a new product and repeat purchases.
1.2 Global Functional Beverage Market

By 2017, the global market for beverages will be worth approximately US$1347 billion. Market growth
drivers include urbanization, expansion in the middle-class population, and an increase in double income
families [1]. Moreover, there are also significant opportunities for functional food and beverages in
emerging markets, such as in China, Brazil, Asia Pacific, and Latin America, where companies can
successfully innovate by observing closely studied trends, understanding local consumers, and differen-
tiating their products from their competitors [2]. Global trends that will impact the development of new
functional food and beverages include age complexity, gender complexity, life stage complexity, income
complexity, convenience, health, sensory, comfort, and individualism [3].
The global retail value of health and wellness beverages reached US$274 billion in 2011. This was
approximately 44% of the retail value sales of nonalcoholic beverages [4]. The growth of health and
wellness beverages was set to outperform the wider soft and hot beverage industry over the period 2012–
2016 [5]. In addition, concerns continue to grow around the link between carbonated beverages and
specific health issues such as obesity, diabetes, and coronary heart disease [6,7]. Global market trends
indicate that demand for health beverages, specifically the low or no calories ones, has shown signs of
decline, while there is an increased demand for beverages that help address health conditions by includ-
ing natural ingredients and those focused on specific health benefits, such as digestive or heart health
[4,8]. The inclusion of functional foods and beverages into consumers’ diets can also be viewed as part of
future public health prevention strategies that aim at reducing expenditure on health care [9].
Often, consumers associated low-calorie beverages with artificial ingredients, and this finding created
the opportunity for functional beverages to be considered as naturally healthy [10]. In addition, 48% of
consumers believed a natural product was one that was produced in adherence with strict regulations,
while 46% of consumers aligned natural products closely with organic products [5]. Consumers believed
ingredients were key to the concept of a natural beverage with beverages labeled as 100% juice, all natu-
ral, and containing no artificial colors, perceived as healthier beverages.
Drivers of innovation in the beverage industry over the period 2012–2017 include new functional ingre-
dients, advances in technology in relation to taste masking and encapsulation, reduction of sugar content,
and wider channels of distribution [11]. Specifically, in relation to future functional beverage innovation,
the focus will be on beverages targeted at specific parts of the body such as bones, joints, eyes, as well as
sleep improvement, weight management, cholesterol management, maintenance of healthy teeth, energy,
the elderly market segment, and beverages with omega-3 fatty acids [12]. This innovation focus will lead
to market opportunities across demographic groups, as beverages are developed that are tailored more
and more to the rapidly changing needs of individuals.
It has been suggested that beverage developers should follow a product development strategy that
combines health, convenience, modern packaging, and affordable prices [5]. Firms can use differ-
ent strategies, such as using natural ingredients, or novel ingredients, or adding natural and/or low-
calorie sweeteners to beverages [13]. Alternatively, they can incorporate ingredients into beverages such
as omega-3 oils, fiber, or probiotics. However, products should be built on what consumers believe is
inherent nutritional functionality, and foods or beverages should be developed based on what is cultur-
ally relevant as a delivery medium [14]. In addition, consumers in developed regions made the switch
to low-calorie soft beverages a number of years ago, and as these markets had entered into maturity,
consumers were actively seeking healthier soft beverages [5]. This offers opportunities to develop added
value through functionality, in the form of energy beverages and those with associated health claims.
Increased use of vitamins, in the energy beverage sector, indicated the shift in consumer attitudes toward
products that had more natural appeal [15].
Functional Beverages 5
Consumption of superfruit juice is also on the rise globally, and with increasing consumer awareness,
there are opportunities to appeal to more mass-market consumers [5]. China leads in the consumption of
superfruit juice at 1587 million liters per annum, followed by the United States and Japan. As superfruit
juices move to a wider range of beverage categories, more novel flavors and ingredients are likely to be
available to consumers. Blueberry, pomegranate, and aloe vera are consumer favorites worldwide, but
more unusual varieties will be used in future beverage manufacture such as acai berry, baobab, mango-
steen, goji berry, and sea buckthorn [5].
A key part of developing novel beverages with new ingredients will be consumer acceptance of new
ingredients, their knowledge of the potential health benefits of such ingredients, and how the specific
science and technology is marketed to consumers. In addition, consumers’ interest in health is related
to what health benefits are relevant to them and their lifestyles and, thus, are highly individualized [16].
This suggests that beverage developers need to generate deep insights into consumers’ perceptions and
how these beverages fit in with their lifestyles.
1.3 Consumer-Oriented New Product Development

Case Study: Functional Beverages
The success of food and beverage firms is dependent on their ability to develop and market new products
that provide consumers with superior value to that of their competitors. However, the driver of innovation
within the functional food sector is often based on R&D within the food firm, rather than the consumer.
This provides a science push rather than a consumer pull focus to the innovation and has often been
attributed to failures within the functional beverage sector, where new products frequently do not meet
consumer needs or expectations [17]. Reasons for functional food failures, which are relevant to func-
tional beverages, include too many benefits from a single brand, benefits that are often not relevant to the
consumer, relying on the selling power of the ingredient rather than the benefit, and using a nonrelevant
carrier [16]. For example, many omega-3 fatty acid–fortified products have had little impact on the global
market as they provide benefits that consumers cannot quickly see or feel [16].
There is a strong positive relationship between market orientation and the NPD activities of firms
[18,19]. Market-oriented NPD entails generating information on consumers’ needs and choice motives,
integrating this information with the early stages of the NPD process, and developing an optimal prod-
uct with attributes that maximize consumer acceptance. Information gathered for functional beverage
development may include consumer perceptions of functional beverages; identifying consumer segments
that are functionally driven, for example, consumers that will pay a premium for beverages with added
functional benefits; understanding consumer knowledge of the health benefits associated with functional
ingredients and health claims; identifying the key intrinsic (texture, mouth feel, and flavor) and extrinsic
(packaging, brand, and health claim) product attributes that will influence consumer acceptance; and
how consumers interpret the message (through images, colors, and icons) communicated by functional
beverage packaging and the type of delivery method (shots, stick packs, and ready to drink).
Generation of consumer information is an important part of the NPD process that helps identify new
ideas, defines the target market more explicitly, and then aids in the design of specific marketing strate-
gies that position new products on markets [20]. Qualitative techniques are important for information
generation at the early stages of the NPD process, and many studies acknowledge that both in-depth
interviews and focus groups are particularly good at exploring concepts, generating ideas, and eliciting
opinions on packaging [19,21–23]. They facilitate the integration of consumer insights at the earliest
stages of the NPD process, and thus consumers act as codesigners in NPD.
1.4 Semiotic Approach to Market-Oriented Product Concept Optimization

Differentiation of a product or brand is seen as one of the key factors for developing successful func-
tional foods. One of the ways of achieving this differentiation is through packaging design [16].
Semiotics can play an important role in the process of designing differentiated product packaging for
functional beverages. Semiotics is an abductive method of analyzing meanings by examining signs that
communicate information [24,25].
Research estimates that approximately 70% of purchase decisions are usually made at point of sale,
and that for approximately 40 weeks of the year, packaging is the main attribute that leads to the sale
of a product [26,27]. For low-involvement purchases, the package is the product, particularly because
impressions formed during initial contact can have lasting effects. Beyond providing pure information,
the emotional aspects of packaging graphics are more subliminal, which evolve from the styling of
various graphical elements, including logo styling, symbols, icons, colors, textures, photography, and
illustrations [28].
Semiotics can be used to understand the important role of packaging design in motivating consumer
purchase of functional beverages. This entails an analysis of consumer perceptions of all icons, colors,
and images on the package and how these combined might influence the purchase decision. Good pack-
aging can support a brand in highlighting its difference in the marketplace [16].
In the following case study, some key activities at the early design stages of the NPD process are out-
lined in terms of the use of qualitative techniques to understand consumer requirements for functional
beverages.
1.5 Consumer Insights on Functional Beverages

In this first step of developing new functional beverage concepts, a total of 12 in-depth interviews and
3 focus groups were conducted to generate consumer information on functional beverages. A convenient
sampling technique was used to select participants for the in-depth interviews and focus groups [29].
Majority of the samples were middle-aged, educated to third level, in full-time employment, and lived
in Cork City, Ireland. Both interview and focus group guides consisted of semistructured questions, and
participants were rewarded with €30 for their time and effort in line with best practice [30]. Results were
tape-recorded and the data were analyzed using the QSR N6 software package [31].
Focus group participants felt that the concept of a functional beverage was relatively new to the market
and were positive toward the product idea. Five functional beverage concepts were generated from the
participants. Most participants had a positive attitude toward a symbiotic beverage that consisted of the
combined benefit of fiber and a probiotic culture in a functional beverage. Focus Group 2, which con-
sisted of younger females, was very interested in the health benefits of such beverages. These consumers
were familiar with the fermentation process, which they felt was traditional and were positive toward the
concept of fermented functional beverages. They were also familiar with many other fermented food and
drink products that they consumed on a daily basis. However, there were mixed attitudes toward certain
functional beverage concepts, where they were unsure of the health benefits of certain ingredients and
also the high retail prices charged for such beverages. In addition, the ingredient carrier, whether juice or
dairy, for example, was seen as having an important influence on the purchase of functional beverages.
Some interviewees felt that a functional beverage could be marketed as a health drink and positioned
as such in the marketplace. These interviewees felt that since some functional beverages were lactose-
free, they could also be marketed as a nondairy probiotic category and had the potential to rival soy and
probiotic dairy beverages. Focus group participants also suggested that functional beverages could be
targeted at the lactose-intolerant consumer segment. Participants’ comments included the following:
I think functional beverages are suitable for those who do not like dairy products or are allergic
to lactose. (Focus Group 1, male, 18–24 years)
I know that there are many probiotic beverages on the market and most of them are dairy-based.
I think a non-dairy probiotic beverage may be of interest to consumers. (Interviewee 9, male,
35–44 years)
Some young participants, across both focus groups and interviews, suggested that functional beverages
could be positioned as healthy meal replacements or, more particularly, breakfast meal replacements.
They felt that those with busy lifestyles could consume functional beverages at the breakfast meal occa-
sion as they were convenient and could be consumed on the go based on the method of delivery. These
products could contain the nutritional and vitamin profile of a healthy breakfast and be positioned as an
on-the-go beverage. Moreover, they suggested that functional beverages could also be marketed to dif-
ferent demographic groups as healthy alternatives to carbonated sports or energy beverages with a natu-
ral positioning strategy. However, these consumers were also concerned about the high calorie content
of functional beverages. They might not consume a functional beverage as a meal component due to its
perceived high calorie content. Examples of participants’ comments were as follows:
A meal replacement at breakfast is an option and would be welcomed by people with busy life-
styles. (Focus Group 1, male, 18–24 years)
I think it is a good idea that you can take one (functional beverage) in the morning instead of
breakfast, but I would not have it with a meal because of its high calorie content. (Interviewee
11, female, 45–54 years)
The health benefits of functional beverages were considered valuable marketing cues by both focus
group participants and interviewees. The most important health benefits that would encourage purchase
of functional beverages were enhancing the immune system, aiding the digestion, lowering cholesterol,
and having high fiber and reduced sugar. Older focus group participants were interested in disease-
preventing benefits, such as cholesterol reduction or cancer prevention. Generally, males were more
interested in the specific health claims of the product. However, female participants focused more on
their knowledge of functional ingredients and their health benefits. From a marketing perspective, this
illustrates the significance of correctly identifying a suitable target market and then positioning an opti-
mal functional beverage toward the target market.
Many participants also indicated that product information had a strong influence on their willingness
to purchase functional beverages. They suggested that product descriptions on functional beverage pack-
aging should contain information on the functional ingredients, the health benefits, the suggested daily
dosage, and the reference daily intake. The following was a typical comment:
I want to know whether I have to be careful of the dosage I consume daily. (Focus Group 1,
female, over 55 years)
These participants also mentioned that the brand name, logo, images, and color on the packaging would
influence their motivation to purchase functional beverages. In addition, many of the respondents per-
ceived that beverages that utilized a single-serve packaging format were healthier than other formats.
Fifteen product attributes were generated from consumer interviews that would strongly influence par-
ticipants’ purchase of functional beverages. It also revealed that consumers’ purchase decision in relation
to functional foods was complex and influenced by many intrinsic and extrinsic attributes such as taste,
the added ingredients to the products, health benefits, price, product volume, packaging (color, images,
typeface, and product shape), brand, and label information. Label information and packaging were seen
by many participants as being central to the purchase decision particularly with respect to reduced risk
in relation to new ingredients, new products, or new brands. Packaging has frequently been mentioned
as a direct aid for consumers for evaluating product quality and, therefore, should be carefully designed
to effectively convey product attributes to the consumer.
1.6 Semiotics and Functional Beverages

The next stage in the process was to conduct a semiotic analysis of functional beverages to see how the
information can be used to inform decisions on packaging design. Semiotics, a market-oriented meth-
odology, consisted of two separate stages and complemented the information generated from the focus
groups and interviews in the first part of this case study.
1.6.1 Stage 1: The Semiotic Sort

Stage 1, the semiotic sort, was conducted and classified information attributes (brand, color, and logo) not
only by things they had in common but also by any shared meanings [32]. An electronic sort consisted
of an electronic collection of the most prominent functional beverages on the market. Any functional
beverage that was positioned on the basis of health was included in the sort. A sort is a gathering of
digital images and products, in this case, of functional beverages. Signs most prevalent on these pack-
ages were recorded such as color, brand, health/nutritional claims, iconic symbols, and images. From
this, the main sign system for the semiotic analysis of functional beverages was developed and can be
seen in Table 1.1.
The images gathered in the sort were utilized in a primary semiotic analysis of functional beverage
packaging. The primary semiotic analysis required the researcher to interpret signs and encoded mean-
ings from all functional beverage packages collected during the sort. All signs and encoded meanings
were decoded based on the existing literature. Existing literature included manufacturers’ design speci-
fications, manufacturers’ intended meanings, and interpretation of color and images. This information
was readily available through semiotic journals, corporate reports, and corporate websites. Literature
focused on color interpretation, shape and typography, and consumer perceptions of various package
designs and types. This first stage identified suitable visual stimuli that would be presented to consumers
in the second stage of the study in conjunction with an in-depth interview guide.
1.6.2 Stage 2: Interpretation of Package Signs by Respondents

To ensure the methodology remained market oriented, Stage 2 focused on the interpretation of package
signs by respondents. Twelve respondents, five males and seven females, were recruited through the use
of convenience sampling [33]. Information was generated that focused on consumers’ attitudes toward
functional beverages, the purchase experience when buying functional beverages, and functional bever-
age packaging. A semistructured interview was utilized to gather the information [34].
Thirty-six visual stimuli were presented to respondents through a PowerPoint presentation at the inter-
view. The stimuli chosen were informed by the findings of the focus group and interviews conducted
in the earlier part of the case study, in addition to the results of the semiotic sort. This ensured that the
research followed a market-oriented methodology. The 36 visual stimuli consisted of 12 full packaging
concepts with all external stimuli removed, 12 brands and logos separate from the packaging concepts,
6 images found on packaging concepts, and 6 full packaging concepts complete with all external stimuli.
The PowerPoint presentation ensured that all the images were displayed on a neutral background and
were presented to consumers in the same sequence. This process illustrated how the signified concept
of an individual sign (a brand logo) might change due to its paradigmatic relationship with other signs
(how the brand logo might interact with other colors and icons on the packaging). Studies have shown
TABLE 1.1
Main Sign System for Semiotic Analysis of Functional Beverages
Main Sign
System Headings Examples
Brand Innocent, Actimel, and Red Bull.
Signifier Any material thing used to signify something: use of a wheat kernel and heart symbol to signify
health.
Signified The concept that the signifier refers to: healthy ingredients, energy, and naturalness.
Code A set of conventions understood in a given society: modern lifestyles, healthiness, and wellness.
Metaphor Expressing the unfamiliar in terms of the familiar: the use of phrases or images to imply that
something is healthy and natural such as the use of a halo to imply pure.
Connotation The cultural meaning of signs: the use of the color green to mean organic or natural.
Imagery The use of graphics to convey a meaning: a picture of an active person to convey the meaning that
the product is for active people.
that graphic elicitation, such as PowerPoint presentations, encouraged contributions from consumers that
were difficult to obtain by other means and this facilitated a more market-oriented methodology [35–37].
The semiotic interviews were transcribed from the audiotapes and analyzed using the software pack-
age QSR N6 [31]. Various codes were allocated and assigned to key segments of information within the
data [30]. A detailed analysis of the codes identified signs that when incorporated onto a product package
could motivate the purchase of new or existing functional beverages.
1.7 Semiotic Results

1.7.1 Stage 1: Results
The codes present from the interaction of multiple signs allowed for an initial semiotic analysis to be
performed for six selected functional beverages. The main sign system for each of these functional
beverages is outlined in Tables 1.2 through 1.7.
The individual signs prevalent on functional beverages were then analyzed. The semiotic sort revealed
that the colors white and green were synonymous with certain functional beverages. The use of the color
white was used primarily on dairy-based functional beverages such as Actimel and Yakult. The color
green was primarily used by juice-based functional beverages such as Naked and Tropicana. It was
found that the colors blue and yellow were most utilized for products that were trying to convey the ben-
efit of energy. Transparent packaging was common for a large number of beverages, such as Innocent,
Naked, Ribena, and Yakult. The transparent packaging allowed for the beverage color to be seen by
the purchaser and so generally denoted the flavor of the beverage. Iconic imagery was frequently used
to convey the ingredients used within the beverage. These images were often used in conjunction with
images associated with nature such as sun, grass, leaves, or growing crops.
TABLE 1.2
Semiotic Analysis of Functional Beverage 1
Beverage Brand Innocent Pure Fruit Smoothie
Signifier Brand and image of a head with a halo.
Signified Healthy ingredients, no artificial ingredients.
Code Wellness, dietary behavior, convenience, and modern lifestyles.
Metaphor The signs transfer the qualities of the signified for another, thus creating a metaphorical sign that
offers the meaning that the beverage can easily be incorporated into the everyday diet to enhance
its healthiness.
Connotation The use of the white label, the brand name, and the image with a halo suggests that the beverage
is healthy to the consumer and does not contain negative ingredients.
Imagery Face with a halo to portray the perception of healthiness.
TABLE 1.3
Beverage Brand Naked Juice Smoothie
Signifier Brand and logo, dominant use of the ingredient color (green).
Signified Naturally healthy juice, energy giving.
Code Natural, organic, and healthy.
offers the meaning that the beverage is a natural product with natural health-enhancing benefits.
Connotation The dominant use of the color green offers a connotative relationship between the green
ingredients and the green color utilized in the packaging.
Imagery Fruit and vegetables to represent the ingredients used within the product and the use of leaves to
convey the perception of naturalness.
TABLE 1.4
Beverage Brand Actimel Original
Signifier Brand and image of rising sun.
Signified Fun, energy giving, and natural.
Code Wellness, naturalness, health, and convenience.
offers the meaning that consumption of this beverage would improve the healthiness of the diet.
Connotation The dominant use of the color white offers a connotative relationship between the dairy carrier used
and the perception of natural ingredients.
Imagery Rising sun over a green pasture offers the perception of energy, freshness, and naturalness.
TABLE 1.5
Beverage Brand Ribena Plus Summer Fruits
Signifier Brand and descriptor: plus.
Signified Rich in fruits, high in vitamins and antioxidants.
Code Healthy and thirst quenching.
offers the meaning that the juice is high in fruits and therefore high in vitamins.
Connotation The use of primary color in conjunction with the blue sky and clouds offers the perception of a
refreshing drink.
Imagery Medallion illustrating the calcium content and fruits reflecting the ingredients of the product.
TABLE 1.6
Beverage Brand Yakult
Signifier Brand: dominant use of transparent packaging with red typeface for the brand.
Signified Small and powerful.
Code Convenience, innovation, wellness, simple, and effective.
offers the meaning that the beverage is novel, healthy, and powerful.
Connotation The use of the red typeface for the brand on the transparent packaging offers the idea that the
beverage is simple and effective.
Imagery Not applicable.
TABLE 1.7
Beverage Brand Tropicana Essentials Orange Juice and Omega 3
Signifier Brand and descriptor (essentials) in green typeface.
Signified Necessary for healthy living and natural.
Code Convenience, health, and wellness.
offers the meaning that the beverage is essential to everyday health.
Connotation The use of the green typeface for the brand on the white packaging gives the perception of a
natural beverage with no artificial ingredients.
Imagery Faded image of male and female on the center of the package illustrating the product is essential
for every person. Iconic images of oranges reaffirming the flavor and content of the beverage.
1.7.2 Stage 2: Results

