1. REVIEW OF BASIC CONCEPTS, LATHE DEFINITION OF A “WELL-LOG” When we speak of a log in the oil industry we mean “a recording against depth of any of the char- acteristics of the rock formations traversed by a ‘measuring apparatus in the well-bore.” The logs we shall be discussing in this book, sometimes referred to as “wireline logs” or “well- logs”. are obtained by means of measuring equip- ‘ment (logging, tools) lowered on cable (wireline) into the well, Measurements are transmitted up the cable (which contains one or several conductors) to a surface laboratory or computer unit, The recording of this information on film or paper constitutes the well-og. Log data may also be recorded on magnetic tape. A large number of different logs may be run, each recording a different property of the rocks penetrated by the well. Wireline logging is performed after an interruption (or the termination) of drilling activity. and is thus distinguished from “drilling-logs” (of such things as drilling-rate, mud-loss, torque, ete.) and “mud-logs” (drilling mud salinity, pH, mud-weight, etc) obtained during drilling operations. 1.2. THE IMPORTANCE OF WELL-LOGS Geology is the study of the rocks making up the Earth's crust. The field of geology that is of most importance to the oil industry is sedimentology, for it is in certain sedimentary environments that hydro- carbons are formed. It entails a precise and detailed study of the composition, texture and structure of the rocks, the colour of the constituents, and identifica- tion of any traces of animal and plant organisms. This enables the geologist: (a) to identily the physi- cal, chemical and biological conditions prevalent at the time of deposition; and (b) to describe the trans- formations that the sedimentary series has undergone since deposition, He must also consider the organisa tion of the different strata into series, and their possible deformation by faulting, folding, and so on. ‘The geologist depends on rock samples for this basic information. On the surface, these are cut from rock outcrops. Their point of origin is, obviously, precisely known, and in principle a sample of any desired size can be taken, or repeated. ‘Sampling from the subsurface is rather more prob- lematic. Rock samples are obtained as cores or cut- tings. Cores obtained while drilling (using a core-barrel) by virtue of their size and continuous nature, permit a thorough geological analysis over a chosen interval Unfortunately, for economical and technical reasons, this form of coring is not common practice, and is restricted to certain drilling conditions and types of formation “Sidewall-cores”, extracted with a core-gun, sam- ple-taker or core-cutter from the wall of the hole after Grilling, present fewer practical difficulties. They are smaller samples, and, being taken at discrete depths, they do not provide continuous information, How- ever, they frequently replace drill-coring, and are invaluable in zones of lost-circulation Cuttings (the fragments of rock flushed to surface uring drilling) are the principle source of subsurface sampling. Unfortunately, reconstruction of @ litho- logical sequence in terms of thickness and composi- tion, from cuttings that have undergone mixing, leaching, and general contamination, during their transportation by the drilling-mud to the surface, cannot always be performed with confidence, Where mud circulation is lost, analysis of whole sections of formation is precluded by the total absence of cut- tings. In addition, the smallness of this kind of rock sample does not allow all the desired tests to be performed. As a result of these limitations, itis quite possible that the subsurface geologist may find himself with insufficient good quality, representative samples, or with none at all. Consequently, he is unable to answer with any confidence the questions fundamental to oil exploration: (a) Has 2 potential reservoir structure been located? (b) If 30, is it hydrocarbon-bearing? (©) Can we infer the presence of a nearby reservoir? ‘An alternative, and very effective, approach to this problem is to take in situ measurements, by running well-logs. In this way, parameters related to porosity, lithology, hydrocarbons, and other rock properties of interest to the geologist, can be obtained. ‘The first well-log, a measurement of electrical re- sistivity, devised by Marcel and Conrad Schlum- berger, was run in September 1927 in Pechelbronn (France). They called this, with great foresight, “elec- trical coring”. (The