Respondents were first asked a variety of questions related to their functional beverage purchase habits
and preferences. They then viewed 36 images and were asked questions on each image to ascertain what
messages they decoded from the information given to them.
1.8 Preferences and Purchase Habits toward Functional Beverages

The interviews revealed that the packaging color played a significant part in consumer acceptance of
functional beverages. For dairy beverages, packaging that was primarily white and contained iconic
images of the ingredients were perceived as most healthy by respondents. For juices, packaging that was
transparent was most preferred by respondents. Most interviewees admitted they made presumptions
about the flavor of a beverage based on the color of the base ingredient. These presumptions varied based
on whether the beverage was a dairy-based product or a juice-based product. Respondents felt that the
carrier had a very important influence on product purchase, whether the carrier was juice, water, cereal,
or dairy based. In addition, noncarbonated beverages with more natural ingredients were perceived as
healthier by respondents.
For dairy-based products, light pink was associated with strawberry, light yellow was associated with
banana, purple was associated with berry, and white was mostly associated with a vanilla-type flavor.
For juice-based beverages, pink was associated with grapefruit, and yellow and orange colors were
used interchangeably to describe the flavor for orange juice, although tropical juice was also mentioned.
Purple was used to denote black currant and green was mostly associated with apple flavors. Most
females indicated they preferred strawberry or vanilla flavors, while males did not have any particular
preferences. Some females, who regularly purchased functional juice beverages for health benefits, men-
tioned the sugar content and indicated they paid particular attention to the label to ensure they chose
the healthiest product available. In addition, respondents believed that both juice-based and dairy-based
products, which contained images of fruits, were healthiest.
The packaging on functional beverages in the retail environment was also mentioned by respondents
as an important influence on purchase. In addition, the location where the beverage was merchandised in
the retail outlet also impacted on the purchase decision. If a beverage was available from the refrigerated
section of the retail outlet, respondents were more likely to purchase the product. They also mentioned
the need for healthy on-the-go beverages, explained by some as “those beverages that keep you going.”
These beverages were described as those that had extra caffeine, or other ingredients, such as ginseng
or guarana, that provided a boost. These products were associated with strong and bright colors, in par-
ticular orange and red. There was a strong interest in noncarbonated energy beverages with more natural
ingredients.
Dairy-based functional beverages, such as Danone Actimel and Danone Activia, were the most fre-
quently purchased brands mentioned by interviewees. However, it was evident that a large proportion
of respondents tried to minimize the quantity of dairy consumed in their diets, due to either health or
weight concerns. These respondents frequently mentioned fruit juices, such as Innocent, as healthy bev-
erages. Juice-based carriers gave the perception of a healthy beverage. A small number of respondents
purchased own-brand functional beverages, such as Tesco yogurt or Tesco juice beverages, with a wide
variety of added vitamins.
The consumption occasion also had a significant influence on the beverage brand purchased. A number
of respondents were willing to purchase own-brand juice beverages for breakfast consumption. However,
when beverages were consumed outside the home, a brand name was nearly always preferred.
I just get the Tesco orange juice with added calcium but I always buy Actimel to take to work.
(R2, male, 41–50 years)
A majority of interviewees gave significant consideration to the preferences of the overall family unit
in the purchase of healthy beverages. Interestingly, a large number of female consumers indicated they
would purchase additional single-serve beverages to meet their own specific health and wellness needs.
These beverages were nearly always a popular branded product that reflected a premium price.
I will buy a multi-vitamin juice for everyone so they are getting all the vitamins they need but I
will have my own shot every morning. My kids would not drink those. (R10, female, 31–40 years)
The packaging type was also of particular importance to consumers. The majority of respondents indi-
cated that a resealable package that was easy to open and close was essential, in addition to being light-
weight and rectangular in shape, so that it could easily fit on the refrigerator shelf. For products that were
positioned on the basis of single-serve portions, a number of consumers mentioned the need for compact
packaging so that a number of portions could fit in the fridge. A small number of female consumers
also mentioned how these products should also have durable packaging for on-the-go consumption. The
importance of on-the-go consumption to the purchase decision was evident across many of the demo-
graphic groups.
The font size of nutritional and labeling information on packaging was an important issue for respon-
dents. They noted that food firms used smaller font sizes on the back of pack labeling, and, in some cases,
the additional information provided to support a health claim or logo. Importantly, these respondents
were reluctant to try any new products that displayed difficult to read text.
I find that the writing explaining ingredients has become very small and I hate having to look for
my glasses. So I will just pick up another one [beverage] instead. (R11, male, 61+ years)
Most respondents believed that juice and dairy beverages they regularly purchased were healthy and
positively contributed to the overall wellness of their diet. In particular, dairy was perceived to be a
naturally healthy product category, and older consumers mentioned a number of health benefits including
calcium, phosphorus, and protein. However, younger respondents were more positive toward water and
juice-based beverages particularly with energy, hydration, and beauty benefits.
Respondents were unsure how cholesterol reduction could be effectively conveyed through an image.
The majority of respondents revealed that a heart image would contribute to the perception of reduced
cholesterol levels, while images that conveyed the idea of natural ingredients and active individuals were
also deemed appropriate. In addition, a smaller number of respondents emphasized the need for key
words to accompany the image in order to avoid confusion at the retail point of purchase for the con-
sumer. Similar responses were found for the health benefits of omega-3 fatty acids. Respondents identi-
fied the image of a heart as appropriate to describe the benefits of this ingredient, and they stressed the
need for text that clearly outlined omega-3 benefits. Typical comments included the following:
I would like to see an active person and the healthy heart. (R2, male, 41–50 years)
Natural ingredients and a heart like before, but I would have to see the words Omega-3 to know
for sure. (R3, female, 51–60 years)
The image of a wheat shaft or grain kernel was suggested as a symbol for fiber in functional beverages.
Respondents also associated these images with whole grain. The most common health benefit for this
type of product was gut health and digestion. The use of images of leaves and grass on a beverage were
associated with fresh organic products. Although not a specific health benefit, respondents indicated that
these images were successful in attracting their attention to products in the retail environment.
1.9 Semiotics and New Product Development

The semiotics revealed that consumers preferred partially transparent packaging for beverages they were
unfamiliar with or for beverages that claimed a certain health and wellness benefit. This allowed con-
sumers to make assumptions about the ingredients and flavors of the product they were unfamiliar with.
Moreover, opaque packaging was associated with very familiar beverages that made no specific health
and wellness claims. Transparent packaging has been associated with reduction of the uncertainty or
purchase risk associated with novel products [38].
Typographical elements are often used to intentionally signify specific things, namely, the subcultural
context, the strategy of the food manufacturer, and the target group of consumers [39]. This was evident
for a number of beverage packages that were examined in the semiotic analysis. It was clear the respon-
dents held a preference for typeface that was simple and clearly legible for beverages that claimed to
have a functional benefit or positioned as a healthier product. Overemphasis on the depth and curvature
of the type gave the perception of a cheaper quality product for the vast majority of respondents. For this
reason, functional beverage packaging needs to incorporate plain, possibly Antigua-style text, as this text
is mostly associated with healthier products [26].
The consumer interviews also provided an insight into how the presence of a claim could interact with
other aspects of packaging to influence consumers’ attitudes and purchase intentions. The strategic use of
color is regarded as a fundamental tool in corporate marketing strategies and provides a means of product
and brand differentiation [40,41]. Importantly, this case study revealed that color was the primary sign
that attracted consumers to a brand on the market that they were unfamiliar with. In addition, consumers
made assumptions about the taste of the product based on the primary color used in the packaging.
It was also evident that the use of certain colors in smaller amounts on product packaging, that is, other
than the main package color, encouraged the consumer to interpret metonymic relationships. The most
common of which was the use of the colors green, white, and yellow: green to portray the meanings of
natural, healthy, organic, and fresh; white to portray the meanings of natural, fresh, and free-from; and
yellow to portray the meanings of sunlight, morning, energy, and fresh. In addition, the use of pictures
and images also attracted consumer attention to brands they were unfamiliar with on the market [37].
1.10 Lessons from the Case Study

The aim of the case study in this chapter is to explore market-oriented design issues of new functional
beverages. Information was generated about new functional beverages from the consumers’ perspective.
In addition, a semiotic analysis was conducted to inform the design of product packaging that would
encourage first purchase, and repeat purchase, by consumers of functional beverages. A key role of infor-
mation is to reduce market uncertainties and then to create, build, and maintain competitive advantage,
through an in-depth understanding of consumers’ needs during the NPD process.
The case study illustrated the important role that consumers can play in the design and marketing of
functional beverages in terms of the development of new product concepts and associated new product
packaging and also the identification of suitable target markets. The case study showed the importance
of generating information on functional beverages in relation to how consumers perceive them and how
different attributes, such as the carrier, taste, packaging, and price, may influence purchase. It illustrated
the importance of consumer knowledge of functional beverages and how these products fit in with con-
sumers’ healthy lifestyles.
The importance of packaging to the purchase decision was clear from this case study in terms of
attracting consumer attention to functional beverages. Involving consumers at the early stages of the
NPD process to assist in codesigning product packaging can ensure that benefits of the product are com-
municated effectively through various signs, symbols, and colors. This may result in increased accep-
tance of new functional beverages and repeat purchase of existing functional beverages. Consumers’
initial interaction with novel products is through the medium of packaging. Therefore, consideration
should be given to the development of product packages that successfully communicate intrinsic attri-
butes of the product through the use of appropriate signs and codes. This case study found that colors
such as white, green, and yellow/orange were most synonymous with healthy beverages. In addition, the
inclusion of images such as wheat shafts, healthy hearts, and leaves further added to the overall percep-
tion of increased health and wellness.
The information generated in this case study can then be used with quantitative techniques, such
as conjoint analysis, to identify optimal product attributes. Conjoint analysis is a multivariate concept
optimization research technique that is used to measure consumer preferences, through utility trade-
offs, for product concepts to understand preferences for products [42]. It is premised on the idea that
consumers evaluate the value of an object by combining the separate amounts of value provided by each
attribute. This enables the development of an optimal functional beverage that creates the most value for
consumers.
1.11 Conclusion
The market for functional beverages continues to grow as consumer demand for traditional carbonated
beverages falls, in line with changing consumer health and wellness lifestyles. This market offers huge
opportunities for firms that develop market-oriented beverages, where the intrinsic and extrinsic attri-
butes are designed to closely meet consumer expectations, offering benefits as part of a healthy lifestyle.
A market-oriented approach to the development of new functional beverages incorporates the voice of
the consumer information at the early stages of the NPD process in order to increase the likelihood of
consumer acceptance of such beverages. This is particularly important in the very competitive func-
tional beverage sector where consumers are faced with new choices, innovations, and brands on a very
regular basis.
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2
Global Nutraceutical Regulations
for Functional Beverages
Anand Swaroop, Manashi Bagchi, and Debasis Bagchi
CONTENTS
2.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................................17
2.2 Beverages and Regulations..............................................................................................................18
2.3 Beverages versus Liquid Dietary Supplements................................................................................18
2.4 Powdered Premix Products and Liquid Concentrations................................................................. 19
2.5 Regulatory Requirements for Ingredients in Beverages and Dietary Supplements....................... 20
2.6 Regulatory Requirements for Labeling of Beverages..................................................................... 20
2.7 International Regulatory Norms..................................................................................................... 21
2.7.1 Japan................................................................................................................................... 21
2.7.2 European Union.................................................................................................................. 22
2.7.3 China.................................................................................................................................. 22
2.7.4 Canada................................................................................................................................ 22
2.7.5 South Korea........................................................................................................................ 23
2.7.6 India.................................................................................................................................... 23
2.7.7 Australia............................................................................................................................. 23
2.7.8 New Zealand....................................................................................................................... 23
2.7.9 Israel................................................................................................................................... 24
2.8 World Market.................................................................................................................................. 24
2.9 Conclusion....................................................................................................................................... 25
References................................................................................................................................................. 25
2.1 Introduction
Phytopharmaceuticals have been used for centuries as novel prophylactic agents for the prevention and
treatment of diseases and disorders in humans and animals as well as for the improvements of chronic
degenerative conditions. Approximately more than 2500 years ago, the father of modern medicine
“Hippocrates” proclaimed the association of food with health benefits and quoted “Let food be thy medi-
cine and medicine be thy food” (Hippocrates, 460–377 BC). Nutritionists and health professionals are
continuously unveiling the beneficial health effects of diverse functional foods and nutraceuticals. This
may range from isolated nutrients as dietary supplements, herbal products, and fortified diets that can
be used as soups, cereals, fortified juices, or beverages, among others. Functional beverages are specifi-
cally designed to quench thirst and maintain healthy fluid and water levels and nutrition. Some examples
include orange juice fortified with vitamin C, calcium, and phytosterols, berry drinks with anthocyanins,
and green tea fortified with epigallocatechin gallate. It is very important that functional beverages carry
appropriate labeling information for the benefit of the consumer. It is also essential that these functional
beverages strictly follow regulatory guidelines to attract consumer confidence in the marketplace [1].
Nutraceuticals and functional foods are becoming increasingly popular around the world, and
especially the demand for functional nutraceutical beverages is on the rise. A significant number of
17
nutraceutical beverages have been introduced in the United States over the last two to three decades and
become increasingly popular. In 2010, the diverse functional beverage market including energy drinks,
sports drinks, various functional drinks, yogurt drinks, smoothies, and ready-to-drink teas and coffees
reached US$23.4 billion, and the same trend is similar globally [2]. The growth of functional beverages
is quite obvious in developing nations because of increased awareness of maintaining good health, body,
and mind. Another reason may be affordability and convenience. This chapter focuses on the intricate
aspect of nutraceutical beverage regulation process in the United States and around the world.
2.2 Beverages and Regulations

It has been observed that there is a remarkable upsurge in the marketing of beverages with a variety of
nutraceutical ingredients and intended uses. Products are being marketed as dietary supplements and/or
conventional foods. It should be pointed out that several of these products may be misbranded, because
their labeling are entirely inconsistent with the product category. However, the regulatory environment for
nutraceutical beverages is not clearly defined [3]. A significant number of functional beverages continue
to expand globally, working with domestic and international trade associations and agencies, struggle to
survive, and harmonize with the regulatory hurdles continue. While consumers purchase these bever-
ages depending on their usefulness and cost, the regulatory organizations are imposing requirements to
demonstrate broad-spectrum safety as well as to track adverse events [4]. Increasingly, the nutraceuti-
cal beverage manufacturing and trading companies are trying to comply with domestic, interstate, and
international regulatory requirements.
A number of key factors are associated to meet the requirements:
• A major emphasis has been given on the safety and appropriate labeling claims, which can be
achieved partly through the good manufacturing practice (GMP) regulations and keeping track
of adverse event reporting.
• Increased enforcement of regulations will streamline the comparatively new and fragmented
companies for regulatory compliance.
• Beverages are conventional foods that may not be marketed as dietary supplements. Under sec-
tion 201(ff)(2)(B) of the Federal Food, Drug, & Cosmetic (FD&C) Act (21 U.S.C. 321(ff)(2)(B)),
“dietary supplement” means a product that, among other requirements, “is not represented for use
as a conventional food or as a sole item of a meal or diet. On the other hand, beverages are conven-
tional foods under the FD&C Act” [4]. Sometimes, when the label of a product characterizes it as a
dietary supplement, the product may not meet the requirements of a dietary supplement. Beverages
or products in liquid form can be represented as conventional foods as a result of factors such as
their products or brand name, packaging, serving size, and recommended daily intake (RDI) or
the volume that is specified to be consumed, composition, recommendations, directions for use,
statements or graphic representations in labeling or advertising, and other marketing requirements.
2.3 Beverages versus Liquid Dietary Supplements

There are several factors that distinguish beverages from liquid dietary supplements. The most vital rep-
resentation of a product’s use is claims made for the product in its labeling and advertising. In addition
to labeling and advertising, a product’s name, packaging, serving size, RDI, recommended conditions
of use, composition, marketing practices, and representation are important determinants of whether the
product is represented as a conventional food, and, if so, it cannot be marketed as a dietary supplement.
The following are some of the salient features:
Claims: Claims are used for a product in its labeling or advertising.
Product representation: A product’s name, packaging details, labeling, serving size, RDI, other recom-
mended conditions of use, composition, and marketing practices, advertising, and representations are
Global Nutraceutical Regulations for Functional Beverages 19
important determinants whether the product is represented as a conventional food and may not be mar-
keted as a dietary supplement. However, in special circumstances, a single factor may determine whether
the product can be termed as a “conventional food,” but, in most circumstances, a combination of factors
would determine whether the product is represented as a conventional food.
Labeling: It has been outlined by Food and Drug Administration (FDA) that statements, graphics dis-
played on product labels, labeling, and advertisement details including websites and social media should
be available when the agency evaluates the intended use and its appropriate representation. It is very
important to emphasize that a product that exhibits a supplement fact panel may still be a conventional
food if it contains statements that it is intended to “refresh” or “rehydrate,” in which statements indicate
that the intended use is as a beverage (which is a conventional food). Graphic representation in terms of
symbols, vignettes, schematic, or pictorial serving suggestions is another representation of a product as a
“conventional food.” In salad dressings, one can see the advertisement or label with a picture of a liquid
product being poured onto a salad would identify the product as a salad dressing.
Product identification: The brand name or product name uses the terms “beverage,” “bottled water,”
“iced tea,” “coffee,” “apple cider,” “juice,” “orange juice,” “soda,” or “drink” on the label to represent
the products as conventional foods because “bottled water” is a terminology identifying a specific cat-
egory of conventional food, which is defined in a “food standard regulation” (see 21 Code of Federal
Regulations [CFR] 165.100).
Packaging: Packaging is a modern art, which is a great marketing tool to contain, hold, preserve, and
exhibit the aesthetic appeal of the product as well as to provide directions as to how the product is to be
used. It should also include the size, volume of liquid, shape, storage conditions, color and design of the
container, and packaging details including whether it is reclosable or to be consumed in a single serving.
These types of packaging and labeling are extensively used for common beverages. A good example is a
Coca Cola pop-top aluminum can bearing a silver strip indicating “cola supplement” that shows that the
product is cola-flavored soft drink intended to be consumed in a single serving. It is very important to
indicate that containers indicate other specifics, including serving size and RDI that need to differenti-
ate the product from a conventional food, even if the container looks like a regular beverage container.
Composition and generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status: To overcome the regulatory hurdles, the
ingredients which can be incorporated in functional beverages must be safe as demonstrated by a bat-
tery of toxicological studies and follow all regulations that are imposed by the regulatory agencies in the
country of use. In the United States, it is expected that the ingredients used in beverages are self-affirmed
or FDA-notified GRAS and qualified for the requirement need for food additives.
Recommended use: The serving size and RDI are very important criteria. Average daily drinking fluid
intake is approximately 1.2 L/day. Liquid formulations that suggest on their labels serving size and/or
RDI to consume up to three 16 ounce bottles (~1.4 L)/day that they are intended to be consumed in
amounts that provide all or a significant part of the entire daily fluid intake of an average person in the
United States are effectively represented as conventional foods [5]. It is important to note that even if
a product is not expressly represented as an alternative to a beverage, when the practical result of the
labeled serving size and/or RDI is that the product is used as a beverage or replaces beverages that serve
as ordinary sources of drinking fluid, FDA would generally consider the representation of the product
for use as a conventional food.
Sales and marketing practices: Appropriate marketing practices should be used. Appropriate labeling,
advertising, and all promotional activities should comply with the regulatory norms.
2.4 Powdered Premix Products and Liquid Concentrations

Powdered premix products intended to be consumed in water, fruit juice, or milk products have long
been used globally. If these products are properly labeled as dietary supplements, these should not be
considered as beverages. Generally, these powdered premixes were introduced in the marketplace for
their convenience or stability. The structural integrity of some or all of the active ingredients of these
powdered premixes may be unstable in aqueous solution and hence are not considered beverages for use.
2.5 Regulatory Requirements for Ingredients in Beverages and

Dietary Supplements
It is important to ensure that any beverage or liquid dietary supplement getting introduced in the market-
place complies with all applicable regulatory norms and requirements of the substances being added to
the formulation. Product compliance is an important parameter. The following important features must
be considered:
Substances intentionally added to beverages: Several nutraceuticals and functional food ingredients
are added to beverages as food additives, which require premarket approval by FDA (Section 409 of the
FD&C Act 21 U.S.C. 348 and 21 CFR Part 171). However, a product is exempt from the definition of
a food additive and exempt from premarket approval if it is identified as a GRAS by qualified experts
under the conditions of its intended use in food (21 CFR 170.30) or if the product falls under another
exception of the food additive definition in section 201(s) of the FD&C Act 21 U.S.C. 321(s).
Dietary ingredients in dietary supplements: Dietary ingredients under section 201(ff)(1) of the FD&C Act
(21 U.S.C.321[ff][1]) must not adulterate the dietary supplement to which they are added (Section 402 of the
FD&C Act [21 U.S.C. 342]). Furthermore, dietary ingredients that were not marketed in the United States
before October 15, 1994, are “new dietary ingredients” subject to the requirements of section 413 of the
FD&C Act (21 U.S.C. 350b) and 21 C.F.R. 190.6. The “dietary supplements” [6], “new dietary ingredients
in dietary supplements—background for industry” [7], and “new dietary ingredients notification process”
[8] include links to regulatory requirements and recommendations that apply to new dietary ingredients.
Substances (other than dietary ingredients) intentionally added to dietary supplements: Section 201(s)
of the FD&C Act 21 U.S.C. 321(s) exempts dietary ingredients used in dietary supplements from the
“food additive” definition. Although a dietary ingredient used in dietary supplement must not adulterate
the supplement under section 402(f) of the FD&C Act (21 U.S.C. 342[f]), it does not have to be GRAS for
its intended use in the supplement. On the contrary, other excipients such as binders, additives, diluents,
and fillers, intended for use in dietary supplements, are not exempt from the food additive definition and
must meet the same requirements as substances added to conventional foods [9,10]. Thus, nondietary
ingredients added to a dietary supplement must follow the food additive regulation or be GRAS affirmed
for their intended use unless these ingredients qualify for another exception to the food additive defini-
tion [6,7]. More detailed information is available in the FDA websites [9,10].
2.6 Regulatory Requirements for Labeling of Beverages

Beverages should comply with all applicable labeling requirements in their respective locations.
General requirements: Claims, statements, and graphics in the labeling of beverages and liquid dietary
supplements need to comply with Section 403(a)(1) of the FD&C Act (21 U.S.C. 343[a][1]), which indi-
cates that a food is misbranded if its labeling is misleading or false.
Health claims: Beverage and liquid dietary supplements may bear health claims, which exhibit relation-
ship between a food or food component and a disease or health-related condition. It is recommended to
critically review the following sections in the U.S. FDA Redbook for details:
1. Section 21 CFR 101.14(a)(1)

2. Section 403(r)(1)(B), (r)(3), (r)(4), and (r)(5) of the FD&C Act (21 U.S.C. 343[r][1][B], [r][3],
[r][4], [r][5])
3. Section 21 CFR 101.14, 21 CFR 101.70, and 21 CFR 101.72–101.83
4. Label claims [11]

5. Guidance for industry: evidence-based review system for the scientific evaluation of health
claims [12]
6. Qualified health claims [13]
7. FDA modernization act (FDAMA) claims [14]
8. Summary of qualified health claims subject to enforcement discretion [15]
Nutrient content claims: Both beverages and liquid dietary supplements, which identify the nutrient level
in a food according to 21 CFR 101.13(b). In addition, the following sections provide additional details:
1. Section 403(r)(1)(A), (r)(2), (r)(4), and (r)(5) of the FD&C Act (21 U.S.C. 343[r][1][A], [r][2],
[r][4], [r][5])
2. Section 21 CFR 101.13, 21 CFR 101.69, and 21 CFR 101.54–101.67
3. FDAMA claims [14]
4. Label claims [11]
Structure function claims for conventional foods: Conventional foods and beverages may bear certain
kinds of claims about effects on the structure or function of the body. “Food” is defined in Section
201(f) of the FD&C Act (21 U.S.C. 321[f]) as (1) articles used for food or drink for man or other animals,
(2) chewing gum, and (3) articles used for components of any such article. It is also recommended to
consult Section 201(g)(1)(C) of the FD&C Act (21 U.S.C. 321[g][1][C]).
Structure function claims for dietary supplements: Labeling of dietary supplements needs to comply
with Section 403(r)(6) of the FD&C Act (21 U.S.C. 343(r)(6) and 21 CFR 101.93). These claims are about
general well-being and benefits.
General food labeling requirements: FDA’s general food labeling requirements, including those that
apply to dietary supplements, are in 21 CFR Part 101. Labeling requirements for beverages and conven-
tional foods differ greatly from dietary supplements. Beverages need to exhibit nutrition information in
the nutrition facts format as shown in 21 CFR 101.9, while dietary supplements need to exhibit nutrition
information in the Supplement Facts format (21 CFR 101.36). A beverage or other conventional foods
should not be labeled with the FDA disclaimer, which is required for dietary supplements.
2.7 International Regulatory Norms

In addition to U.S. regulation given earlier, international regulatory norms are also discussed briefly.
2.7.1 Japan
The terminology “foods with health claims” was first incorporated for nutraceuticals and functional
foods in Japan. It is worthwhile to mention that Japanese are extremely health conscious and the second
largest consumer of nutraceuticals. There are two basic categories:
1. Foods with Nutrient Function Claims: Basically, it satisfies the minimum and maximum daily
levels of selected vitamins and micronutrients.
2. Foods for Specified Health Uses: This requires premarketing approval. This needs evalua-
tion of effectiveness and approval by the Pharmaceutical Affairs and Food Sanitation Council
and the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW). Japan also established Consumer
Affairs Agency, which assumed the MHLW responsibility [1,3,16].
The new Japanese regulation reformation process is in process and will be implemented soon.
2.7.2 European Union

European Union (EU) food laws and legislations are basically based on General Food Law Regulation
178/2002; Foods (EC Regulation 172/2002); Food Supplements Directive 2002/46; Fortified Foods
Regulation 1925/2006 on the addition of vitamins, minerals, and other nutraceuticals to food; Foods
for Particular Nutritional Uses (Dietetic Foods) (Directive 2009/39); Nutrition and Health Claims
Regulation 1924/2006; Novel Foods Regulation 258/97; and Foods for Particular Nutritional Use
(PARNUTS) (Directive 89/398/EEC). From 2007, nutrition and health claims regulation is covered by
European Commission, European Food Safety Authority, and national authorities [17,18]. In the United
Kingdom, food products are regulated under the Food Safety Act 1990, and “food” is defined in Article
2 of EC Regulation 172/2002.
In Article 2 of EC Regulation 172/2002, it clearly states that “Food shall not include medicinal prod-
ucts within the meaning of Council Directive 2001/83/EC.” Food in this definition covers any food,
beverage (drink), or supplement ingested and considered to be part of the normal human diet. Products
that provide benefits beyond their traditional nutritional value, however, are not considered to be foods.
If not considered a food, these may be PARNUTS under Directive 89/398/EEC.
This directive defines PARNUTS as foods which “owing to their special composition or manufactur-
ing process are clearly distinguishable from foodstuffs for normal consumption, which are suitable for
the claimed nutritional purpose and which are marketed in such a way as to indicate such suitability.”
The EU PARNUTS directive contains rules relating to the specific compositional details and labeling
requirements of foods and six categories of permitted substances: (1) vitamins, (2) minerals, (3) amino
acids, (4) carnitine and taurine, (5) nucleotides, and (6) choline and inositol [1,17,18].
Nutraceuticals, normally derived from existing food products, however, will not fall under the Article 2
definition of food since they purport to provide a benefit beyond their traditional nutritional value. While
not a food product, nutraceuticals do not fit the PARNUTS directive definition either, as their composi-
tion does not clearly fit any of the six PARNUTS categories [17,18].
The only other basis on which nutraceuticals may be regulated is as “novel ingredients” under
Regulation (EC) No. 258/97. These ingredients have not been marketed in an EU member state before 1997.
Authorization from the relevant EU member state’s competent authority needs to be obtained [1,17,18].
2.7.3 China
The nutraceutical market in 2008 was US$6 billion in China [19] and China Health Care Association, a
government-appointed body that regulates the nutraceutical industries. Other agencies include State Food
and Drug Administration (SFDA) that regulates the nutraceutical supplements, Ministry of Health (MoH)
that oversees SFDA and monitors the approval of novel food ingredients, and Administration of Quality
Supervision Inspection and Quarantine that regulates imports and exports of nutraceuticals and func-
tional foods. However, the regulatory position for functional beverages are not transparent at all [1,3,19].
2.7.4 Canada
Vitamins, minerals, botanical herbs based on dietary supplements, traditional Chinese medicines, pro-
biotics, and enzymes are called natural health products (NHPs) and regulated under the Canadian Food
and Drugs Act. The Canadian Government Health Authority—Health Canada has approved more than
61,000 NHPs for sale in Canada since 2004. NHP has classified a three-class system based on risk,
namely, (1) Class 1, (2) Class 2, and (3) Class 3. The regulatory approval process requires evidence
requirements based on risk and health claims. Furthermore, NHP Directorate has outlined procedures for
the evaluation of multi-ingredient formulations. Postmarket activities and vigilance are also performed
by regulatory agencies [1,20]. However, nutraceutical beverage regulation has not been independently
classified.
2.7.5 South Korea

Korean Health and Welfare Committee of the National Assembly proposed the Health/Functional Food
Act (HFFA) in late 2000 and the act was established to cover nutraceuticals and functional foods in
2002. In 2004, HFFA approved 37 generic nutraceutical and functional foods including vitamins, min-
erals, essential amino acids, proteins, dietary fiber, and essential fatty acids. The Ministry of Food and
Drug Safety (MFDS) authority evaluates the specifications, process standardization, safety, and effi-
cacy data very critically. As of October 2012, approximately more than 165 functional ingredients have
been approved by MFDS. Claims including platelet aggregation, triacylglycerols, blood pressure, blood
glucose, antioxidant, skin health, fatigue, cholesterol, calcium absorption, dental caries, fat reduction,
prostate function, gastrointestinal function, cognition, physical performance, urinary function, immune
function, ocular health, antistress, memory function, joint/bone health, menopause, and liver health have
been approved for product-specific HFFs [1]. However, no clear directive is available for nutraceutical
beverages.
2.7.6 India
Nutraceutical and functional foods are regulated by Food Safety and Standards Act. Manufacturers
follow the standards of Indian Pharmacopoeia. Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and
Industry is somewhat associated with the improvement of regulation on nutraceutical market and func-
tional beverage [1,21]. However, no detailed information is available.
2.7.7 Australia
Botanical herbs, vitamins, minerals, nutraceutical supplements, and homeopathic and aromatherapy
preparations are referred to as “complimentary medicines” and are regulated under the Therapeutic
Goods Act (TGA) 1989 [22,23]. A complimentary medicine, including a nutraceutical, is defined as
“a therapeutic good consisting principally of one or more designated active ingredients mentioned
in Schedule 14 of the Regulations, each of which has a clearly established identity and traditional
use,” which include an amino acid; charcoal; a choline salt; an essential oil; plant or herbal extract;
homeopathic preparation; a microorganism, whole or extracted, except a vaccine; mineral; mucopoly-
saccharide; nonhuman animal material; a lipid, phospholipid, or an essential fatty acid; royal jelly;
bee pollen; propolis; a sugar; polysaccharide or carbohydrate; and a vitamin or provitamin. Australia
has a two-tiered system for the regulation of complimentary medicines: (1) higher-risk products need
to be registered on the Australian Register of Therapeutic Goods (ARTG) [22–24], which requires the
evaluation of quality, safety, and efficacy and (2) lower-risk products that contains preapproved low-risk
ingredients and has limited claims listed in ARTG. TGA’s postmarket regulatory activity of complimen-
tary medicines and adverse event reporting are standard procedures. No clear directive is available on
nutraceutical beverage.
2.7.8 New Zealand

New Zealand’s Medicines and Medical Devices Safety Authority (MEDSAFE) is responsible for thera-
peutic products available in New Zealand. The interface between therapeutic-type and food-type dietary
supplements is subject to consultation between the New Zealand Food Safety Authority and MEDSAFE.
Premarketing approval is mandatory, and postmarketing surveillance monitors the safety and adverse
events. Handling complaints and investigations and GMP auditing are routine mandatory practices. Food
& Beverage Information Project 2011 overviewed a final report on nutraceuticals and foods for health in
October 2011 [25], and basically New Zealand followed the U.S. regulations. Although the report indi-
cated foods and beverages, however, the beverage section is not extensive.
2.7.9 Israel
Israel has been termed as one of the key innovation hubs for the nutraceutical industries, and their major
revenue comes from the export of nutraceuticals and functional foods to the United States and Europe.
MoH regulates nutraceuticals and functional foods [1,3].
2.8 World Market

Table 2.1 demonstrates the key regulatory terms in the United States and around the world and the
approximate revenues in the said territories [17,20,22–26], which is very promising. However, the nutra-
ceutical beverage regulations in the international marketplace still need to be established. According
to the available information, the regulatory and judicial formalities on nutraceutical beverages are in
progress.
TABLE 2.1
Nutraceutical Supplements, Regulatory Authorities, and Estimated Annual Business
Estimated Annual
Country Regulatory Authorities Business (US$) References
United States Code of Federal Regulations ~75.9 billion in 2018 [22]
Food and Drug Administration
Federal Trade Commission
Generally Recognized as Safe
Good Manufacturing Practices
Japan Consumer Affairs Agency ~26 billion in 2006 [23]
Foods with Nutrient Function Claims
Foods for Special Dietary Uses
Food for Specified Health Use
Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare
European Union European Food Safety Authority ~35 billion in 2010 [17]
Foods for Particular Nutritional Use
China China Health Care Association ~6 billion in 2008 [25]
State Food and Drug Administration
Ministry of Health
Administration of Quality Supervision Inspection and
Quarantine
Canada Natural Health Products Directorate na —
Health Canada
South Korea Health/Functional Food Act na —
Ministry of Food and Drug Safety
India Food Safety and Standards Act ~4 billion in 2018 [24]
Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry
Australia Australia New Zealand Therapeutic Products Authority ~1.5 billion each year [26]
Australian Register of Therapeutic Goods
Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Therapeutic Goods Act
New Zealand Australia New Zealand Therapeutic Products Authority ~1 billion in 2010 [20]
Medicines and Medical Devices Safety Authority
New Zealand Food Safety Authority
Israel Ministry of Health na —
Abbreviation: na, not available.
2.9 Conclusion
Innovations and marketing of nutraceuticals and functional foods are now the fastest-growing segments
for this industry. Currently, the rising costs and toxicity of some pharmaceuticals are driving the popu-
lation around the world to move forward with safe, efficacious, and less expensive nutraceuticals and
functional food supplements and beverages. Especially, there is a massive global upsurge of functional
beverages in its sales and consumption. Especially, the younger generation has a trend to using func-
tional beverages over conventional cola beverages. Although nutraceutical beverage regulation has been
defined, further clarification is required to make it more effective and safe. Functional beverages are very
popular and extensively used in Japan, South Korea, China, and Thailand. Health professionals, nutri-
tionists, and regulatory toxicologists should strategically work shoulder to shoulder to derive appropriate
regulatory standards and to provide the optimal health and therapeutic benefits to mankind globally.
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3
Flavor Challenges in Functional Beverages
Keith R. Cadwallader
CONTENTS
3.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 27
3.2 Flavor Perception............................................................................................................................ 28
3.3 Off Flavors Associated with Functional Ingredients...................................................................... 28
3.3.1 Off Odors............................................................................................................................ 28
3.3.2 Bitter and Astringent Substances....................................................................................... 28
3.4 Flavor Modification Techniques..................................................................................................... 28
3.4.1 Traditional Approaches...................................................................................................... 28
3.4.1.1 Odor Masking by Mixture Suppression and Odor Synergy............................... 30
3.4.1.2 Bitterness Masking by Suppression.................................................................... 30
3.4.1.3 Taste Masking by Viscosity Modification.......................................................... 30
3.4.2 Advanced Approaches........................................................................................................ 30
3.4.2.1 Taste Masking by Inclusion Complexation......................................................... 30
3.4.2.2 Bitter-Blocking Agents........................................................................................31
3.5 Masking and Flavoring of Functional Beverages............................................................................31
3.5.1 Partnering with a Flavor Company.................................................................................... 32
3.5.2 In-House Product Development......................................................................................... 32
3.5.2.1 Flavor Considerations......................................................................................... 32
3.6 Conclusion....................................................................................................................................... 33
References................................................................................................................................................. 33
3.1 Introduction
Formulated functional beverages differ from traditional beverages in that they are produced using
ingredients with scientifically proven physiological and health benefits. These products are often based
on patents, industry trade secrets, or other type of proprietary knowledge. As with any food product, the
ultimate goal is to make a product with an acceptable flavor profile that is characterized by the imme-
diate impact of an identifying flavor (e.g., vanilla, chocolate, and strawberry), rapid development of a
balanced and full-bodied flavor, compatible mouthfeel and texture, lack of off flavors, and a minimal
(short) aftertaste. It is important that when consumers first open or taste a product, their first impression
is that of the intended, desirable flavor. Functional beverages face many of the same flavor challenges
encountered with pharmaceuticals due to the inherent off flavors associated with the ingredients used
in their formulation. Products highly fortified with vitamins, minerals, and intensely bitter functional
ingredients present a particularly difficult challenge.
Several excellent reviews provide an exhaustive overview of methods for masking off flavors in phar-
maceutical products [1–5], and techniques for reducing bitterness in functional foods have recently been
published [6]. This chapter highlights traditional and emerging technologies and discusses practical
approaches to improve the flavor characteristics of functional beverages.
27
3.2 Flavor Perception

Flavor is the integrated response to the simultaneous perception of taste, odor, trigeminal, and tactile
sensations and is often influenced by visual and auditory cues perceived during food consumption [7].
Although the peripheral sensory organs for detection of taste and smell stimuli are distinct, their signals
are integrated in the orbitofrontal and other areas of the cerebral cortex of the brain to generate the
perception of “flavor” [8]. It is the complexity of flavor perception that makes it particularly challenging
to successfully modify the inherent flavor characteristics of a functional beverage to produce a highly
acceptable product.
3.3 Off Flavors Associated with Functional Ingredients

Functional beverages often contain ingredients that cause undesirable flavors (odors and tastes), which
can ultimately impact the flavor quality and consumer acceptability of the finished product. In order
to develop an effective strategy for reducing or eliminating the perception of off flavors, it is critical
that product developers know the nature of all ingredients used in the creation of the base formulation.
Of particular importance is the flavor and off flavor potential, possible interactions (flavor binding), and
process, storage, and shelf-life limitations (stability) of each functional ingredient.
3.3.1 Off Odors