following text will demonstrate the significance of this prophetic reference to coring.) Since then sciemtific and technological advances have led to the development of a vast range of highly sophisticated measuring techniques and equipment,supported by powerful interpretation procedures. Well-log measurements have firmly established ap- plications in the evaluation of the porosities and saturations of reservoir rocks, and for depth correla~ tions More recently, however, there has been an increas ing appreciation of the value of log data as a source fof more general geological information. Geologists have realised, in fact, that welllogs can be to the subsurface rock what the eyes and geological instru- iments are to the surface outerop. Through logging we measure a number of physical parameters related to both the geological and petrophysical properties of the strata that have been penetrated; properties which are conventionally studied in the laboratory from rock-samples. In addition, logs tell us about the Mtuids in the pores of the reservoir rocks. ‘The rather special kind of picture provided by logs is sometimes incomplete or distorted, but always Permanent, continuous and objective. It is an objec- tive translation of a state of things that one cannot change the statement (on paper!) of a scientific fact. Log data constitute, therefore, a““signature” of the rock; the physical characteristics they represent are the consequences of physical, chemical and biological (particularly geographical and climatic...) condi- tions prevalent during deposition; and its evolution during the course of geological history. Log interpretation should be aimed towards the same objectives as those of conventional laboratory core-analyses. Obviously, this is only feasible if there exist well-defined relationships between what is mea- sured by logs, and rock parameters of interest to the {geologist and reservoir engineer. ‘The descriptions of the various logging techniques contained in this book will show that such relation: ships do indeed exist, and that we may assume: (a) a significant change in any geological characteristic will onerally manifest itself through at least one physical parameter which can be detected by one or more Togs; and (b) any change in log. response indicates a cchange in at least one geological parameter. 1.3, DETERMINATION OF ROCK COMPOSI- TION This is the geologist's first task. Interpretation of the well-logs will reveal both the mineralogy and proportions of the solid constituents of the rock (i. grains, matrix * and cement), and the nature and ‘sedimentologst, matrin is “The smuller oF finergrained, continuus materia enclosing, or filling the interstices beween the larger grins or particles of a sediment o¢ sedimentary rock: the natural material in which 2 sedimentary particle is embedded (Glowary of Geology, AGL. 1977. proportions (porosity, saturations) of the interstitial fluids. Log analysts distinguish only wo catey solid component in a rock-"matrix” ** and This classification is based on the sharply contrasting effects they have, not only on the logs themselves, but fon the petrophysical properties of reservoir rocks (permeability, saturation, etc.). Shale is in certain cases treated in terms of (wo constituents, “clay” and, “silt”, We will discuss this log-analyst terminology in more detail, 1.3.1, Matrix For the log analyst, matrix encompasses all the solid constituents of the rock (grains, matrix *, ce ment), excluding shale, A simple matcix lithology consists of single mineral (calcite or quartz, for exam- ple). A complex lithology contains a mixture of minerals: for instance, a cement of a different nature from the grains (such as a quartz sand with calcitic cement), ‘A clean formation is one containing no apprecia- ble amount of clay or shale. (Thus we may speak of a simple shaly sand lithol- ‘ogy, of a clean complex lithology, and so on). Table 1-1 summarizes the log characteristics (ra- dioactivity, resistivity, hydrogen index, bulk density, acoustic wave velocity...) of some of the principle minerals found in sedimentary rocks. 1.3.2, Shale, silt and clay AA shale is a fine-grained, indurated sedimentary rock formed by the consolidation of clay or silt. 1 is characterized by a finely stratified structure (laminae 0.1-0.4 mm thick) and/or fissility approximately parallel to the bedding. It normally contains at least 50& silt with, typically. 35% clay or fine mica and 13% chemical or authigenie minerals. AA silts a rock fragment or detrital particle having a diameter in the range of 1/256 mm to 1/16 mm. It has commonly a high content of clay minerals associ- ated with quartz, feldspar and heavy minerals such as ‘mica, zircon, apatite, tourmaline, ete ‘A clay is an extremely fine-grained natural sedi- iment or soft rock consisting of particles smaller than 1/256 mm diameter. It contains clay minerals (hy- drous silicates, essentially of aluminium, and some- times of magnesium and iros) and minor quantities ‘of finely divided quartz, decomposed feldspars, carbonates, iron oxides and other impurities such as For log analyst, matrix is “all the sold framework of rock which surrounds pore volume”, exsloing clay or shal glosary of terms and expressions wsed in well logging. SPW L.A. 1975),NI GNNO4 STVHANIN NIVIY 40 SONIGVSY OLLSINSLOVHVHD 1001 ONIDDOT8 als $¥90H AUVLNANIGIS NI GNNO STVHSNIW NIVW JO SONIGVIY SILSIHSLOVHVHO 1001 SNIDDO7‘organic matter. Clays form pasty, plastic impermea- ble masses. ‘The crystal lattices of clay minerals take the form of platelets. The stacking of these platelets gives the minerals @ flaky nature ‘There are several types of clay minerals, classified according to the thickness of the platelets or the spacing of the crystal lattice (Fig. 1-1). Table 1-2 is a summary of the mineralogical and chemical properties, and log characteristics of the various minerals. Clays have a high water hydrogen content, which has an effect on log response. The hydrogen is present: (a) in the hydroxyl ions in the clay mineral molecule; (b) in a layer of adsorbed (or bound") water on the clay particle surface; and (c) in water contained in the spaces between the clay platelets. The quantity of this “free-water” varies with the arrangement and compaction of the plate- lets, ‘The clays found in sedimentary series will rarely show the theoretical log characteristics appearing, in Table 1-2. They usually include several mineral types, and may be mixed with silts and carbonates in vary- ing proportions. Their pore-space will depend on the arrangement of the particles and on the degree of compaction of the rock. These pores generally con- tain water, but it is quite possible to find solid or liguid hydrocarbons or gases in them. So the log response to a clay depends very much on its composi- tion, porosity and hydrocarbon content. Log response to a rock containing clay minerals will vary according to the clay fraction and its char- acteristics. 1.3.3. Fluids The arrangement ofthe grains usually leaves spaces (pores and channels) which are filled with fluids: water, air, gas, ol tar, ete. (Fig, 1-2). Just how much fluid is contained in a rock depends on the space, ot porosity, available. With the exception of water, these pore-fuids have cone important property in common with the large ‘majority of mattix minerals—they are poor eletrical conductors. Water, on the other hand, conducts elec- tricity by virtue of dissolved salts. “The electrical properties of a rock are therefore strongly influenced by the water it contains. The quantity of water in the rock is a function of the porosity, and the extent to which that porosity is filled with water (as opposed to hydrocarbons). This explains why the resistomy of a formation is such an important log measurement. From the resistivity we can determine the percentage of water in the rock (provided we know the resistivity of the water its), If we also know the porosity. we may deduce the percentage of hydrocarbons present the hydrocarbon saturation). 1.3.3.1. Porosity Definition: Porosity is the fraction of the total volume of a rock that is not occupied by the solid constituents. ‘There are several kinds of porosity: (a) Total porosity, $, consists of all the void spaces (pores, channels, fissures, vugs) between the anye e a ae aE * ~ oo » ae iL. gy ake oe > oye a, dy ok As Ars h Fig. IL, Schematic representation of the sioctures ofthe main plately minerals (from Brinley. 