Extracts made from herbs, spices, and medical plants often contain residual volatile compounds that can
cause undesirable odors in the final product. Other sources of off odors include those caused by fortification
with minerals, vitamins, omega-3 fatty acids, or healthy proteins (e.g., soy and whey). In addition, off odors
may develop from the degradation of ingredients during manufacture (thermal processing) and storage.
3.3.2 Bitter and Astringent Substances

Many functional ingredients, especially plant extractives, have the potential to cause bitterness and
astringency. These include herbal extracts containing caffeine, such as guarana, kola nut, yerba mate,
green tea, and cocoa extract enriched in theobromine and caffeine. Polyphenolics represent the largest
group of bitter and astringent substances used in functional beverages. These are derived in the form of
extracts or concentrates from plant materials, including green tea, grape (skin and seed), berry fruits,
apple (seed), soy, and citrus (peel and seed), among others. Structures of some bitter and astringent con-
stituents of functional ingredients are shown in Figure 3.1.
The tastes elicited by polyphenols can range from mainly bitter (trans-resveratrol) to being both bitter
and astringent (e.g., (+)-catechin and (−)-epicatechin). The taste properties of some phenolics depend
upon the degree of polymerization. For example, the monomeric phenols (+)-catechin and (−)-epicatechin
are perceived as more bitter than astringent, while their dimers and trimers illicit nearly equal or greater
astringency than bitterness, respectively [9]. Not all polyphenolic compounds are bitter or astringent;
occasionally, they can be sweet (e.g., neohesperidin dihydrochalcone) or tasteless (e.g., anthocyanins), in
which case the use of these functional ingredients should not cause any bitterness issues.
3.4 Flavor Modification Techniques

3.4.1 Traditional Approaches
Several strategies are commonly employed to reduce the perception of undesirable odors, tastes, and
mouthfeel characteristics of functional beverages (Table 3.1). Most involve the use of some sort of mask-
ing technology, which acts to suppress or interfere with the perception of undesirable flavors without
actually changing their concentrations in the product.
Flavor Challenges in Functional Beverages 29
OH
OH
O
HO O O
HO
O
O O
N N
N N
O OH O
N NH HO
O N N OH
O OH
Caffeine Theobromine Naringin
(bitter) (bitter) (bitter)
OH
HO OH
OH
O
OH
OH
Resveratrol
(bitter) OH
OH
OH OH
O
OH
OH OH
HO O HO O
OH OH
OH
OH OH OH
OH OH Dimeric procyanidin B8
(+)-Catechin (2R,3S) (–)-Epicatechin (2R,3R) (4α 6 catechin-epicatechin)
(bitter/astringent) (bitter/astringent) (astringent/bitter)
FIGURE 3.1 Chemical structures of some bitter and astringent constituents of functional ingredients.
TABLE 3.1
Traditional and Emerging Methods for Improving the Flavor Characteristics of Functional Beverages
Flavor Challenge Strategy Methods
Off odor reduction Odor masking Mixture suppression by addition of complex flavorings.
Assimilation masking by addition of flavorings that complement
the odors already present in base formulation.
Matrix modification Subdue or modulate odor release (availability) by addition of fat,
fat replacers, or bulking agents.
Bitterness and Congruent or assimilation Choose flavoring that complements lingering or persistent bitter
astringency masking of bitterness and and astringent tastes (e.g., coffee, tea, or dark chocolate).
reduction astringency
Mask bitterness by suppression Suppress bitterness perception by addition of NaCl, amino acids,
sugar, or high-intensity sweeteners.
Mask bitterness and astringency Addition of thickening agents (polysaccharides or gums).
by decreasing (oral) diffusion Addition of emulsifiers (lipids or lecithin).
Mask by physical separation of Encapsulation of bitter and astringent ingredients. Addition of
bitter and astringent compounds cyclodextrins.
Blocking of bitter receptors Addition of substances (bitter-blocking agents) that suppress
bitterness by interfering with bitter receptors and/or receptor
signaling pathways.
3.4.1.1 Odor Masking by Mixture Suppression and Odor Synergy

Masking of off odors can be accomplished by addition of more complex flavorings. The effect is the
result of mixture suppression, where the perceived intensity of an odorant mixture is less than that of
the individual components [10]. Assimilation masking can also be accomplished by adding flavors that
complement those already present in the product. Often, the individual flavor ingredients have limited
masking capability, but in combination provide synergy to produce a unique odor, thus enhancing the
masking effect [11]. Off odors may also be subdued by modulating or decreasing flavor release by addi-
tion of fat, fat replacers (polydextrose), and bulking agents.
3.4.1.2 Bitterness Masking by Suppression

It is possible to suppress bitterness by the addition of sugar or salt (NaCl) [12,13]. For obvious reasons,
sugar and salt are not generally used in functional beverages developed for health conscious consumers.
Instead, nonnutritive and high-intensity sweeteners (e.g., sucralose and aspartame) have found practical
application for bitterness reduction of functional ingredients and pharmaceuticals. However, the poten-
tial of these sweeteners themselves to illicit bitter and metallic aftertastes at higher use levels should be
considered during product formulation.
Conventional taste masking strategies such as use of sweeteners, amino acids, and flavoring agents
alone or in combination are often inadequate for reducing or eliminating off flavors associated with
certain functional ingredients, especially those containing intensely bitter and astringent substances.
In these cases, it may be necessary to employ more advanced techniques such as use of bitter-blocking
agents and inclusion complexes.
3.4.1.3 Taste Masking by Viscosity Modification

It is possible to reduce both the bitterness and astringency by increasing viscosity of a functional bev-
erage. This can be accomplished by the addition of thickening agents such as natural gums or car-
bohydrates or by addition of certain lipophilic substances (lipids, lecithin, and so on). The increased
viscosity acts to slow the diffusion of bitter and astringent compounds to the surface of the tongue
and oral cavity, thus reducing the perception of these substances. Chalkiness, grittiness, and other
mouthfeel characteristics may also be modified by addition of modifiers such as gums (e.g., pectin) that
provide lubricity, creaminess, and fullness. The use of natural, plant-based gums to increase viscosity
offers the additional advantage of serving as source of dietary fiber, thus potentially increasing the
nutritional value of the product.
3.4.2 Advanced Approaches

3.4.2.1 Taste Masking by Inclusion Complexation
In addition to protecting flavors, microencapsulation can be used to help mask the unpleasant sensory
characteristics of functional ingredients such as bitter herbal extracts and fishy smelling omega-3 oils.
A multitude of encapsulation technologies exist. These vary in the materials and processes employed in
their manufacture. Most produce dry, free-flowing powders designed to release their payloads under spe-
cific conditions (e.g., hydration, heating, and shearing). The use of inclusion complexation (or molecular
encapsulation) is a particularly attractive and effective method for masking of functional beverages and
is based on the molecular inclusion of an odorant or taste substance inside the cavity of another molecule.
This prevents perception of the substance during consumption. The most often used inclusion complex-
ation systems are based on the use of cyclodextrins as the host material [14].
Cyclodextrins are cyclic oligosaccharides composed of D-glucose units. There are three types of
cyclodextrin, which contain either six (α), seven (β), and eight (γ) glucose units. β-Cyclodextrin is the
most widely used complexation material due to its ability to form inclusion complexes with a variety
of molecules, especially bitter and astringent compounds, its availability, and reasonably low cost [15].
Complexation using various types of cyclodextrins has been shown to be effective in reducing or
eliminating bitterness in a variety of foods and beverages. These include the use of β-cyclodextrin to
reduce the bitterness of naringin and limonin in citrus juice [16] and use of either β- or γ-cyclodextrin
for the reduction of bitterness of ginseng solutions [17]. In addition to reducing bitterness, cyclodextrins
can alter the sensory profile through flavor encapsulation and could interfere with the action of masking
agents or bitter-blocking agents [18].
3.4.2.2 Bitter-Blocking Agents

Bitter-blocking agents function by occupying (or blocking) bitter taste receptors or signaling pathways
without initiating a sensory perception. Certain umami substances exhibit bitter-inhibiting activity. For
example, adenosine monophosphate, a naturally occurring bitter-blocking agent with generally recog-
nized as safe (GRAS) status, suppresses bitterness by interfering with the bitter receptor signaling pro-
tein gustducin. Other naturally occurring bitter-blocking agents include phosphatidic acid and tannic
acid [19] and riboflavin-binding protein (RBP) from chicken egg [20]. RBP inhibits the binding of vari-
ous bitter substances including quinine HCl, naringin, theobromine, and caffeine.
The recent elucidation of the TAS2Rs group of about 25 bitter receptors has aided the develop-
ment of more effective bitter-blocking/bitter-masking agents. In general, bitter-blocking agents have
fairly narrow bitter-blocking capabilities since they do not block all 25 receptors, but instead they are
designed to block receptors for specific bitter substances. For example, probenecid (a uricosuric drug
used primarily for treating gout and hyperuricemia) has been shown to block bitterness of salicin by
inhibiting the activation of the subset of bitter taste receptors involved in its detection [21]. Several
proprietary or patented bitter-blocking agents have been developed by flavor companies. Givaudan
flavors offer the bitter-blocking agents (GIV3727 and GIV3616), which reportedly block the bitter and
metallic tastes associated with the consumption of high-intensity artificial sweeteners. Senomyx offers
the patented (US7939671) bitter blockers (S6821 and S7958), which effectively block the bitter tastes
associated with beverages containing soy or whey proteins, or caffeine. A potential drawback to using
taste-blocking agents is that they may cause the suppression of some other desirable or characterizing
flavors. For this reason, it might be necessary to adjust or rebalance any added flavoring agents to
compensate for this change.
3.5 Masking and Flavoring of Functional Beverages

First, it is of utmost importance to have intimate knowledge about the off flavor potential of each ingredi-
ent and of the base formulation, including any potential effects of processing or storage. Product devel-
opers must not only consider the functional or bioactive aspects of the ingredients but also any negative
sensory qualities these may possess. They must work with the inherent flavor attributes of the base
formulation and not try and create an incompatible flavor. That is, the target flavor and residual flavor of
the base formation cannot be totally incongruous.
Ideally, one would consider masking or neutralizing any off-notes before attempting to apply the target
or characterizing flavoring. Sometimes, it is necessary to adjust the ingredients in the base rather than to
rely solely on the addition of masking agents and flavors. When optimizing flavor use level, it is impor-
tant to consider both the effects of any flavor interactions (flavor interactions of functional ingredients)
and other reactions that might occur during processing or storage. Especially, problematic is flavor fade
that is often encountered in high protein (soy, whey, and so on)-containing products. Flavor fade is the
perceived loss of flavor caused by the nonspecific binding of flavor compounds to the protein. It does not
occur equally among the added flavor compounds, thus in addition to a decrease in overall flavor inten-
sity, a shift in the flavor profile or flavor imbalance may result [22].
Depending upon the company’s research and development (R&D) resources and capabilities, the
product developer may elect to partner with a flavor company or develop the technology in-house.
Both approaches have several advantages and disadvantages as discussed in the following sections.
3.5.1 Partnering with a Flavor Company

Flavor companies are well adept at providing custom solutions to solve off flavor problems. They offer
products and technologies that not only serve to mask undesirable flavors but also provide a desirable
flavor in the finished product [23]. The advantage of involving a flavor company is they have the exper-
tise, resources, and know-how needed to successfully flavor even the most difficult functional beverages.
They also have enough experience to know if a flavor or masking agent will complex or react with any of
the functional ingredients. Partnering with a flavor company is especially attractive to small companies
that possess only limited R&D capabilities. An obvious disadvantage to this approach is that intellectual
property is owned and controlled by the flavor company and the client may have no knowledge about
the composition of the masking agents, flavorings, and technology used to flavor the finished product.
3.5.2 In-House Product Development

Internal R&D of masking and flavoring solutions has the key advantage in that the intellectual property
(formulation/technology) is owned and controlled by the company. Prior to formulation of the base, the
flavor and mouthfeel attributes of the individual ingredients should be identified by descriptive sensory
analysis (DSA) using trained panelists. During the initial stages of product development, it is important
to minimize the number of functional ingredients with off flavor potential, since the taste synergy from
too many ingredients may create a base that’s nearly impossible to flavor.
Any of the aforementioned masking technologies can be applied to help neutralize the off flavors of
the base. It is also possible to obtain masking agents from flavor companies. DSA should be used to aid
in the development of the masking technologies and to identify and characterize any residual odors,
tastes, and mouthfeel properties in the finished base. Ideally, masking technologies should be applied
before overlaying the base with added flavoring (mask first, then flavor). The main advantage of flavoring
after neutralizing the base is that it helps prevent the over flavoring of the product. It is important that the
target flavor be chosen such that it complements the residual flavors in the base. Certain combinations
are impractical or nearly impossible. For example, you cannot take a bitter base and expect to make an
acceptable banana flavor. Instead, it is more practical to consider a more compatible or congruent flavor,
such as cola, citrus, dark chocolate, or coffee, in which a bitter note is expected or at least tolerated to
some extent.
It is possible that the masking ingredients might also cause the suppression or modification of the
added flavorings. Therefore, it might be necessary to later rebalance or adjust the flavoring to correct for
these changes. It is also important to consider other factors that might cause flavor changes, such as flavor
binding, thermal processing (pasteurization), and storage.
3.5.2.1 Flavor Considerations

The goal of the product developer should be to produce a functional beverage that is highly acceptable
to a wide range of consumers. Some flavors may appear healthier or more wholesome to consumers.
For example, products with citrus or berry flavors might be perceived as healthier than products with
more indulgent flavors, such as vanilla and chocolate. Flavors such as chai, exotic/tropical fruit, citrus
(lemon–lime), and berry flavors work well for energy beverages, while vanilla and chocolate flavors are
more appropriate for protein-fortified beverages. Whenever feasible, complementary (congruent) flavor-
ing strategies should be used to produce the most acceptable finished product.
It is well established that olfaction can influence taste perception in both simple and complex matrices
[24]. The result of integration is product dependent and related to food experience. For this reason, it may
have either desirable or negative consequence with respect to product quality. Labbe et al. [24] showed
that olfactory–taste interactions in a cocoa beverage caused an enhancement of bitterness induced by
the cocoa flavoring and an increase in sweetness from the vanilla flavoring. However, in caffeinated
milk, the addition of vanilla flavoring did not significantly impact sweetness, but unexpectedly bitterness
perception was enhanced. The aforementioned results highlight the need for congruency in flavoring of
functional beverages.
Use of a flavoring that complements residual or lingering or persistent aromatics and tastes is referred
to as congruent or assimilation masking. An example of this approach is the use of a coffee and dark
chocolate flavoring to complement the bitter taste and astringent mouthfeel and green, beany, and cereal
aromatics associated with soy-fortified beverages. Similarly, the earthy note of St. John’s wort blends or
assimilates well with chocolate or coffee.
3.6 Conclusion
It is the ultimate goal of the product developer to provide consumers with functional beverages that not
only deliver the intended health-promoting benefits but also taste great. Various strategies can be used
in functional beverages to decrease off odors, bitter tastes, and astringent mouthfeel characteristics.
Traditional methods can be effective, but recent advances in the development of bitter-blocking agents
offer new and potentially more effective ways to inhibit bitterness. These may have particular appeal for
the targeted blocking of intensely bitter functional ingredients, especially polyphenolics that are com-
monly used in functional beverages. The use of several approaches, for example, traditional masking
strategies combined with inclusion complexation and bitter binding agents, is the most effective option
for the effective flavoring functional beverages.
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4
Chemistry of Functional Beverages
Shiming Li, Fereidoon Shahidi, and Chi-Tang Ho
CONTENTS
4.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 35
4.2 Chemistry and Bioactivities of Phytochemicals............................................................................. 36
4.2.1 Polyphenols......................................................................................................................... 36
4.2.2 Flavonoids........................................................................................................................... 36
4.2.3 Terpenoids and Carotenoids............................................................................................... 36
4.2.4 Saponins............................................................................................................................. 38
4.2.5 Phytosterols........................................................................................................................ 39
4.2.6 Polysaccharides.................................................................................................................. 39
4.2.7 Alkaloids.............................................................................................................................41
4.3 Selected Functional Beverages........................................................................................................41
4.3.1 Tea...................................................................................................................................... 42
4.3.2 Coffee................................................................................................................................. 42
4.3.3 Fruit and Vegetable Beverages........................................................................................... 43
4.3.4 Energy Drinks.................................................................................................................... 44
4.4 Conclusion....................................................................................................................................... 44
References................................................................................................................................................. 45
4.1 Introduction
Functional beverages, a subsector of the functional food industry and the fastest-growing sector of the
functional food market, have become increasingly popular among conscientious consumers due to their
perceived health benefits. Convenience and health benefits are two of the most important factors when
consumers make decisions about purchasing foods and beverages. Functional beverages claim to improve
athletic endurance, energy, and hydration, and are associated with various health benefits such as gen-
eral wellness, antioxidant activity, healthy cardiovascular system, cancer prevention, healthy digestive
system, immune defense, body weight reduction, and joint health improvement, among others [1].
Apart from water, the most popular and traditional functional beverages worldwide are tea, coffee,
and fruit juices [2]. Newly developed functional drinks sometimes contain vitamins and minerals, but in
most cases they contain functional ingredients from fruits or other parts of medicinal plants, such as açai,
pomegranate, cranberry, blueberry, and monk fruits, to name a few. Hence, the phytochemical ingredi-
ents that are the building blocks of functional beverages, which provide targeted health functionality
need to be investigated and their content summarized. Bioactive phytochemicals in functional beverages
can be classified based on their chemical structures as polyphenols, including flavonoids, terpenoids,
carotenoids, saponins, phytosterols, polysaccharides, and alkaloids, among others, even though there
are some overlaps among the aforementioned classifications. This chapter highlights the most popular
beverages and their major ingredients from an array of chemical profiles.
35
4.2 Chemistry and Bioactivities of Phytochemicals

4.2.1 Polyphenols
Polyphenols, as literally indicated by their name, can have two or more hydroxyl groups bonded to the
aromatic ring(s) in the same molecule (Figure 4.1). Hydroxyl groups on phenyl rings are also termed
phenolics and they have a strong electron-donating capability due to their conjugation with the phenyl
core moiety. Hence, the phenyl ring and phenolic groups consist of an electron-rich system, which allows
the easy loss of electrons and potential for readily being oxidized. It is often judged from the structural
chemistry theory that the more hydroxyl groups a polyphenol possesses, the stronger antioxidant activity
it has, although the antioxidant activity is more often related with the locations of hydroxyl groups on a
conjugated aromatic system. Phenolics and polyphenolics exist ubiquitously in the plant kingdom and
usually have strong antioxidant activity. Major classes of phenolics and polyphenols, as illustrated in
Figure 4.1, include monobenzone core polyphenols, hydroxylated benzoic acids, hydroxylated cinnamic
acids, stilbenoids, lignans, and various flavonoids and chalcones. Specific examples of polyphenols are
gallic acid, pyrogallol, resveratrol, pterostilbene, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, ferulic acid, and some
flavonoids such as catechins, hesperidins, quercetins, luteolins, and anthocyanidins, among others. Most
flavonoids exist in glycosylated forms in plants [3].
Over the past two decades or so, both academic research and food industry have gained increasing
interest in the concept of polyphenols. The main reasons for the interest include the recognition of their
ubiquitous availability and abundant resource in our diet, antioxidant activity, and perhaps pivotal role
in preventing various diseases associated with oxidative stress, such as inflammation, cancer, and car-
diovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. Medicinal plants employed worldwide, although different
among various regions, are common in at least one aspect: they are rich in polyphenol content. It has
been illustrated that polyphenols can modulate a wide range of enzyme activities. Thus, the relationship
between the health benefits of protective nutrition and polyphenol intake is gradually established [3].
4.2.2 Flavonoids
Flavonoids, a particular class of polyphenols, have a C6–C3–C6 skeleton structure and consist of several
subgroups: flavones, flavonols, flavanones, flavanols, isoflavones, chalcones, anthocyanidins, and procy-
anidins. Chalcones are the only subgroup in the flavonoid category that has two phenyl groups connected
by an acryl bond, whereas the majority of other flavonoids form a C-ring with a C3 skeleton (Figure 4.1).
Flavonoids are widely distributed in fruits and vegetables such as apples, citrus, berries, and soybeans;
in grains; and in beverages such as tea, coffee, and wine. They not only show strong antioxidant activity
but also exhibit bioactivities related to anti-inflammation, risk-lowering effect of cardiovascular disease
(CVD), cancer prevention, and antiobesity. The bioactivity of flavonoids is also assumed to originate
from their perceived antioxidant property owing to multiple phenolic groups and the hydrogen bonding
interaction between proteins and functional groups on flavonoids, such as carbonyl as hydrogen acceptor
and hydroxyl groups as hydrogen donor. Examples of flavonoids are quercetins, hesperidins, luteolins,
naringins, and tannins [4].
4.2.3 Terpenoids and Carotenoids