1951).solid components: v-V a where: ¥, cupied by oil, gas or water); = volume of the solid materials; = total volume of the rock. (et) volume of all the empty spaces (generally oc- We distinguish two components in the total poros- ity BO +O (1-2) 1 is the primary porosity, which is intergranular or intererystalline. It depends on the shape, size and arrangement of the solids, and is the type of porosity encountered in clastic rocks. $, is the secondary porosity, made up of vugs caused by dissolution of the matrix, and fissures or cracks caused by mechani- cal forces. It is a common feature of rocks of chemi- cal or organic (biochemical) origin (b) Interconnected porosity. gonnccr is made up only of those spaces which are in communication, This may be considerably less than the total porosity *. (Consider pumice-stone for instance, where @ is of the order of 50%, bUE dsance: iS 22F0 because each pore-space is isolated from the others: there are no interconnecting channels.) (6) Potential porosity. guys is that part of the interconnected porosity in which the diameter of the ‘connecting channels is large enough to permit fluid to flow (greater than 50 jm for oil, 5 im for gas) Pores are considered to be unconnected when elacscal euttet tnd Mids cannot flow between them TABLE 12 Clason clay minerals : 1 rove | Main minerats structure unt tee | Chemical composition | org | | x | | * | cate 1 sis, geese 72 | aysyagion, ‘3 | io te rgonae | 101 | sagen me on wm | te | Tedisco ifOny | Patrameningnd Pyropnyate 2itco, 1gbesite 10 | SuAOrtoHle see | | eS Reooistone | oammete | werinaraomte | | | tanayiog 5, Anowton, smectins | Bocbee | 2emcrgecste | arma | Mm | vente cones jr | | | ccrorites | mente | Boca sgvosterorcte | “ (Mg, Fe, Ag. AI,Oy9(Ky a nnn | povgrntcs | stints [oon i ee ns es Pa T | pe | | | ane L L From Ramanan 1979pox May in some cases be considerably smaller than Seveneve Clays or shales, for instance, have a very high connected porosity (40-SO% when compacted, and as much as 90% for newly deposited muds). However. owing to their very small pores and chan- nels, molecular attraction prevents fluid circulation, (d) Effective porosity. @. is a term used specifi- cally in log analysis, It is the porosity that is access ble to free fluids, and excludes, therefore, nected porosity and the volume occupied by the clay-bound water or elay-hydration water (adsorbed water. hydration water of the exchange cations) sur- rounding the clay particles, NB. Porosity is a dimensionless quantity, being by definition a fraction o ratio. It is expresed either a8 a percentage (eg, 308). decimal (eg. 030) or in porosity units (¢8. 30 p.). ‘The geological and sedimentological factors in- fluencing the porosity of a rock will be discussed later ‘on in this book 1.3.3.2. Resistivity and conductivity ‘The resistivity (R) of a substance is the measure of its opposition to the passage of electrical current. It is expressed in units of ohm m?/m. A cube of material a of sides measuring | metre, with a resistivity R= | ohm m’/m, would have a resistance of 1 ohm be- tween opposite faces. The electrical conductiviy (C) is the measure of the material’s ability to conduct electricity. It is the inverse of the resistivity, and is usually expressed in units of millimhos/m (mmho/m) or mS/m (milli Siemens per metce) € (mmho/m) = 1000/R (ohm m*/m) There are two types of conductivity: (a) Electronic conductivity is a property of solids such as graphite, metals (copper, silver, ete), haema- tite, metal sulphides (pyrite, galena) ete (b) Electrolytic conductivity is a property of, for instance, water containing dissolved salts Dry rocks, with the exception of those mentioned above, have extremely high resistivities ‘The conductive properties of sedimentary rocks are of electrolytic origin—the presence of water (or mixtures of water and hydrocarbons) in the pore- space. The water phase must of course be continuous in order to contribute to the conductivity. The resistivity of a rock depends on: (1-3) [ 7 ieee T lmnesficog)| | Cree oteu Ears ited ie, | te (esp [aec]sa0 fan [ammalimm ben | om [essai r ae lem |aoq [aw [ax baa) [see | martecte | won | } t | | | { | | ! | 3 Ee oe oe ee ee =, oP pr | } | | | i i Lot |will vary with the nature and concentration of its dissolved salts. (b) The quantity of water present; that is, the porosity and the saturation, {c) Lithology, ie. the nature and percentage of clays present. and traces of conductive minerals. {d) The texture of the rock: ie. distribution of pores, lays and conductive minerals. (e) The temperature. Resistivity may be anisotropic by vintue of strat cation (layering) in the rock, caused, for instance, by deposition of elongated or flat particles, oriented in the direction of a prevailing current, This creates preferential paths for current flow (and fluid move- ment), and electrical conductivity is not the same in all directions. We define horizontal resistivity (R,) ia the diree- tion of layering, and vertical resistivity (Ry) per= pendicutar to this The anisotropy coefficient, is: Re (Ry/Ry)'? ‘This can vary between 1.0 and 2.5, with