Terpenoids, also called isoprenoids, have C5 isoprene unit(s) in common and can be assembled in numer-
ous ways (Figure 4.2). Some examples are lycopene, β-carotene, astaxanthin, citral, menthol, and cam-
phor. Terpenoids are universally present in living organisms and play vital roles in plant physiology and
serve important functions in all cellular membranes. Some terpenoids, such as retinol, play an important
role in human health as they are good antioxidants. Some terpenes have strong anticancer activity such
as the triterpene taxol [5]. Carotenoids are a subclass of terpenoids composed of eight isoprene units and
a total of 40 carbon atoms. They are natural fat-soluble pigments that are synthesized by plants and are
responsible for the bright colors of various fruits and vegetables. There are several dozen carotenoids in
Chemistry of Functional Beverages 37
Hydroxybenzoic
Polyphenols acids:
Simple OH Stilbenes:
polyphenols:
HO R RO
OH
OH HO R
HO OH
R CO2H RO
R—
— H: Catechol R—
—OH: Gallic acid R—
—H: Resveratrol
Polyphenol R—
—OH: Pyrogallol R—
—H: Procatechuic acid R—
—Me: Pterostilbene
Hydroxycinnamic acids: Lignans:

R2
R1 HO CO2H
HO OH
O
CO2H MeO
HO O OH OMe
R1—
— OH, R2—
— H: p-Coumaric acid
R1— OH HO OH
—R2—
— OH: Caffeic acid OH
—OH, R2—
R1— — OCH3: Ferullic acid Chlorogenic acid Secoisolariciresinol
Flavonoids Flavonols: Anthocyanindins:

R5
R5
OH
Flavones: R4
+
HO O
OH R3
HO
R3
HO OH
R
OH
OH
OOH —R5—
Pelargonidine: R3— —H
OH O —
Kaempferol: R4—OH, —R5—
R3— —H Cyanidin: R3—
—OH, R5—
—OH
Apigenin: R —
—H —R4—
Quercerin: R3— — OH, R5—
—H —R5 —
Delphinidin: R3— —OH
Luteolin: R —
—OH Myricetin: R3—
—H —OH, R5—
Petunidin: R3— —OMe
—R5—
Malvidin: R3— —OMe
Flavanones: Flavanols: Procyanidins:

R4 OH OH
HO OH
R3 HO O
OH
HO O
R
OH
OH O OH OH
Naringenin: R4— OH
— OH, R3—
—H OH
Eriodictyol: R3—
—R4—
— OH Catechins: R —
—H HO O
Hesperitin: R3——OH, R4—
—OMe OH
Gallocatechins: R —
—O H
OH
OH n
OH
Isoflavanones: OH
n> = 1
OH O n = 2: Dimeric procyanidin
R O HO
R n = 3: Trimeric procyanidin
......
OH
HO O OH
Daidzein: R —
—H (–)-Epicatechin: R —
—H
Genistein: R —
—OH (–)-Epigallocatechin: R —
— OH
FIGURE 4.1 Chemical structures of polyphenols and flavonoids found in tea, coffee, soy, and fruit beverages.
Terpenoids
Monoterpene:
OH Diterpene:
OH
Isoprene
trans-retinol
Linalool Limonene
Carotenoids
β–Carotene
OH
Lutein
HO
OH
Zeaxanthin
HO
Lycopene
FIGURE 4.2 Chemical structures of terpenoids and carotenoids found in some fruit beverages.
our daily dietary intake. Carotenoids act as antioxidants and are reported to have the ability of prevent-
ing chronic diseases. β-Carotene is the most common carotenoid in food matrices and exists in carrots,
apricots, tomatoes, and pumpkins, among others. The antioxidant activity of carotenoids is believed to
be responsible for the health-promoting properties of fruits and vegetables. Furthermore, the function of
carotenoids with provitamin A activity is very important for a healthy vision [5,6]. Low-dose lycopene
intake has been reported to assist cardiovascular health [6,7] and intake in high doses has been reported
to reduce symptoms of benign prostatic hyperplasia [8].
4.2.4 Saponins
Saponin, whose name is gained from its soap foaming characteristic when suspended in water, consists
of a lipophilic triterpene (C30) or steroid (C27) and hydrophilic glycosides (Figure 4.3). The foam-
ing ability of saponins is due to the combination of a hydrophobic sapogenin and a hydrophilic sugar
portion. Sapogenin is the aglycone part of a saponin. They are a class of amphipathic compounds and
abundant in various plant species. For instance, saponins can be found in most vegetables, beans, and
herbs. Daily dietary intake of saponins is estimated at 15–240 mg. Saponins have many health benefits,
such as reduction of blood cholesterol, cancer prevention, and stimulation of the immune system. Studies
have illustrated that saponins cause cholesterol reduction by preventing their reabsorption [9]. They also
exhibit antitumor activity and can lower the risk of human cancers by inhibiting the growth of cancer
cells and may also help the immune system by protecting against viruses and bacteria; some saponins
have protective effects on bone loss. Reported examples include alfalfa saponins for decreasing lipid
Saponins
Aglycones of steroidal saponins:
O OH
OH HO
O O
OH
HO HO
H H HO
Spirostanol Furostanol Cholesterol
Tetracyclic triterpenoid saponins:

β–D-Glc1-β–D-6Glc
O
OH
H
β–D-Glc1-β–D-2Glc—O
Ginenoside Rb1
FIGURE 4.3 Chemical structures of major saponins (except cholesterol) found in some fruit beverages.
and cholesterol concentration in mouse liver; ginseng saponins for reducing hypertension by blocking
the calcium channel; and Panax notoginseng saponins for inhibiting inflammation, decreasing bleeding
time, and providing protection against cancer [9].
4.2.5 Phytosterols
Phytosterols are steroid compounds naturally occurring in plants and are structurally similar to choles-
terol. They exist widely in fruits, vegetables, berries, and nuts and are rich in vegetable oils. Good food
sources include whole grains, unrefined vegetable oils, nuts, seeds, and legumes. The daily intake of
phytosterols ranges from 150 to 450 mg or even higher in some vegetarian diet. In the human diet, the
common phytosterols are β-sitosterol, campesterol, stigmasterol, sitostanol, and campestanol [10,11].
Two major classes of phytosterols are sterols and stanols. Stanols are saturated sterols and have no double
bonds in their structural ring (Figure 4.4). Major health claims of phytosterols include reduction of
plasma total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, and perhaps triacylglycerols (TAG).
Between 1954 and 1982, phytosterol was originally used as a cholesterol-lowering drug (Cytellin) in
high doses. As a functional food additive to margarine, orange juice, and others, it was introduced to the
Finnish market in 1995 for its cholesterol-lowering functionality [11] and in 2000 with the introduction
of sterol esters under the Novel Food regulation in the EU.
4.2.6 Polysaccharides
Saccharides, also called carbohydrates, are a group of biological molecules consisting of hydrogen (H),
carbon (C), and oxygen (O) atoms. The ratio of the three atoms (H–C–O) is usually 2:1:1, but the oxygen
atom could be different. Saccharides include sugar, starch, and cellulose, whereas they can also be divided
into monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are simple
sugars and disaccharides consist of two monosaccharides covalently linked. Polysaccharides have polymeric
carbohydrate structures, consisting of repeating units of mono- or disaccharides covalently linked by glyco-
sidic bonds (Figure 4.5). These structures are often linear, but may be branched. Polysaccharides are often
Phytosterols
Sterols:
H H H
H H H
H H H H H H
HO HO HO
β-Sitosterol Campesterol Stigmasterol
Stanols:
Cholesterol:
H H
HO
H H
H H H H OH
HO HO
H H
β-Sitostanol Campestanol HO
FIGURE 4.4 Major phytosterols (except cholesterol) found in some fruit beverages.
Polysaccharides
Monosaccharrides: Disaccharrides:
OH OH
HO O HO O
O HO O
HO HO HO
HO
HO OH OH O OH
OH HO
OH OH OH
Glucose Fructose Sucrose
OH
O
O OH
HO
OH O OH
O
HO
OH O O
OH
HO
OH O
O
HO
OH
O
n
Starch
FIGURE 4.5 Chemical structures of polysaccharides found in functional beverages.

Alkaloids
Purine derivatives: Imidazole derivatives:
O O O
H
N N HN N N N N NH2
O N N O N N O N N HN
Caffeine Theobromine Theophylline Histamine
FIGURE 4.6 Major alkaloids found in coffee and tea beverages.
heterogeneous, containing slight modifications of the repeating unit. Depending on the specific structures
of these macromolecules, they can have distinct properties depending on their monosaccharide building
blocks. They may be amorphous or insoluble in water. Natural saccharides often contributing to sweetness
are monosaccharides or disaccharides in general, such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose [12].
Digestible polysaccharides such as starch are a common source of energy. Polysaccharides that are
indigestible may have other functionalities that affect human health. For example, cellulose, chitin, and
pectin polysaccharides cannot be broken down to monosaccharides by many organisms including human
microorganisms. However, they provide a good source of dietary fiber having the functions of enhancing
digestion and reducing the absorption of cholesterol and sugars [13,14].
4.2.7 Alkaloids
Alkaloids, a class of naturally occurring organic nitrogen-containing compounds, are produced primar-
ily in plants, which can also be found in bacteria, fungi, and animals. The name alkaloid in fact came
from alkali. More than 27,000 different types of alkaloids have, so far, been identified, with 21,000 of
them are from plants [15]. They contain one or more nitrogen atoms and can be primary, secondary, and
tertiary amines. Alkaloids are usually classified based on their nitrogen-containing structures, such as
pyrrolidines, piperidines, quinolines, isoquinolines, and indoles. Traditionally, in the structure of alka-
loids, the nitrogen atom is part of the ring system, but this is not necessarily true. When the nitrogen is in
the exocyclic position in naturally occurring nitrogen compounds, they are usually classified as amines
[15,16]. Figure 4.6 lists some examples of alkaloids.
Many alkaloids possess pharmacologic effects. Most commonly used as drugs are often alkaloids from
natural sources, such as the anticancer drug taxol. Alkaloids with biological activity in humans mostly
affect the nervous system. Popular alkaloids in beverages are often purine derivatives, particularly caf-
feine, which is a stimulant of the human central nervous system, slowing down sleepiness and restoring
alertness. It is the world’s most widely used psychoactive drug. Caffeine achieves most of its effects by
blocking the activity of adenosine, a neurotransmitter affecting almost the entire body system. It also has
other reported beneficial health properties. For instance, it is a weak bronchodilator and at low doses it
is shown to provide some improvement in lung function. It is postulated that caffeine’s regulation of the
body’s neurotransmitters may also provide health benefits such as cognitive improvement, effectiveness,
and physical activity improvement and some specific therapeutic benefits such as pain relief [16].
4.3 Selected Functional Beverages

Functional beverages are nonalcoholic drinks and include in their formulation ingredients such as herbs,
vitamins, minerals, amino acids, proteins, additional raw fruits and/or vegetables, and those that claim
to provide health benefits. In addition to water, flavored, carbonated, and alcoholic drinks are not catego-
rized as functional beverages. Examples of functional beverages include tea, coffee, fruit and vegetable
beverages (apple juice, orange juice, and soy beverages), and energy drinks, among others. Detailed
information about these beverages can be found in a separate chapter of this book. Therefore, these bev-
erages are reviewed concisely here.
4.3.1 Tea
Tea (Camellia sinensis) is cultivated worldwide, particularly in China, Sri Lanka, India, Kenya, Turkey,
and some other Asian countries. It is the most consumed flavored functional beverage in the world. As a
result of tea plant variety and different delicate manufacturing processes, there are numerous tea prod-
ucts commercially available in the global market. Generally, tea has three major types: green tea, oolong
tea, and black tea. Black tea accounts for about 78% of the total worldwide tea consumption and green
tea about 20%, whereas approximately 2% belongs to oolong tea [17]. Although all types of tea have been
gaining popularity worldwide, in regional preference, green, white, and oolong tea is dominant in China
and Japan while black tea occupies the majority of the market in Western countries.
Original tea consumption was mainly for its central nerve stimulating and soothing effects, but tea
drinking has been linked to health-promoting effects for centuries. Tea consumption is associated
with many health benefits such as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, cancer prevention, and
reduced risk of coronary heart disease (CHD), among others [18]. Scientific data have demonstrated that
the health effects of tea are mainly attributed to its polyphenolic compounds (Table 4.1). Tea contains
different polyphenols in terms of content and variety [17]. Green tea polyphenols, that is, catechins, are
the most abundant polyphenols in green, white, and oolong tea, and even in most of the black tea bever-
ages on the market. Polyphenols in black tea also include theaflavins, thearubigins, and other catechin
polymeric pigments that exist in higher amounts than catechins. However, the latter are still present in
black tea and its extracts in relatively large percentages because the conversion of green tea catechins to
black tea polyphenols is always incomplete [17]. Tea polyphenols in oolong tea consist chiefly of green
tea catechins and a small percentage of black tea theaflavins and thearubigins due to limited fermenta-
tion process. The polyphenolic composition of pu-erh tea or raw pu-erh tea is the same as that of oolong
tea, whereas the fully fermented pu-erh tea mainly contains gallic acid and does not contain both green
and black tea polyphenols [17]. Epidemiological evidence shows that the intake of tea polyphenols has
a myriad of beneficial health effects including antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic,
antiatherosclerotic, antihyperlipidemic, antibacterial, and antiviral activities, among others [2,18].
4.3.2 Coffee
Consumption of coffee has been reported to be positively associated with reduced risk of chronic and
degenerative diseases such as cancer, diabetes, Parkinson’s disease, inflammation, and CVD [19,20].
Coffee consumption is also associated with a lower risk of a variety of liver diseases, including liver
cirrhosis and liver cancer. Coffee is brewed by infusion and/or percolation of roasted ground coffee with
boiled water. Similar to tea, coffee contains a wide range of phytochemicals represented by caffeine and
chlorogenic acids with many potential beneficial bioactivity [19,21]. Although the biological effects of
coffee are highly dependent on plant variety and processing conditions such as in blending and brewing,
which can produce wide variations in the phytochemical compositions of the resulting beverage, the
basic fingerprint profile of coffee phytochemicals remains similar [22]. It is easy to construe that caffeine
TABLE 4.1
Major Tea Polyphenols
Polyphenols No. Name Acronym R R′
Catechins I Epicatechin EC H H
II Epigallocatechin EGC H OH
III Epicatechin gallate ECG Galloyl H
IV Epigallocatechin gallate EGCG Galloyl OH
Theaflavins V Theaflavin TF1 H H
VI Theaflavin-3-monogallate TF2a Galloyl H
VII Theaflavin-3′-monogallate TF2b H Galloyl
VIII Theaflavin-3,3′-digallate TF3 Galloyl Galloyl
is the most extensively studied compound in coffee and its bioactivity has been stated in the last section.
Less abundant alkaloids theobromine and theophylline are also present in coffee [19].
The most abundant polyphenols in coffee are chlorogenic acids and the major variant is 5-caffeoylquinic
acid [21]. The concentration of chlorogenic acids in coffee can reach as high as 840 mg/L. Apart from chlo-
rogenic acids, hydroxycinnamates, including caffeic acid, ferulic acid, and p-coumaric acid (Figure 4.1),
are some of the major polyphenols found in coffee [19,23]. The antioxidant activity of chlorogenic acids
allows them to inhibit the formation or scavenging of reactive oxygen species. Thus, they may play impor-
tant roles in the prevention of certain diseases caused by oxidative stress, such as CVD. It has been
reported that chlorogenic acids exert inhibitory effects on carcinogenesis in the large intestine, liver, and
tongue and a protective action on oxidative stress in vivo. Chlorogenic acids may also have neuropro-
tective effects. An animal feeding study with chlorogenic acids and caffeic acids found the absorption
of phenolic acids and the suppressed expression of P-selectin on mouse platelets, indicating significant
protective effect against CVD by the two phenolic acids in coffee. Chlorogenic acids were also found to
improve glucose tolerance and decrease the levels of cholesterol and TAG in rat plasma and liver [19,21].
Chlorogenic acids are one of the most abundant polyphenols in the human diet with coffee, fruits, and
vegetables as its major sources. For instance, they are an important group of nonvolatile compounds
in green coffee beans. Although 30 different species of chlorogenic acids have now been identified in
green beans, the vast majority of the compounds found belong to three classes: monocaffeoylquinic
acids at 3-, 4-, or 5-position of quinic acids, dicaffeoylquinic acids, and feruloylquinic acids. In addi-
tion to coffee, these compounds are also found at significant levels in plant foods such as apples, pears,
tomatoes, potatoes, eggplants, strawberries, pineapples, sunflowers, and blueberries. A small quantity
of free quinic acid occurs in green coffee beans. A greater quantity of quinic acid occurs as a series
of chlorogenic acids esters. They are a family of esters formed between trans-cinnamic acids (caffeic,
coumaric, and ferulic acids) and (−)-quinic acid. Chlorogenic acids are also found as a significant
component in some commonly used medicinal herbs, including chrysanthemum flower, hawthorn fruit,
artemisia leaves, epimedium leaves, artichoke leaves, burdock root, dandelion root, and echinacea root,
among others.
4.3.3 Fruit and Vegetable Beverages