Ry generally larger than Ry, I is Ry that we measure with the laterolog and’ other resistivity tools (induction), whereas the classical electrical survey reads some- where between Ry, and Ry The mean resistivity of an anisostopie formation (1-4) R=(RyR)'? (15) The anisotropy of a single uniform layer is miero- scopie anisotropy. When we talk of the overall char- acteristic of a sequence of thin resistive layers, thi is macroscopic anisotropy. In such a series, the current fends to flow more easily along the layers than across them, and this anisotropy will affect any toot reading resistivity over a volume of formation containing those ine layers. Microscopie anisotropy occurs in clay cakes. In the second ease, the resistivity measured through the mudcake perpendicular to the wal of the hole is higher than that parallel to the axis. This has aneffect om the focussed micro-resisivty tools (MLL, PML) which must be taken into account in their interpretation. A mud-cake of anisotropy. A, and thickness, fy, is electrically equivalent (0 an iso- Lropie mud-cake having a resistivity equal 10 the 1 Ry Ry with thickness. Mg Summarizing, what we call the true resistivity (R,) of a formation ts a resistivity dependent on the Mut content and the nature and configuration of the slid and mud- 1.3.3.2.1. The relationship between resistivity and salin- We have mentioned that the resistivity of an elec- CONDUCTIVITY = MMHO/m ‘CONCENTRATION- PPM Fig. 13. The dependenc® of resistivity on dissolved sak concentra trolyte depends on the concenteation and (ype of dissolved salts, Referring to Fig, 1-3, notice that the jstvity decreases as concentration increases, up 0 a certain maximum beyond which undissolved, and therefore non-conducting, salts impede the passage of ‘current-carrying ions. The salinity is a measure of the concentration of dissolved salts. It can be expressed in several ways (a) parts per million (ppm or wg/g of solution): (b) B/litre of solvent: and (c) g/litre of solution. The chart of Fig. I-4 permits easy conversion between these units, Sodium chloride (NaCl) is the most com- mon salt contained in formation waters and driing muds. It ig customary to express the concentrations of other dissolved salts in terms of equivalent NaCl for evaluation of the resistivity of a solution, Figure 1-5 shows the multipliers (Dunlap coefficients) for conversion of some ionic concentrations to theit NaCl ‘equivalents. For a solution of mixed salts simply take ‘wooed 260000 300000 ‘NaC! (ppm) Fig. 1-4. The equivalence between the various units of concentra* aye MULTIPLIER, 3K 30100 “205 00 "0K ZR BGR Soon TOTAL, SOLIDS CONCENTRATION, ppm “Rone NBaaSGo Semen gears Fig. 15, The mulpits to conver ionic concentration to equivalent NaCl concentration (eurtesy of Schlumberge. the sum of the equivalent concentrations of each type of ion present 1.3.32. Relationship between resistivity and temper ature “The resistivity of a solution decreases as the tem- perature increases. The chart of Fig. 1-6 can be used to convert the resistivity at a given temperature to that at any other temperature, ‘Agps’ formula approximates this relationship by: 15°F +6.77 Rare Boor SPE SET) where Ruy is the solution resistivity at formation temperature 7(°F). 75°F is a commonly used refer- cence temperature. More generally (1-6) T+6.7]. 0, Rane Ren PEE | 9 CF) T+2s], Res, FMS ing C) (1-7) 13.3.3. The resistivity of clays With the exception of pyrite, haematite. graphite and a few others, the dry minerals have infinite resistivity Certain minerals do exist that appear to be solid conductors. Clay minerals are an example. According to Waxman and Smits (1967). a clayey sediment behaves like a clean formation of the same porosity tortuosity and fluid saturation, except that the water “appears to be more conductive than expected from its bulk salinity (Fig. 1-7a). Clays are sheet-like particles. very thin (a few Angstroms), but have a large surface area depending on the clay mineral type (Fig. I-7b), There is a deficiency of positive electrical charge within the clay sheet. This creates a strong negative electrical field perpendicular to the surface of the clay sheet which attracts positive ions (Na*, K*, Ca"... and repels the negative ions (CIm,...) present in the water (Clavier et al, 1977). The amounts of these com- pensating ions constitute the Cation Exchange Capacity which is commonly referred to as the CEC (meq/g dry rock) or Q, (meq per cm? total pore volume). CEC is related to the specific area of clay and so depends on the clay mineral type. It has its lowest value in kaolinite and its highest values in ‘montmorillonite and vermiculite (Table 1-2) The excess of conductivity observed within elays is due to these additional ations held loosely captive in a diffuse layer surrounding the clay particles (Fig. 1-8).coin = Ll soLutions worcre PEELED WAL GTT AT e/g oer = Exanple! Ry i 12 a1 75°F (pot A on chart) Fallow tend of slang ines (contact salinities) 10 Bnd Re a other temperatures for example at Formation Temperature (FT) artis approximated by the Arp formula: Ry = 160:F (pent B) teas Ry = 0.86 The conversion shown (ISS DHET (in F) +7) Fig. 1-6. The relationship between resistivity, salinity and temperature (courtesy of Schlumberger Thus the conductivity of a clayey sediment is the sum of two terms: (a) One associated with free water ‘or the water-filled porosity (indeed this type of sedi- ment has porosity as high as 80% at the time of deposition. Subsequently, as they become compacted, some of the free water is expelled. However, this porosity is never reduced to zero in sedimentary rocks which have not yet reached the metamorphic phase) (b) The other associated with the CEC. This can be expressed in another way: a clayey sediment has a conductivity which depends on its porosity on one hand, and on the effective conductivity, Cue, of the water it contains on the other. So we can write: a= (8) "Coe Following Clavier et al. (1977), for C,, we have: (1-8) Coe = PO Wen + (Poe Cow (1-9) where: (fe)ia = fraction of total pore volume occupied by “far water” Ce )ig = 1 = Ue )ow = 1 082.5 (1-10) (fé)e. = fraction of total pore volume (4) 0c cupied by “clay water”: Cy = (formation) water conductivity; CG. = conductivity of clay water which is a uni- versal parameter for sodium clays, which depends only on temperature: 0, A a San, HOG on) With the new values for ( ¢),, and C.,, we can write: Gu= (1 02,0,)C, + BQ, (1-12) — expansion factor for diffuse layer: 2, (em'/mes ‘of clay counterions per unit pore volume (meq/em"): clay surface area per unit of pore volume (mt fem) distance of “outer Helmholtz plane” from clay surface (Fig. 1-9): equivalent conductivity of sodium counter- ions, dual-water model (mho/m) (meq//em’};SPECIFIC AREA lool m2/gm (b) ‘SPECIFIC CEC, meq/gm—>— 9a Fig, 1-7. 4 The conductivity G, ofa shaly water-saturated form tion as function of the conductivity C, of the water, b. Relation hetwoen specific CEC and specific area for API standard clays (eom Patchett 1975) » = specific clay-area coefficient (m?/meq). “lays are widely encountered not only layers but in mixtures with other rocks such as sands, limestones, ‘When dealing with formations containing clays. therefore, we can no longer consider the solid matrix to be non-conductive. This has to be taken into discrete { Locat tonic concen. TRATION «nd DISTANCE FROM CLAY SURFACE ag Fig. LK. Schematic of difasetayer ionic concentrations ( model (om Clavier el. 1999), ADSORBED WATER soDiuM 10N WATER HYDRATION WATER souEmaric i ourer HELMHOLTZ ese PLANE Fig -9. Schematic view of outer Heitz plane from Clavier e a7, account in calculations based on resistivity measure- ments (formation factor, porosity. saturation... }. The influence of the clay will depend on the percentage present, its physical properties and the manner in which it is distributed in the formation 1.4, ROCK TEXTURE AND STRUCTURE * ‘The shape and size of the rock grains, their degree of sorting, the manner in which they are cemented, and the relative importance of the cement itself, have three important consequences. They determine the porosity; the size of the pores and connecting chan- nels influences the permeability. and hence the saturation; and the distribution of the porosity de- cides the tortuosity. ‘The internal structure of layers (homogeneity. het- erogeneity, lamination. continuous. gradation). the configuration of individual sedimentary structures, the thickness of the nature of their interfacing, their arrangement in sequences **, and the boundaries and trends of these sequences provide valuable informa- tion about the depositional environment. This is why the study of the many different characteristics of sedimentary formations is of such interest 10 the geologist and reservoir engineer. * When describing the texture of a rock, we lok athe grains and cement, and their intrinsic properties, “The structure refers 10 the Sdimensional arrangement of these onsituents, and their anisotropy. (ef: *Méthodes modemes de agéologie de terrain”, Tochaip, Pars, (974, ** A, Lombard defined a Iithological sequence as “at least wo seological strata forming a natural sercs in which they oecur mo significant discontinuities ether than the interfaces hetween the strata themeelvesFig. 