Juices are often perceived as healthy drinks by consumers because they have been marketed as a
healthy, natural source of vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. For example, the American Academy of
Pediatrics’ guidelines include the consumption of 100% fruit juice in moderate amounts, for example,
120–180 mL/day for children ages 1–6 years and 240–360 mL/day for older children [24]. Fruit juices
can help children get the nutrients they need and help them meet fruit intake recommendations. In the
United States, fruit juices can only legally be used to describe a product that consists of 100% fruit juice.
There are many phytochemicals that contribute to the health-promoting properties of fruit juices apart
from its high sugar and vitamin C content. Some examples of fruit juices are orange juice, apple juice,
and soy beverages.
Pure orange juice provides a variety of vitamins and minerals without fat and cholesterol. It is one of
the most popular healthy beverages. A few of the important well-known nutrients that make orange juice
one of the most naturally healthy beverages are its high content of vitamin C, folic acid, thiamin, cal-
cium, and potassium. In addition, polyphenolic compounds such as various flavonoids have been found
to be essential to claim orange juice as superior over other beverages in terms of nutraceutical and health-
promoting usefulness. The high content of flavonoids include hesperidin, neohesperidin, and narirutin.
Another important series of phytochemicals in orange juice is terpenoids, which include essential oils
and carotenoids [25].
Apple and apple beverages (apple juice and apple cider) are rich in antioxidants, particularly large
amount of polyphenols including flavonoids and phenolic acids. Polyphenols present include querce-
tin glycosides, procyanidins, epicatechins, chlorogenic acids, and phloretin glycosides, along with vita-
min C [26]. Other functional phytochemicals in apple and apple beverages also include gallic acid,
catechin, kaempferol, myricetin, cyanidin glycosides, coumaric acid, triterpenoids, and vitamin B,
among others [27]. Concentrations of hydroxycinnamic acids range from 57 to 259 mg/L in commercial
TABLE 4.2
Phytonutrients in Food Sources and Claimed Health Benefits
Phytonutrients Health Benefits Claimed Fruits and Vegetables
Allicin and allylic sulfides Antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, and Chives, garlic, leeks, and onions
antioxidant activities; lowering the risk
of stomach and colon cancers.
Anthocyanidins and Strong antioxidants; maintaining Dark grapes, berries, cherries, and red wines
proanthocyanidins elasticity of capillary walls; anti-
inflammatory; inhibiting cancer cell
formation and proliferation.
Flavonoids (quercetin, Potent antioxidants; anticarcinogenic; Teas, citrus fruits, berries, cherries, apples,
kaempferol, hesperidin, anti-inflammatory; lowering the risk of grapes, papayas, cantaloupes, plums,
naringinin, CVD; decreasing fat absorption; tomatoes, apricots, beans, cocoa beans,
neohesperidin, and their increasing energy expenditure; broccolis, parsleys, celeries, onions, and soy
glycoside) neuroprotective effects. products
Carotenoids (α- and Important antiaging and antioxidants; Carrots, sweet potatoes, all berries, citrus peels,
β-carotenes, lycopene, enhancing immune function; balancing watercress, pumpkins, tomatoes, watermelons,
and lutein) blood sugars; reducing the risk of and dark green leafy vegetables
CVD and cancer.
Coumarins Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, Blackberries, cranberries, raspberries,
antitumor, antimicrobial, and antiviral strawberries, cherries, grapes, black currants,
activities; neuroprotective effects. and apricots
Glucosinolates Reducing the risk of breast, colorectal, Cabbage family vegetables, such as broccolies,
lung, and stomach cancers. Brussels sprouts, collards, and kales
Phytosterols Blocking cholesterol uptake and thereby Most plants
preventing CHD.
Abbreviations: CVD, cardiovascular disease; CHD, coronary heart disease.
apple juice and the number is even higher for fresh apple juice. Flavonoid concentration is between 27
and 593 mg/L with fresh juice having higher values. The total polyphenols in commercial apple juice and
fresh apple juice are 110–459 mg/L and 154–970 mg/L, respectively [26,27].
Many reports about the health benefits of soy and soy products including soy milk and soy drinks
have emerged. Soy and its products are protein rich and have a high content of fat with moderate car-
bohydrates. They are rich in isoflavones (genistein, daidzein, and glycitein), saponins, β-sitosterol, and
lecithin [28,29]. Soy product consumption is associated with a reduction of TAG and LDL cholesterol,
reducing the risk of CVD [30]. Soy isoflavones help to ease menopause symptoms and reduce certain
cancer risks, including those of the breast and prostate [29]. There are many other phytochemicals in soy
products that are associated with certain health benefits [28,30].
4.3.4 Energy Drinks

Energy drinks usually have three major phytonutrients, namely, caffeine, vitamin B complex, and tau-
rine. Taurine is an amino acid that exists naturally in the body. It is found in meat, fish, and breast milk
and is also available as a dietary supplement. Some studies suggest that taurine has antioxidant prop-
erties. Its supplementation may improve athletic performance and when combined with caffeine may
improve mental performance. However, these findings remain controversial [31] (Table 4.2).
4.4 Conclusion
Functional beverages have been dramatically gaining consumer interests and market shares. Due to
the extensive research and product exploration, vast scientific data for the correlation between phyto-
chemicals and biological activities have been gathered from the combined fields of natural products,
biochemistry, molecular biology, and nutrigenomics. Phytochemicals and their beneficial health effects
have rapidly changed traditional consumption patterns. For example, ready-to-drink teas, exotic blends
of fruit juices, antioxidant-rich “superfruits,” combinations of fruit and vegetable juices, and smoothies
continue to expand market territories and to gain impressive sales. Another nontraditional trend is that
many companies are harnessing the power and potency of vegetables due to their phytochemical-rich
and less-carbohydrate contents. In addition, the evolution of drinks with vitamins, minerals, and other
functional ingredients, particularly non-water-soluble nutrients, has led to the application of nanoemul-
sion and microencapsulation, which enables the introduction of hydrophobic ingredients into the aqueous
media and hence the development of water-soluble beverages rich in vitamins A, D, and E, omega-3 fatty
acids, and CoQ10, among others. The concepts of clear protein beverage and sports drinks have also led
to the discovery of whey protein and its extraction technology.
Developing functional beverages with effective health benefits such as disease risk reduction should be
the top priority among many aspects as appearance, flavor, and stability, which are also practical chal-
lenges to satisfy health conscientious customers. Biofunctionality of functional beverages with health-
promoting properties has been focused on preventing oxidation, maintaining cardiovascular health,
improving cognitive function and nutrition, lowering LDL cholesterol, decreasing insulin resistance and
preventing diabetes, reducing body fat, nurturing healthy bone and joints, and preventing cancer. With
the unequivocal and strong science-based data support, functional beverages will certainly grow sub-
stantially in the near future.
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5
Cancer Chemopreventive Effects
of Selected Fruit Juices
Joydeb Kumar Kundu, Kyung-Soo Chun, and Juthika Kundu
CONTENTS
5.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 47
5.2 Combination Approach of Cancer Chemoprevention: Fruit Juice as a Gold Standard.................. 48
5.3 Cancer Chemopreventive Effects of Selected Fruit Juices............................................................. 50
5.3.1 Apple Juice..........................................................................................................................51
5.3.2 Berry Juices........................................................................................................................ 55
5.3.2.1 Chokeberry......................................................................................................... 56
5.3.2.2 Cranberry............................................................................................................ 56
5.3.2.3 Other Berry Juices.............................................................................................. 57
5.3.3 Cherry Juice........................................................................................................................ 57
5.3.4 Pomegranate Juice.............................................................................................................. 57
5.3.5 Mango Juice........................................................................................................................ 58
5.3.6 Noni Juice........................................................................................................................... 58
5.3.7 Tomato Juice....................................................................................................................... 59
5.3.8 Citrus Juices........................................................................................................................ 59
5.3.9 Miscellaneous Fruit Juices................................................................................................. 60
5.4 Conclusion........................................................................................................................................61
Acknowledgments......................................................................................................................................61
References..................................................................................................................................................61
5.1 Introduction
Despite the remarkable progress in developing a wide spectrum of anticancer therapies, cancer still
remains as one of the major global health challenges. Cancer develops through a multistep process
involving multiple gene mutations caused by various lifestyle factors, such as exposure to dietary
carcinogens and solar radiation, smoking, and increased alcohol intake, among others. The multistage
carcinogenesis apparently involves three distinct phases: initiation, promotion, and progression [1,2].
The tumor initiation phase is characterized by irreversible changes in cellular DNA by genotoxic
carcinogens that lead to the neoplastic cell transformation. Tumor promotion is a reversible process
when the initiated tumor cells undergo clonal expansion to form a benign tumor. During the promotion
stage, aberrant alterations in cellular biochemical networks result in the increased proliferation and
neovascularization of the growing tumor. The final stage of carcinogenesis is the tumor progression
phase, when cells from the localized solid tumor lose their adhesion properties and attain migratory
properties. At this stage, cancer cells gain motility and invade through the host stromal tissue and
disseminate to distant organs to form metastatic tumors [1,2]. It is now well accepted that cancer
is a preventable disease because many of the cancer-causing lifestyle factors are simply modifiable
and the biochemical changes occurring during tumor promotion are reversible. About 30%–40% of
47
cancers can be prevented by appropriate dietary habits and lifestyle modifications. Because oxidative
stress and inflammation play key roles in all phases of carcinogenesis by causing oxidative or covalent
modification of cellular macromolecules, and activation of oncogenic signal transduction pathways,
substances with antioxidative and anti-inflammatory properties are considered to be effective in pre-
venting cancer. Since the introduction of the concept of cancer prevention, termed as “chemopreven-
tion” in the 1970s [3], numerous studies have demonstrated that antioxidant and anti-inflammatory
plant constituents are effective in preventing carcinogenesis [4,5]. The biochemical basis of cancer
chemoprevention with a wide variety of structurally diverse plant metabolites, also known as phyto-
chemicals, includes inhibition of carcinogen activation and oxidative damage of cellular macromol-
ecules, suppression of inflammatory responses, induction of growth arrest and apoptosis in cancer
cells, inhibition of tumor growth by blocking angiogenesis, and the blockade of invasion, migration,
and metastasis of cancer [4,5]. This chapter highlights the potential of selected fruit juices in cancer
chemoprevention.
5.2 Combination Approach of Cancer Chemoprevention:

Fruit Juice as a Gold Standard
Multiple lines of epidemiological and preclinical studies suggest that an inverse correlation exists
between the regular consumption of fruits or fruit juices and the risk of various organ-specific cancers
[6,7]. The European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) study demonstrates that
regular consumption of fruits can reduce the risk of certain cancers [8,9]. Meta-analysis of eight cohort
studies has also indicated the lung cancer–preventing effects of fruits [10]. Common fruits that exhibit
cancer chemopreventive effects in various preclinical and clinical studies include, but are not limited
to, apples, apricots, avocadoes, different types of berries, citrus fruits, pomegranate, grapes, mangoes,
mangosteens, prunes, plums, and persimmons, among others. In addition to the extensive research on
the anticancer effects of many dried fruits and their bioactive constituents [11], there has been a wide
spectrum of fascinating reports of cancer chemoprevention with different fruit juices [12–16].
Naturally, fruit juice contains a variable number of chemopreventive phytochemicals (Figure 5.1),
which often have synergistic effects. For example, pomegranate juice showed the greatest antiprolifera-
tive activity in human oral, colon, and prostate cancer cells as compared to the effects of its individual
components, such as punicalagin, ellagic acid, and total pomegranate tannins [17]. Likewise, a combi-
nation of pomegranate juice components, such as luteolin, ellagic acid, and punicic acid, reduced the
migratory and chemotactic properties of human breast cancer cells [18]. Another major constituent of
pomegranate juice is ellagitannin, which is hydrolyzed first into ellagic acid and subsequently converted
into urolithin-A through the metabolism of ellagic acid by colonic microflora. Treatment with a combi-
nation of ellagic acid and urolithin-A synergistically inhibited the proliferation and induced apoptosis
in human prostate cancer (DU-145 and PC3) cells [19]. Schaefer et al. [20] examined the effects of a
reconstituted mixture of rutin, phloridzin, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, and epicatechin, five major
constituents of apple juice extract, on oxidative DNA damage in human colon cancer (Caco-2 and HT-29)
cells. According to this study, the reconstituted mixture showed higher trolox equivalent antioxidant
capacity (TEAC) and was more effective in preventing menadione-induced oxidative DNA damage as
compared to the original juice extract. Likewise, the whole orange fruit juice elicited more potent free
radical and superoxide anion scavenging activity as compared to its different polyphenol fractions [21].
In a rat colon carcinogenesis model, daily consumption of cloudy apple juice or its fractions, such as
polyphenol fraction or cloud fraction or the combination of polyphenol and cloud fraction for 7 weeks
starting 1 week prior to challenge with 1,2-dimethylhydrazine (DMH), showed that DMH-induced geno-
toxicity was significantly attenuated by cloudy apple juice as a whole, but not with the polyphenol or
cloud fractions or their combinations [22]. As compared to the polyphenol or cloud fractions, drinking
of the cloudy apple juice exhibited the most significant inhibition of DMH-induced proliferation of colo-
nocytes. Moreover, cloudy apple juice, but not the fractions, reduced the number of large aberrant crypt
foci (ACF) formation in DMH-challenged rats [22].
Cancer Chemopreventive Effects of Selected Fruit Juices 49
Since cancer is caused by mutations of multiple genes and involves perturbation of diverse oncogenic
signaling pathways, the use of a combination of multitargeted naturally occurring antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory phytochemicals would be a rational approach for chemoprevention [23]. The approach
of “combination chemoprevention” proposed by Sporn [23] has gained the experimental proof through
several studies where simultaneous administration of different chemopreventive phytochemicals showed
better anticancer effects than the individual compounds. For example, treatment of mouse skin with a
combination of pomegranate fruit extract with diallyl sulfide derived from garlic showed the most potent
inhibitory effects on the inhibition of chemically induced mouse skin tumorigenesis as compared to that
elicited by treatment with pomegranate fruit extract or diallyl sulfide alone [24]. Likewise, a pomegran-
ate fruit juice component, ellagic acid, when co-treated with grape seed extract or resveratrol exhibited
maximum inhibition of chemically induced skin inflammation and tumorigenesis [25]. Zessner et al. [26]
reported the differential antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of apple juice constituents. According
to their study, low molecular weight (LMW) polyphenols (chlorogenic acid, flavan-3-ols, and flavonols)
and procyanidins showed 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging potential, whereas
peroxyl radical was more effectively scavenged by LMW polyphenols than procyanidins. This study
also demonstrated that among the juice constituents, quercetin aglycone was an inhibitor of carcinogen
metabolizing enzyme, cytochrome p450 (CYP)-1A, whereas phloretin and (−)-epicatechin were the most
potent inhibitors of cyclooxygenase (COX)-1. These findings suggest that fruit juices enriched with a
wide variety of polyphenolic compounds, which often work in synergy, would be the appropriate natural
formulations for multitarget-based chemoprevention of cancer.
O OH
OH HO O OH
HO
O O
HO OH
HO O OH
OH O
HO OH
OH O OH OH
Garcinone Gartanin Mangiferin
O
β-D-glucose
COO–
HO
H3C
H3C CH3 CH3 CH3
HOOC N COOH
CH3 CH3 H3C CH3
HO CH3 H
β-Cryptoxanthin Betanin
H3C CH3
CH3 CH3 CH3
OH O
CH3 CH3 CH3 O CH3
H3C CH3 HO O OH
Lycopene Mangostin
FIGURE 5.1 Chemical structures of selected chemopreventive phytochemicals present in fruit juices. (Continued)
OH
OH OH
+
O O
OH
HO OH
OH OH
O OH
HO O OH OH OH O
OH O HO OH
OH OH OH
OH OH OH OH
Epicatechin Cyanidin-3-glucoside Procyanidin B2
OH O
OH HO CO2H
HO
O O
HO O OH
HO O HO
OH OH O
OH OH
OH O OH O
Quercetin Chlorogenic acid Ellagic acid
OH
HO O
O
O O O
HO O
OH HO OH
OH OH O
Hespiridin
FIGURE 5.1 (Continued) Chemical structures of selected chemopreventive phytochemicals present in fruit juices.
5.3 Cancer Chemopreventive Effects of Selected Fruit Juices

The anticancer effects of various fruits, fruit extracts, fruit juices, and the isolated fruit-derived
phytochemicals have been extensively investigated. Many of the chemoprevention research with fruit
extracts includes the effects of organic extract of fruits, fruit peels, as well as the partially purified frac-
tions of whole fruit extracts. Moreover, molecular mechanisms of cancer chemoprevention with phyto-
chemicals commonly present in different fruits and fruit juices have been studied in detail. Since the
scope of this chapter is to focus on the chemopreventive potential of fruit juices, studies with organic
extracts or fractions of fruits have been excluded. It has been well documented that fruit juices can
elicit cancer chemoprevention activities by virtue of their antioxidant, antigenotoxic, anti-inflammatory,
antiproliferative, apoptosis inducing, and antiangiogenic properties (Figure 5.2). Several fruit juices
have been reported to reduce the genotoxicity of certain carcinogens. Platt et al. [27] evaluated the
effects of juices from 15 fruits on the genotoxicity caused by heterocyclic aromatic amines in genetically
engineered V79 hamster fibroblasts overexpressing human CYP enzymes, such as hCYP1A2 or human
N(O)-acetyltransferase (hNAT)-2*4 and human sulfotransferase (hSULT)1A1*1, which are responsible
for the metabolic activation of 2-amino-3-methylimidazo(4,5-f)quinoline (IQ) and 2-amino-1-methyl-6-
phenylimidazo(4,5-b)pyridine (PhIP). According to this study, sweet cherry juice exhibited the highest
inhibitory effect on IQ-induced genotoxicity, followed by juices from kiwi fruit, plum, and blueberry.
Juices from watermelon, blackberry, strawberry, black currant, and red delicious apple showed moderate
Antiproliferative
effects Apoptosis-
Antimutagenic/
Antigenotoxic effects inducing effects
Antioxidant Antiangiogenic
effects and
Antimetastatic
effects
Fruit
juices
FIGURE 5.2 Biochemical basis of cancer prevention with fruit juices.
suppression, whereas sour cherry, grapefruit, red currant, and pineapple juices were only weakly active
in blocking IQ-mediated genotoxic effects. On the other hand, the inhibition of PhIP-mediated genotox-
icity by these fruit juices was less prominent than their suppressive effect on the IQ-induced genotoxicity
[27]. Administration of several fruit juices has been shown to inhibit experimentally induced carcinogen-
esis in various animal models (Table 5.1). For example, drinking of pomegranate juice, cranberry juice,
and watermelon juice as 20% fruit juice preparation significantly diminished azoxymethane (AOM)-
induced ACF formation and increased the total glutathione-S-transferase (GST) activity in male Fischer
344 rats [28]. The following section will shed light on the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cancer
chemopreventive effects of fruit juices and their underlying molecular mechanisms.
5.3.1 Apple Juice