110. Theoratical case-a cube of unit volume containing parallel eylindicl capillaries of eross-sectional area 5, Well-og interpretation will provide much of this information. Before embarking on a detailed study of how this is achieved, we must understand the basic relationships between the log measurements and the physical parameters 1.4.1. The relationship between porosity and resistiv ity: the formation factor In clean, porous aquifers, the formation resistivity R, is proportional to that of the interstitial water, R Ry = FeRy (1-13a) Fg is the formation resistivity factor. a function of the rock texture, It is the ratio of the resistivity of the formation to that of the water with which it is 100% saturated: Fam Ro/Ry (1-13b) If the interstitial spaces were made up solely of parallel cylindrical channels (Fig. 1-10), Ry would be inversely proportional to the porosity. The resistance between faces A and B of the elementary cube of Fig. 1-10 is, by definition: ! Ry Re “Ee (1-14) S, being the cross-sectional area of each of the chan- nels. Now 5, is equal to 6: 1x, Ye Ff = (see section 1.3.3.1) = 9507 ¥, =5,(1=1) So: R= R,,/d. which means that Fy = 1/%, In reality, the electrical current is constrained to follow complex meandering paths, whose lengths in- crease with their tortuosity, and whose sectional areas (and hence resistances) vary erratically between the pores and fine interconnecting capillaries. The nature Of these paths depends on the rock texture. A large number of measurements on rock samples hhas shown that the formation factor of a shale-free rock is related reasonably consistently to porosity by Fa=aso” (1-16) a is a coefficient between 0.6 and 2.0 depending on 4 (145) BASIC POROSITY TYPES FBRA wommoe (SP wmmvess we nrerenrstaL 8c woxoie wo FenesTeAL fe crow umeworx °F ‘NOT FABRIC SELECTIVE rmcre oR cum. ow [ea ~ wo Fig. 1-11 The principle types of porosity (from Choquette and Pray. 1970)TABLE 13 Classification of porasiy according t GENETIC MODIFIERS MODIFYING TERMS its evolution (Choquette and Pray, 1970), ‘SIZE* MODIFIERS eprezee onecess]| cusses at we ‘SOLUTION . “ENLARGED. * wecavone ng |r 88g CEMENTATION. © ‘ReoUCED , jet _sea}_g_] Inna seowent LED ¢ [oesorne mw fee — el a (ime oF Fommarion ] weneoie we ‘et wn le lithology. m is the cementation or tortuosity factor. It varies between | and 3 according to the type of sediment, the pore-shape, the type of porosity and its distribution, and to some extent the degree of com- paction. Choquette and Pray (2970) have proposed a means of classifying the porosity of carbonates based on several factors, such as particle shape, size, distribu- ‘b ronony, pa | a a AWS sen eons ce nee eget "ABUNDANCE MODIFIERS eves pacuty ISR sata pnty one (02) tion, origin, evolution, as shown in Fig, I-11 and ‘Table 1-3. It can be seen from this classification that ‘m may vary over a considerable range. ‘The idealized case in Fig. 1-10 is closely approxi- mated by the “fenestral” category, where m= 1 Fracture porosity, although usually very small, pre- sents short-citcuits to current flow, and once again, m= lor Fy = 1/0. Fig. 1-12, Formation factor and porosity (courtesy of Schlumberg)Ro F Aa wa Fo LAB. Plot of F (= Ry /R.) against porosity for the de- termination of @ and m (using core or neutron-density porosities, Sandstones and detrital quartz formations almost always have intergranular porosity. The Humble for- mula: Fy = 0.62/62" is often used. In well-consolidated formations, Fig = 1/6" is pre- ferable, For non-fissured carbonates of low porosity, the Shell formula is applied: Fy = 1/6" with m= 1.87 + 0019/6. ‘The chart in Fig. 1-12 shows the dependence of Fg fon ¢ for various values of a and m. Precise evaluation of m and a is obtained from the classical plot, on log-log seales, of R,/R. against porosity, taken from a clean, water-bearing zone in the reservoir (Fig. 1-13). The porosity is measured from cores. oF from well-logs (a neutron-density com- bination, for instance), “The straight line passing through the most “south: \westerly” of the points (and therefore having the least chance of containing any hydrocarbon) represents the “waterline” for the formation, and we can derive m from its slope, and a from its intercept on the ¢ axis at: @ = 10. Since Ro/R, = F= a/om 17) then m= (log F, ~ log F;)/(log #2 — log @) (1-18) where [9,, F;] and [3, Fy] are any two points on the Fig. 1-14. The volumes eccupied by the constituents of a rook of unit volume. water ine, as shown in the Fig. 1-13. Now = Fxg". therefore, a is given by the value of Fy when 6 = 1.0 1.0). Alternatively: So it can be seen that measurements of Ry (deep resistivity tools) or R,, (micro-resistvity tools) can be used to derive pordsity once @ and m are known {in addition, of course, to R, and Ry,.)