In addition to their nutritive value, apple juice has been reported to prevent carcinogenesis. Apple juice
contains a number of polyphenolic compounds, such as hydroxycinnamic acids (chlorogenic acid and
p-coumaroylquinic acid), flavan-3-ols (procyanidin B2, procyanidin C1, and epicatechins), flavonols
(quercetin-3-glycoside), and dihydrochalcones (phlorizin and phloretin-2′-xyloglucoside). The total
polyphenol content of freshly prepared apple juice is much higher than the commercially available apple
juice [16,29]. Incubation of human lung epithelial (A549) cells with apple juice significantly inhibited
Cr(VI)-induced lipid peroxidation, DNA damage, and the activation of nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB),
suggesting the chemopreventive potential of apple juice [30]. The antioxidant activity of polyphenol-rich
apple juice is partly mediated through the activation of nuclear factor erythroid-related factor-2 (Nrf2)
and induction of a variety of cytoprotective enzymes [29]. According to a recent study, male rats were
allowed to drink polyphenol-rich or a polyphenol-free smoothie apple juice daily for 10 days followed
by a 4-day washout period, and the treatment was repeated for 4 cycles. After termination of the treat-
ment period, analysis of cytoprotective gene expression in rat colon and liver showed that the mRNA
expression of the redox-sensitive transcription factor Nrf2 and its target cytoprotective genes, such as
catalase, glutathione peroxidase (GPX)-2, and glutathione reductase (GR), was significantly induced
in colons of rats receiving clear or cloudy apple juice as compared to those receiving polyphenol-free
apple juice. Moreover, the gene expression of superoxide dismutase (SOD)-1, γ-glutamyl cysteine ligase
(GCL)-modulatory (GCLM) subunit, and NAD(P)H-quinoneoxidoreductase-1 (NQO1) was slightly
increased in the colon upon consumption of polyphenol-rich apple juice. Apple juice intake significantly
increased the liver-specific mRNA levels of GPX1 and NQO1 without affecting the expression of other
52
TABLE 5.1
Anticancer Effects of Fruit Juices
Fruit Juices Experimental Model Dose and Route Experimental Findings References
Apple Juice
Cloudy apple juice (21.5 mL/ DMH-induced ACF formation Drinking for 8 weeks; 1 week after Decreases genotoxicity, colonic epithelial cell proliferation, [13]
animal/day) and clear apple in male Fischer 344 rats juice intake, DMH was given i.p. and ACF formation; reduced COX-2 mRNA expression;
juice (22.9 mL/animal/day) once per week for 4 times and rats and increases antioxidant activity.
were sacrificed 3 weeks after the last
dose of DMH.
Cloudy apple juice, PF, or CF DMH-induced ACF formation Drinking for 8 weeks; 1 week after Only cloud juice, but not CF or PF, reduces DMH [22]
of apple juice in male Fischer 344 rats start of cloudy juice, PF, and CF, genotoxicity and DMH-induced colonic cell proliferation,
DMH was given i.p. once per week and increases antioxidant activity.
for 4 times and rats were sacrificed 3
weeks after the last AOM dose.
Procyanidin-rich fraction of SW620 colon cancer cells Incubation of cells at a concentration Inhibits cell proliferation, induces G2/M phase cell cycle [33]
apple juice of 50 μg/mL. arrest, increases caspase-3 activity, and reduces the
activity of ODC and PKC.
Rats challenged with AOM Daily drinking for 6 weeks post-AOM. Decreases AOM-induced colonic ACF formation. [33]
Berry Juices
Fruit juice plus pulp of black Rats treated with aminopyrene Daily for 3 days by gavage; AN Reduces formation of nitrosamine and inhibits liver [40]
chokeberry (AN) plus sodium nitrite in the (1 mL/100 g body weight). dystrophy.
presence or absence of AN
Polyphenol-rich chokeberry Caco-2 colon cancer cells Incubation of cells with 2% or 5% Decreases cell proliferation, and induces G2/M phase cell [41]
juice juice. cycle arrest, increases gene expression of CEACAM1 and
integrin-α2, and reduces S100A4 mRNA.
Cranberry juice concentrate Rats treated with bladder Juice concentrate (0.5 or 1 mL/rat/day) Inhibits urinary bladder hyperplasia, papilloma, and [48]
carcinogen OH-BBN given by gavage for 37 days, started carcinoma formation.
1 week after OH-BBN challenge.
Pure cranberry juice AOM-treated rats Juice (20%) in drinking water daily for Reduces the number of ACF in proximal and distal colon, [28]
17 weeks. decreases the number of crypts per ACF, and increases
liver GST activity.
(Continued)
Handbook of Functional Beverages and Human Health
TABLE 5.1 (Continued)
Freshly prepared juices of Colon cancer (Caco-2), prostate Incubation of cells, with juice 50 μL/mL Inhibits cell proliferation, increases caspase-3 activity, and [14]
raspberry, black currant, red cancer (PC3), gastric cancer for 48 h. reduces the constitutive level of cyclin-D1 and cyclin-D3
currant, white currant, goose (AGS), and breast cancer and Cdk-4 and Cdk-6.
berry, cranberry, blueberry, (MCF-7, MDA-MB-231) cells PC3 cells stimulated with or without Inhibits TNFα-induced COX-2 expression and NF-κB
and sea buckthorn TNFα were treated with juice activity.
(25 μL/mL).
Black currant juice Ehrlich tumor–bearing mice Daily for 21 days at a dose of 10 mL/kg. Inhibits tumor weight by 45%. [55]
Tart cherry fruit juice Breast cancer (MCF-7) cells Incubation with 10% or 30% (v/v) Inhibits cell proliferation and decreases bromodeoxyuridine [57]
juice. incorporation by 20%.
Pomegranate Juice
Pure pomegranate juice AOM-treated rats Juice (20%) in drinking water daily for Reduces the number of ACF in proximal and distal colon, [28]
17 weeks. decreases the number of crypts per ACF, and increases
liver GST activity.
Fresh pomegranate juice AOM-treated rats Drinking daily for 9 weeks at a dose of Decreases the number of colonic ACF; reduces [12]
57.21 mL/day (438.95 mg GAE/kg/ proliferation of colon epithelial cells; suppresses iNOS
Cancer Chemopreventive Effects of Selected Fruit Juices
day). and COX-2 protein and mRNA expression; inhibits

phosphorylation of Akt, PI3K, and mTOR; and increases
caspase activation and the level of mir126.
Colon cancer (HT29) cells Incubation with 50 μg/mL juice. Induces cytotoxicity and inhibits TNFα-induced activation [62]
of Akt and NF-κB.
Mango Juice
Whole mango juice Antioxidant activity assay; B[α] BALB/c 3T3 cells were incubated Trolox equivalents (3.41± 0.13 μM), GAE 509.1 ± 15.4 [70]
P-induced BALB/c 3T3 cell with 0.1% juice; HL-60 cells were μg/g, ascorbic acid equivalents 650.1 ± 5.3 μg/g;
transformation assay, growth incubated with 2% juice. decreases B[α]P-induced BALB/c 3T3 cell foci formation
of HL-60 cells and induces G0/G1 phase cell cycle arrest in HL-60 cells.
Noni Juice
Noni juice Lung cancer (A549) cells Incubation of cells with noni fruit Inhibits manganese chloride-induced expression of HIF-1α, [79]
juice (100 μL/mL). decreases phosphorylation of ERK1/2, JNK1, PKB and
ribosomal S6 kinase, and eIF-2α.
(Continued)
53
54
TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Breast tumor explant and Incubation with 5% or 10% (v/v) noni Inhibits sprouting of new blood vessels in placental vein [78]
placental vein explant fruit juice. explants, promotes degeneration of breast tumor blood
vessels, and blocks capillary initiation.
Tomato Juice
Fresh tomato juice DMBA-initiated and croton Juice given by gavage, carcinogens Decreases number of papillomas and induces hepatic GST [81]
oil–promoted mouse skin were treated topically for 12 weeks. and GPx activity.
papilloma formation and
assessment of liver antioxidant
enzymes
BBN-treated rats Juice was administered for 12 weeks Inhibits the number of urinary bladder transitional cell [82]
after BBN challenge. carcinomas.
Citrus Juices
Orange juice AOM-induced rat colon tumor Rats challenged with AOM were Decreases the colon tumor incidence by 22% and inhibits [93]
allowed to drink orange juice daily proliferation of colonic mucosa.
for 28 weeks.
DMBA-treated rat mammary Rats treated with DMBA with or Delays the onset of mammary tumor formation and [94]
tumors without high-fat diet and decreases the number of breast tumors.
supplemented with double-strength
orange juice.
Mandarin juice AOM-induced rat colon One week after AOM treatment, rats Decreases numbers of intestinal adenocarcinomas and large [95]
carcinogenesis were allowed to drink juice (7.8 mL/ bowel tumors and decreases expression of PCNA and
day/rat) for 37 weeks. cyclin D1 in tumors.
Bergamot juice Neuroblastoma (SK-N-SH and Mice treated with juice by gavage Attenuates the growth of xenograft tumor and inhibits [97]
LAN1) cells and LAN1 cell (200 μL/day) for 28 days. pulmonary metastasis of LAN1 cells.
xenograft study
Abbreviations: ACF, aberrant crypt foci; AOM, azoxymethane; AN, aronia nectar; B[a]P, benzo [α]-pyrene; BBN, N-butyl-N-(4-hydroxybutyl)-nitrosamine; Cdk, cyclin-dependent kinase;
CEACAM1, carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule 1; CF, cloud fraction; COX-2, cyclooxygenase-2; DMBA, 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene; DMH,
1,2-dimethylhydrazine; ERK1/2, extracellular signal-regulated kinase-1/2; GAE, gallic acid equivalents; GPx, glutathione peroxidase; GST, glutathione-S-transferase; iNOS,
inducible nitric oxide synthase; mTOR, mammalian target of rapamycin; NF-κB, nuclear factor-kappaB; ODC, ornithine decarboxylase; OH-BBN, hydroxy-BBN; PCNA,
proliferating cell nuclear antigen; PF, polyphenol fraction; PKC, protein kinase C; TNFα, tumor necrosis factor-alpha; TPA, 12-O-tetradecanoyl phosrbol-13-acetate.
Handbook of Functional Beverages and Human Health
Nrf2 target genes [29]. These findings suggest that apple juice can fortify cellular antioxidant defense
by inducing Nrf2-dependent gene expression, which appears as a plausible mechanism of its cancer
chemopreventive activity.
Polyphenolic constituents of apple juice also exhibited anti-inflammatory effects. A phenolic apple
juice extract (AE04), prepared from juices of different apple varieties, significantly inhibited the expres-
sion of various inflammatory genes, such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα), interleukin (IL)-β, chemo-
kine C-X-C motif ligand (CXCL)-9, CXCL-10, and COX-2 in lipopolysaccharide (LPS) plus interferon-γ
(IFNγ)-stimulated human monocytic (monoMac6) cells. AE04 was shown to contain diverse poly-
phenolic compounds, of which flavan-3-ol dimer procyanidin B2 was found to be responsible for
the anti-inflammatory activity of AE04. In addition, AE04 components dihydrochalcone aglycone
(phloretin) and the dimeric flavan-3-ol (procyanidin B1) significantly inhibited proinflammatory gene
expression and repressed NF-κB-, IFNγ-inducible protein-10 (IP-10)-, and IL-8-promoter activity in a
concentration-dependent manner [31]. Thus, the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of apple juice
and/or its active constituents suggest the potential of apple juice for cancer chemoprevention.
In a pilot study, lymphocytes from female volunteers who consumed a quercetin-rich mixture of
blueberry and apple juice for 4 weeks were treated ex vivo with H2O2 or benzo(α)pyrene (B[α]P). The
juice consumption led to a decrease in H2O2-induced oxidative DNA damage and B[α]P-diol epixode
(BPDE)-DNA adduct formation. Moreover, treatment of human lymphocytes, preincubated with quer-
cetin in vitro, with H2O2 or B[α]P significantly decreased the oxidative DNA damage and BPDE-DNA
adduct formation [32]. Barth et al. [13] demonstrated that intervention with daily consumption of clear
apple juice or cloudy apple juice for 7 weeks starting 1 week prior to challenge with DMH significantly
reduced the proliferation index of colon epithelial cells. However, the cloudy apple juice, but not the clear
apple juice, reduced the number and mean size of large ACF in distal colon. A subsequent study by these
authors showed that daily consumption of cloudy apple juice itself, but not its fractions, was effective
in preventing DMH-induced genotoxicity, colonocyte proliferation, and large ACF formation [22]. The
cloudy apple juice contains a high concentration of procyanidins. Gosse et al. [33] examined the effect of
a procyanidin-rich fraction of fresh apple extract. According to their study, the procyanidin-rich extract
attenuated the proliferation of human colon cancer (SW620) cells in culture by blocking the activities of
protein kinase C (PKC) and ornithine decarboxylase (ODC). This study also demonstrated that a 6-week
intervention with procyanidin-rich apple extract significantly inhibited AOM-induced ACF formation in
rat colon [33].
The polyphenol-rich extract of commercially available apple juice inhibited the growth of human
colon cancer (HT29) cells by blocking the tyrosine kinase activity of epidermal growth factor receptor
(EGFR) and attenuating the activation of downstream mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases [34].
Chemical analysis of this polyphenol-rich apple juice extract revealed the presence of major phyto-
chemicals, such as proanthocyanidins B1 and B2, isoquercitrin (quercetin-3-glucoside), and hyperoside
(quercetin-3-galactoside) with substantial EGFR-inhibitory properties. However, a mixture of these
apple juice constituents showed only a marginal inhibitory effect on EGFR activation, suggesting that
the apple juice extract may contain additional chemopreventive agents and that the juice as a whole is
more effective than the isolated constituents [34]. Teller et al. [35] recently reported that the concentra-
tion of quercetin or its glycosides was too low to inhibit the EGFR activity and that the dihydrochalcones
and their glycosides diminished EGFR activity only in a cell-free system, but not in human cancer cells.
However, the fractions comprising more than 86% oligomeric procyanidins obtained from apple juice
extract inhibited the activities of EGFR and ErbB3 in cultured cancer cells [35].
5.3.2 Berry Juices

Different varieties of berry fruit juices are widely consumed. These include juices of blueberry, black-
berry, raspberry, strawberry, gooseberry, cranberry, and chokeberry, among others. A great deal of
research has been done to examine the cancer preventive potential of berry juices. Fresh juices from
strawberry, blueberry, and raspberry showed significant inhibition of mutagenesis caused by methyl
methanesulfonate and B[α]P [36]. Berries contain several phytochemicals, such as proanthocyanidins,
anthocyanins, and other flavonoids. Boivin et al. [14] examined the anticancer effects of 13 different
berry juices in a wide range of human cancer cells. The juices of raspberry, black currant, white cur-
rant, gooseberry, velvet leaf blueberry, low-bush blueberry, sea buckthorn, and cranberry juice sig-
nificantly inhibited the growth of various cancer cells, including those of stomach, prostate, intestine,
and breast carcinomas. The antiproliferative effect of berry juices resulted from cell cycle arrest, but
not through caspase-dependent apoptosis, as evidenced by the downregulation of the expression of
cell cycle regulatory proteins, such as cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk)-4, and Cdk-6 and cyclin-D1 and
cyclin-D3. Of the 13 berries tested, the juice of raspberry, black currant, gooseberry, sea buckthorn,
cranberry, and blackberry significantly inhibited TNFα-induced expression of COX-2 and the activa-
tion of NF-κB [14].
5.3.2.1 Chokeberry
Fruits of Aronia melanocarpa [Michx] Elliot and Aronia arbutifolia [L] Elliot are commonly known as
black choke berry and red chokeberry, respectively [37]. Because of the high content of anthocyanins,
chokeberries have long been used as a food colorant. The astringent taste of chokeberry limits the con-
sumption of this fruit, but recent advances in fruit juice blending technology improve the taste of the
juice by mixing with other fruit juices, such as that of apple, pear, or black currant [37]. Phytochemicals
present in chokeberry include anthocyanins (cyanidin-glycosides), phenolic acids (chlorogenic acid,
cryptochlorogenic acid, and neochlorogenic acid), and carotenoids (β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, and
violaxanthin) [37]. Anthocyanins, which represent about 25% of total polyphenols in chokeberry juice
[38], showed inhibitory effects on the mutagenicity of B[α]P and 2-aminoflourene [39]. Administration
of chokeberry juice inhibited the endogenous formation of N-nitrosamine in rats challenged with ami-
nopyrene and sodium nitrite and protected against liver damage [40]. Since N-nitrosamine is a potent
hepatocellular carcinogen, this study suggests the potential of chokeberry juice in preventing liver can-
cer. Treatment with chokeberry juice inhibited the proliferation of colon cancer (Caco2) cells in culture
by inducing G2/M phase cell cycle arrest and restoring the expression of a tumor suppressor protein
carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule 1 (CEACAM1), which is diminished in early
adenomas and carcinomas [41]. Moreover, the anthocyanin-rich extract of chokeberry induced apoptosis
in human colon cancer (HT29 cells) without affecting the growth of normal colon epithelial (NCM460)
cells [42]. The colon cancer-preventive effect of chokeberry juice extract can be attributed to its antioxi-
dant effect [43]. Moreover, the chokeberry juice constituents, such as β-cryptoxanthin [44], chlorogenic
acid [45], and cyanidin-3-glucosides [46], exhibited colon cancer chemopreventive effects.
5.3.2.2 Cranberry
Cranberry juice is well known for its beneficial effects in urinary tract infections [47]. The a ntiproliferative
activity of cranberry juice in various human cancer cells has been reported [14]. Prasain et al. [48] demon-
strated that intervention with cranberry juice concentrate prevented chemically induced urinary bladder
carcinogenesis in rats. According to this study, rats were first treated with N-butyl-N-(4-hydroxybutyl)-
nitrosamine (OH-BBN) for 8 weeks and feeding with cranberry juice concentrate was started 1 week
after the final dose of OH-BBN and continued for 6 months. Consumption of cranberry juice inhibited
OH-BBN-induced urinary bladder papilloma and carcinoma formation in rats by 51% and 38%, respec-
tively. The study also identified the major chemopreventive constituent of cranberry juice as quercetin
and its methylated derivatives [48]. These findings were supported by a previous study demonstrating
that rats receiving a 5% quercetin diet were protected against chemically induced rat urinary bladder
carcinomas [49]. In another study, rats receiving 20% cranberry juice decreased the total number of
AOM-induced ACF formation and showed enhanced GST activity in the colon [28]. One of the major
causes of gastric cancer is Helicobacter pylori infection. In a prospective, randomized, double-blind, and
placebo-controlled human intervention trial, consumption of cranberry juice (500 mL/day) for 90 days
inhibited the H. pylori infection [50], suggesting the potential of cranberry juice in gastric cancer pre-
vention. A nondialyzable fraction derived from cranberry juice inhibited the growth of cultured murine
lymphoma (Rev-2-T-6) cells and attenuated the invasion of these cells through the extracellular matrix
[51]. Moreover, intraperitoneal administration of this fraction diminished the growth of Rev-2-T-6 cell
xenograft tumors in mice and enhanced the generation of antilymphoma antibodies [51]. Cranberry
juice was reported to be one of the effective fruit juices in inducing cell cycle arrest in various cancer
cells through the downregulation of the expression of D series cyclins and Cdk-4 and Cdk-6. In addi-
tion, cranberry juice inhibited TNFα-induced NF-κB activation and COX-2 expression in different
cancer cells [14].
5.3.2.3 Other Berry Juices

Although the extract and powder of different varieties of raspberries and their phenolic constituents have
been shown to possess anticarcinogenic effects in vitro and in vivo [52,53], it is beyond the scope of this
chapter to elaborate discussion of organic extracts of raspberries. However, many of the chemopreventive
phytochemicals, such as anthocyanins, are common in organic extracts and juices of raspberries. Liu
et al. [54] examined the phenolic content and the beneficial health effects of juice extracts from different
varieties of raspberry, such as Heritage, Kiwigold, Goldie, and Anne. The total phenolic, flavonoid, and
anthocyanin content were highest in the Heritage variety that appeared with the darkest color and highest
antioxidant activity, whereas the Anne variety with a pale color appearance showed the lowest phyto-
chemical content and minimum antioxidant property. The juice extract of all four varieties of raspberry
exhibited excellent antiproliferative effects in human hepatoma (HepG2) cells [54]. The fruit juice of
black currant was found to contain a polysaccharide-rich substance, designated as cassis polysaccharide
(CAPS), which was separated from the fruit juice of black currant. Oral administration of black currant
juice and CAPS to Ehrlich carcinoma-bearing mice retarded the growth of the solid tumor by 45% and
51%, respectively [55].
5.3.3 Cherry Juice

Epidemiological studies have shown that consumption of cherries lowers the risk of various chronic
diseases including cancer. Damar and Ekşi [56] analyzed the antioxidant activity, total polyphenolics,
and monomeric anthocyanin content of 11 varieties of sour cherry juices. The antioxidant capacity of
sour cherry juices was well correlated with the total polyphenolic content but not with the monomeric
anthocyanin content. Cyanidin-3-glucosylrutinoside, cyanidin-3-rutinoside, cyanidin-3-sophoroside, and
cyanidin-3-glucoside have been identified as the major polyphenols in sour cherry juice [56]. Incubation
of human breast cancer (MCF-7) cells with tart cherry juice significantly reduced bromodeoxyuri-
dine incorporation, suggesting the antiproliferative potential of this fruit juice. Whereas, a 3% cherry
juice enriched with monomeric anthocyanin-induced apoptosis, a 10% juice caused necrosis of MCF-7
cells [57]. In a randomized and double-blind study, consumption of tart cherry juice concentrate for
7 days elevated the serum melatonin level as compared to a placebo group and increased the sleep dura-
tion and quality. Since melatonin exerts antioxidant, anti-inflammatory [58], apoptosis-inducing [59],
and antiangiogenic [60] properties, the elevation of melatonin by cherry juice signifies the potential of
cherry juice in cancer prevention.
5.3.4 Pomegranate Juice

Pomegranate juice is a rich source of polyphenolic anticancer principles. Major polyphenolics present
in pomegranate juice include ellagitannins such as punicalins and punicalagin A, punicalagin B, and
ellagic acid. Consumption of pomegranate fruit juice for 4 weeks decreased the total hepatic CYP content
as well as the expression of CYP1A2 and CYP3A, suggesting that this fruit juice may inhibit tumor initia-
tion by blocking the activation of procarcinogens [61]. The administration of pomegranate juice instead of
drinking water for 6 weeks to rats challenged with AOM showed a decreased number of ACF and inhib-
ited the expression of cell proliferation markers Ki67 and proliferating cell nuclear antigens (PCNAs) in
the colonic epithelium. Moreover, treatment with pomegranate juice attenuated the expression of COX-2,
inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) at both mRNA
and protein levels by blocking the phosphatidyl inositol-3 kinase (PI3K)/Akt signaling via upregulation of
microRNA (miR)-126 in the colon mucosa of AOM-treated rats [12]. Likewise, the incubation of human
colon cancer (HT-29) cells with pomegranate juice extract containing polyphenols decreased the cell
viability, which was associated with elevated expression of miR-126, activation of casapse-3 and cleav-
age of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP), and diminished mRNA and protein expression of vari-
ous inflammatory markers, such as NF-κB p65, VCAM-1, intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1),
COX-2, and phosphorylated-Akt [12]. Transfecting cells with antagomiR-126 abrogated the antiprolif-
erative and anti-inflammatory effects of pomegranate juice in HT-29 cells. This study also revealed that
incubation with pomegranate juice polyphenols reduced the expression of vascular endothelial growth
factor (VEGF) in HT-29 cells, indicating the antiangiogenic potential of this fruit juice [12]. Adams et al.
[62] reported that treatment of HT-29 cells with pomegranate juice or its total tannin content attenuated
TNFα-induced expression of COX-2, phosphorylation p65, and DNA binding of NF-κB. In another study,
rats treated with pomegranate juice instead of drinking water ameliorated dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-
induced colitis by blocking the activation of p70S6K, mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEK),
and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2) and inducing the expression of miR145 in colonic
epithelial tissue [63].
5.3.5 Mango Juice

The mango fruit (Mangifera indica L.) contains high levels of carotenoids (all-trans-violaxanthin and
all-trans-β-carotene) and phenolic compounds (xanthone glycosides and hydrolyzable tannins) [64–67].
Botting et al. [68] have reported the antimutagenic activity of mango fruit. Analysis of the chemical com-
position of different forms of mango fruit showed that the juice and fresh fruit slice had high content of
α- and β-carotenes and a minor amount of cryptoxanthin and zeaxanthin, whereas the dry fruit slice had
a comparatively low amount of β-carotene with a trace amount of other carotenoids [69]. Administration
of mango fruits in three different forms, such as juice, fresh slice, or dried slice to healthy volunteers for
2 weeks showed that serum retinol level was highest in groups receiving juice and fresh fruit as com-
pared to dry mango fruits [69]. Because of the presence of polyphenolics, carotenoids, and antimutagens,
mango possesses significant anticancer activity. Analysis of different varieties of mango fruit pulp has
revealed that its polyphenolic fraction contains mangiferin, gallic acid, and gallotannins [65]. Treatment
with the polyphenolic fraction of mango fruit induced G2/M phase cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in
human colon cancer SW480 cells through increased gene expression of Bax, Bim, caspase-8, and p21
without affecting that of normal colonic myofibroblasts [65]. Mango juice, prepared from pulp after
removal of seeds and peel, exhibited in vitro antioxidant activity as evidenced by DPPH, oxygen radical
absorbance capacity (ORAC), and Folin–Ciocalteu assay and inhibited B[a]P-induced transformation
of BALB/c 3T3 cells [70]. This study also demonstrated that whole mango juice induced S- and G2/M
phase cell cycle arrest in human leukemia (HL-60) cells [70]. Administration of mango juice ame-
liorated DSS-induced colitis in Sprague-Dawley rats by blocking insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor
(IGF1-R)-Akt/mTOR-mediated signaling via upregulation of miR-126 [63]. These authors also dem-
onstrated that mango juice decreased the serum concentration of proinflammatory cytokines, such as
IL-1β and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), and increased the level of anti-
inflammatory cytokine IL-10 in DSS-challenged rats. Moreover, feeding of mango juice increased fecal
short-chain free fatty acids without altering the composition of intestinal microbiota [71]. These findings
suggest the potential of colon cancer prevention with mango fruit juice.
5.3.6 Noni Juice

Fruits of Morinda citrifolia, known as noni, are widely consumed in the Pacific Islands and India. Noni,
which possesses a range of beneficial health effects, has been reported that its juice exerts antioxidant
[72], antimutagenic [15], anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities [73]. Rats treated with deacetylas-
parulosidic acid, a constituent of noni juice, reduced serum malondialdehyde (MDA) level and induced
SOD activity [74]. A polysaccharide-rich fraction of the fruit juice of M. citrifolia significantly reduced
the growth of sarcoma 180 ascites tumor [75] and intraperitoneally administered Lewis lung carcinoma
(LLC) [76] in allogeneic mice. The antitumor effect of noni juice was potentiated by combined treatment
with several other anticancer drugs including cisplatin, adriamycin, bleomycin, etoposide, camptothecin,
and 5-fluorouracil [75,76]. The latter study further demonstrated that noni juice induced cytotoxicity in
LLC cells when co-cultured with murine peritoneal cells exudate which increased the release of cytokines
and NO upon treatment with noni juice [76]. These findings suggest that noni juice stimulates host immune
responses and holds the cancer immunotherapeutic potential. Other glycosides present in noni juice
diminished 12-O-tetradecanoyl phorbol-13-acetate (TPA)- or extracellular growth factor (EGF)-induced
transformation of mouse epidermal JB6 cells by blocking the activation of activator protein-1 (AP-1) [77].
Hornick et al. [78] suggested that noni juice disrupted newly formed human vascular networks, indicating
its antiangiogenic activity. A recent study reported that treatment of human lung adenocarcinoma (A549)
cells with noni juice inhibited manganese-induced expression of hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α), an
angiogenic switch in cancer, by blocking the activation of ERK1/2, c-Jun-N-terminal kinase-1 (JNK1),
protein kinase B (PKB), and ribosomal protein S6 kinase. This study also suggested that noni juice attenu-
ated HIF-1α protein expression in A549 cells stimulated with IL-1β [79].
5.3.7 Tomato Juice

Tomato juice is commercially available in markets and is widely consumed among many fruit juices.
Analysis of tomato juice revealed the presence of carotenoids, such as lycopene, β-carotene, and phy-
toene, as the major constituents, which possess anticancer effects [80]. Several animal model studies
have shown that tomato juice intake can prevent experimentally induced carcinogenesis of the skin,
colon, and urinary bladder. De and Das [81] demonstrated that oral feeding of tomato juice daily
for 12 weeks significantly decreased the incidence of skin papillomas in mice topically treated with
7,12-dimethylabenz[a]anthracene (DMBA) and croton oil as well as induced the activities of hepatic
antioxidant and detoxification enzymes, such as GST, GPx, and SOD, which enhance the metabolic
detoxification of chemical carcinogens and protect against oxidative and/or electrophilic DNA damage.
Drinking of diluted tomato juice for 12 weeks reduced the number, but not the incidence, of urinary blad-
der transitional cell carcinomas in rats challenged with N-butyl-N-(4-hydroxybutyl) nitrosamine (BBN)
[82]. In another study, rats allowed to drink diluted tomato juice containing 17 ppm of lycopene for 35
weeks were protected against N-methylnitrosourea (MNU)-induced colon cancer, whereas treatment
with only lycopene-water was ineffective in reducing the colon tumor burden. Thus, tomato juice as
a whole, but not its isolated constituents alone, can prevent rat colon carcinogenesis [83]. In contrast,
administration of tomato juice (330 mL/day) for 2 weeks increased the concentration of lycopene in fecal
water, which induced apoptosis in HT-29 cells, without altering bile acid concentrations or the bacterial
enzymes and fecal water pH, suggesting that consumption of tomato juice had only minor effects on the
luminal biomarkers relevant to colon carcinogenesis [84]. However, a subsequent study reported that the
anticancer effects of tomato juice may be attributed to its antioxidant effects [85]. Thus, daily intake of
tomato juice equivalent to 15 mg lycopene per day for 5 weeks significantly reduced the serum level of
8-oxodG, a marker of oxidative DNA damage, in healthy volunteers undertaking strenuous exercise [85].
Bohn et al. [86] studied the compliance and bioavailability of a soy-fortified lycopene-rich tomato juice
and reported that the juice constituents were well absorbed and showed no signs of toxicity.
5.3.8 Citrus Juices

Orange juice is the most consumed among different types of citrus juices. Major antioxidant and chemo-
preventive constituents present in orange juice include ascorbic acid, flavonoid glycosides (hesperidin),
carotenoids (xanthophylls and cryptoxanthins), terpenoids (α-terpineol and limonene), and folic acid [87,88].
Administration of orange juice components, such as flavanone glycosides, carotenoids, ascorbic acid,
and folate, to healthy volunteers showed the remarkable plasma concentrations of these juice constitu-
ents and markedly reduced the level of an oxidative DNA damage marker 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine
in white blood cells, indicating the antioxidant potential of orange juice [87]. Analysis of polyphenol
content and antioxidant potential of different citrus juices revealed that mandarin and lemon juices
had the highest total flavonoids and antioxidant activity as determined by the β-carotene bleach-
ing assay (26.67% and 22.67%, respectively), while bitter orange juice exhibiting the highest content
of total polyphenols (784.67 mg gallic acid equivalents [GAE]/L) exhibiting free radical scavenging
activity [89]. Drinking of freshly prepared orange juice (20 fluid ounce [equivalent to 592 mL] daily) for
90 days significantly increased the total plasma antioxidant capacity and inhibited lipid peroxidation in
subjects with hyperlipidemia [90]. Juices prepared by hand-squeezing peeled Moro fruits (Citrus sinen-
sis L. Osbeck) contained a variety of C- and O-glycosylated flavonoids, such as lucenin-2, vicenin-2,
stellarin-2, lucenin-2 4′-methyl ether, scoparin, chrysoeriol 7-O-neohesperidoside, narirutin, and hes-
peridin [21]. Stella et al. [91] demonstrated that total polyphenol content in commercially available
ready-to-drink orange juice and nectar ranged from 18.7 to 54.2 mg GAE/100 mL and the total antioxi-
dant activity varied between 57.88 and 349.32 μmol trolox equivalents (TE)/100 mL. The antioxidant
capacity was more strongly correlated with the total polyphenol rather than vitamin C alone. Intake of
orange juice with a diet rich in high fat–high carbohydrate (HFHC) reduced the oxidative and inflamma-
tory markers, such as the gene expression of Toll-like receptor (TLR)-2, TLR4, nicotinamide-adenine
dinucleotide phosphate oxidase (NOX), and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 in blood mononuclear
cells of healthy volunteers [92]. Moreover, orange juice component α-terpineol reduced IL-6 production
in buccal epithelial cells [88].
Because of its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, orange juice holds the promise of can-
cer chemopreventive activity. Consumption of orange juice has been shown to prevent experimentally
induced colon and mammary carcinogenesis [93,94]. Administration of orange juice delayed the devel-
opment of mammary tumors in rats challenged with DMBA or high-fat diet [94]. Orange juice supple-
mentation for 28 weeks after AOM administration also reduced the incidence of colon tumors in rats.
Hesperidin flavonoid and limonoid glucosides were identified as the major bioactive principles in orange
juice that could contribute to the chemopreventive effect of orange juice [93]. In fact, the proliferation of
human mammary carcinoma (MDA-MB-435) cells was markedly inhibited by treatment with hesperitin
in combination with grape fruit juice component quercetin or naringenin [94].
Drinking of juice prepared from Satsuma mandarin or its juice enriched with β-cryptoxanthin or
hesperidin for 36 weeks starting 1 week after AOM administration significantly decreased the incidence
and multiplicity of colonic adenocarcinomas in rats [95]. Mandarin juice rich in hesperidin showed the
strongest inhibitory effects. Moreover, mandarin juice consumption increased the apoptotic index and
inhibited the expression of cell proliferation markers PCNA and cyclin D1 in colonic adenocarcinomas
[95]. Likewise, administration of mandarin juices in drinking water starting at 1 week after challenge
with 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) attenuated the incidence and multiplicity
of lung tumorigenesis in male A/J mice [96]. Treatment with juice prepared by squeezing fresh bergamot
fruit (Citrus bergamia) inhibited the proliferation and invasion of neuroblastoma (SK-N-SH and LAN1)
cells in vitro without altering the weight of LAN1 cell xenograft tumors in vivo. However, bergamot juice
inhibited lung metastasis of LAN1 neuroblastoma cells in severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID)
mice [97]. Zhu et al. [98] isolated 7-O-neohesperidoside of isosakuranetin (poncirin) from different parts
including the juice sac of Ougan fruit (Citrus reticulata cv. Suavissima) and reported the antiproliferative
effect of the compound in human gastric cancer (SGC-7901) cells.
5.3.9 Miscellaneous Fruit Juices

Food products made from Japanese apricot (Prunus mume Sieb. et Zucc) are traditionally known for
their diverse beneficial health effects. Administration of 1% or 3% of the fruit juice concentrate of
Japanese apricot in drinking water for 10 weeks reduced gastritis and gastric mucosal hyperplasia in
H. pylori–infected Mongolian gerbils. Moreover, the average relative urease-A gene dosage in the glan-
dular stomach was significantly reduced upon intervention with apricot juice concentrate as compared to
animals inoculated with H. pylori alone [99]. These findings suggest that apricot juice may be effective
in preventing gastric carcinogenesis, which merits further investigation. Another commonly consumed
fruit juice is mangosteen juice, which contains major xanthone derivatives, such as α-mangostin, gar-
cinones, γ-mangostin, and gartanin [100]. The well-documented anticancer activities of α-mangostin
[101], garcinones [102], and gartanin [103] suggest that mangosteen juice as a whole might have cancer
chemopreventive potential.
Fruits of the plants belonging to the genus Opuntia spp. are known as cactus pear or prickly pear.
Fruit juices of three different varieties of prickly pears, such as red-purple pear, white-green pear, or
yellow-orange pear, exhibited DPPH radical scavenging activity with red-purple pear juices being the
most active. When the juice of red-purple pear was given by gavage to mice treated with a mutagen
methyl methanesulfonate, the number of micronucleated polychromatic erythrocytes was significantly
decreased, suggesting the antioxidant and antimutagenic effects of red-purple pear juice [104]. In another
study, juices of nine different varieties of prickly pears were analyzed for their phenolic content, anti-
oxidant potential, and anticancer activity. Flavonoids, betaxanthins, and betacyanins were identified as
major constituents of these pear juices, which exhibited strong antioxidant activity and inhibited the
proliferation of human cancer cells. Among the nine varieties, juice of the Rastrero pear exhibited anti-
proliferative effects against prostate, colon, mammary, and liver cancer cells in vitro, while Moradillo
pear juice had the highest flavonoid content and diminished the growth of only prostate and colon cancer
cells. Interestingly, none of the pear juices reduced the viability of normal human fibroblasts, suggesting
that the prickly pear juices induce cytotoxicity selectively in cancer cells [105].
5.4 Conclusion
Over the last several decades, dietary cancer chemoprevention has received immense interest as a ratio-
nal strategy to reduce the incidence of and mortality from cancer. Numerous dietary phytochemicals,
especially those present in edible fruits, vegetables, and spices, have been identified as promising candi-
dates for cancer chemoprevention. Accumulating evidence from epidemiological and laboratory-based
studies has shown that regular intake of fruits can reduce the risk of various cancers. In addition to their
nutritional value, fruits are rich sources of a large number of chemical compounds, which have been
reported to possess anticancer activity. There is now increasing trend in consuming a wide variety of
ready-made fruit juices available in supermarkets. Since fruit juices contain a whole bunch of chemo-
preventive phytochemicals, it is considered that consumption of fruit juices may prevent carcinogenesis.
Since cancer is a heterogeneous disease, the combination of chemopreventive agents present in fruit
juices makes them a good choice for achieving multitargeted cancer chemoprevention. Although the
experimental findings accumulated to date strongly suggest the chemopreventive potential of fruit juices,
additional studies are warranted to evaluate the anticancer efficacy of fruit juices in an expanded area
covering many different types of cancer. Moreover, further studies are necessary to elucidate the phyto-
chemical and pharmacokinetic profiling of fruit juices and understanding their molecular mechanisms of
anticancer activity. Whereas the majority of chemoprevention research with fruit juices was performed
with freshly prepared juices, practically commercial fruit juices are consumed by humans. Thus, focus
should be given on assessing the chemopreventive potential and safety of commercially available fruit
juices. Nonetheless, fruit juices as a natural blend of anticancer principles are promising dietary measure
for cancer chemoprevention and a large variety of functional foods can be developed to help prevent
carcinogenesis.
Acknowledgments
This work has been supported by the Settlement Research Grant #2012-0195 of Keimyung University
allocated to Joydeb Kumar Kundu.
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Food Science and Technology

Handbook of Functional Beverages

and Human Health

1. Phytosterols as Functional Food Components and Nutraceuticals

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

No claim to original U.S. Government works

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4665-9642-9 (eBook - PDF)

Section I Market Trends, Regulations, Chemistry, and Health Aspects

2. Global Nutraceutical Regulations for Functional Beverages.......................................................17

3. Flavor Challenges in Functional Beverages.................................................................................. 27

4. Chemistry of Functional Beverages.............................................................................................. 35

5. Cancer Chemopreventive Effects of Selected Fruit Juices......................................................... 47

6. Fruit Juices and the Prevention of Postprandial Metabolic Stress in Humans........................ 69

Section II Fruit Juices

9. Apricot Juice/Nectar..................................................................................................................... 107

10. Aronia Juice....................................................................................................................................119

11. Blackberry Juice.............................................................................................................................135

12. Black Currant Juice.......................................................................................................................147

13. Blueberry Juice...............................................................................................................................163

14. Cherry Juice...................................................................................................................................175

15. Cherry Laurel Syrup (Pekmez)....................................................................................................187

16. Coconut Juice................................................................................................................................. 193

17. Cranberry Juice............................................................................................................................ 205

18. Date Syrup......................................................................................................................................217

19. Dragon Fruit Juice.........................................................................................................................231

20. Goji Berry Juice............................................................................................................................ 239

22. Grape Juice.................................................................................................................................... 271

23. Grapefruit Juice............................................................................................................................ 281

24. Guava Juice.................................................................................................................................... 297

25. Hawthorn Juice..............................................................................................................................311

26. Indian Gooseberry (Amla) Juice..................................................................................................321

27. Kiwifruit Juice................................................................................................................................331

28. Lemon Juice................................................................................................................................... 339

29. Lime Juice...................................................................................................................................... 349

30. Mango Juice................................................................................................................................... 359

31. Mangosteen Juice.......................................................................................................................... 373

32. Melon Juice.................................................................................................................................... 385

33. Mulberry Juice.............................................................................................................................. 399

34. Noni Fruit Juice............................................................................................................................. 409

35. Orange Juice.................................................................................................................................. 423

36. Papaya Juice................................................................................................................................... 439

37. Passion Fruit Juice.........................................................................................................................455

38. Peach Juice..................................................................................................................................... 463

39. Pear Juice........................................................................................................................................475

40. Pineapple Juice.............................................................................................................................. 489

41. Plum, Prune, and Ume Juices...................................................................................................... 501

42. Pomegranate Juice.........................................................................................................................513

43. Raspberry Juice............................................................................................................................. 527

44. Strawberry Juice............................................................................................................................541

45. Watermelon Juice...........................................................................................................................553

Section III Herbal and Vegetable Juices

47. Chinese Medicinal Herbs and Root-Based Beverages............................................................... 583

48. Tomato Juice.................................................................................................................................. 593

49. Vegetable-Containing Juices (Carrot, Kale, and Sprout)......................................................... 609

Section IV Caffeinated Beverages: Tea, Coffee, and Cocoa/Chocolate

51. Herbal Teas.................................................................................................................................... 645

53. Beverages from Green Coffee Beans........................................................................................... 677

54. Cocoa and Hot Chocolate............................................................................................................. 687

Section V Dairy and Soy Beverages

56. Soybean Beverages........................................................................................................................ 725

Section VI Alcoholic Beverages and Water

58. Maple Water...................................................................................................................................757

1.3 Consumer-Oriented New Product Development

2.5 Regulatory Requirements for Ingredients in Beverages and