- Note, how- ever, that resistivity is dependent on connected poros- ity only. : Archie's formula Quite often (fortunately!) porous rocks contain, quantities of liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons. Being infinitely resistive, these hydrocarbons are electrically equivalent to the solid, clean matrix. So, for the same porosity, a formation will have a higher resistivity if it is hydrocarbon-bearing than if it is water-bearing (Fig, 1-14), ‘The saturation of a fluid in a formation is the ratio of the volume occupied by the fluid to the total pore volume, ie. it is the fraction of the porosity occupied by that particular fluid. If the Muid is formation water, then its saturation S,, is: S.-Y, (1-19) If there are no other fluids present, then H, = ¥,. and 5, = 1.0. If some hydrocarbon (1/,,.) is present. then (120) 1. Saturation is 9 dimensionles quuntiy, Being @ ratio. 1 is either as a decimal (0 < S, < 10) of as a percentage (0% <5, < 100%): 5, () = 100 ‘A large number of laboratory measurements has, shown that S, is related to resistivity by an equation we 7 Fig. 115, Pot of S. against R, /Re to determineof the form: SI RR, (any =Ry, as we have already seen, isthe true resistivity of the formation of porosity @ totally saturated with water of resistivity Rt =R, is the true resistivity of the same formation, containing water at saturation S,, and hydrocarbons (saturation 1 = S,), ) A homogeneous bed is characterized by featureless log curves (Fig. 1-32). (c) A heterogeneous, conglomeratic or burrowed bed produces fluctuations in log response. Peaks hav- ing poor or no correlation will be recorded by the dipmeter resistivity tool, and no dip trend will be discernible (Fig. 1-32), (d) A continuous trend within an elementary se- quence of sufficient thickness will give rise t0 log responses that also show a regular evolution between two end-values. (Fig. 1-33). (e) Figure 1-34 shows how the dipmeter arrow-plot indicates oblique lamination or cross-bedding. (0 A well-bedded sequence with parallel bound- aries will be seen as alternating peaks and troughs, (especially on the micro-tools) and a homogeneity of ips. (g) Meso- and megasequential evolution will be recorded very clearly by well-logs. (g) Lateral variations are monitored by correla- tions between adjacent wells, 1.5, CONCLUSION Interpretation of well-logs ean provide a large part of the geological information usually deduced from | Fig. 1-32, An example ofa sequence of homogeneous baddad and heterogeneous strata a distinguished by the dipmeter (From Payre and Serra, 1973), examination of outcrops, cores and cuttings. This wil be developed in volume 2. Tables 1-4 set out the correspondence between geological factors and the log parameters which de- scribe them: We will now study the principles of each of the Jogging services. This will provide an understanding of haw formation geology affects tool response, and the uses to which the various log measurements can be put. 1.6, REFERENCES See end of chapter 2‘cress bedding as seen by a dipmeter lg (courtesy of Shlumbergen2% oor Raia ve ela aloes rn raceme ecrenton areas eat | (meee nua Scenario wi ep (eee, lane re esi e ee feasteee oe eerie — =e | oro ear Fa aes Se ewtenrmaen sian _|enrera a aeaienssa er FSD (pn ne ms ae cy marry iet — Rawal " aaron meen erento : ee cee cos (roe oe ae aime eee mu ay ee aa ane | sain hte fees eR tsps p= te eae oea TABLE 14a Relations between composition of 2 rock and well-logzing parameters wet Looe acuevanr GEOLOGICAL PARAMETERS PARAMETERS AFFECTED LOGGING TOOLS. PARTICLES. GRAINS OR CRYSTALS ve ny ma sown | aranc! pencentact | 2 Vay a Ste | ae met em z mrinminen wes beanuee bp dt | ane men [enon | iho wee | A a Mute 0. os tres romocanaon| Ps. sd... 9% | gue romans 9 she SATURATION Sw Sun TABLE 4b Relations between rock texture and wel/-logsing parameters TerTURAL_panaMerens eet Ow TexAM awe Tocetne AHAMCTERS ‘aes sus ‘Power ° | anosess roma romasty Nn wae a a a i ranncuts J sure {2m many Fomostry Oy ete (a ‘on seventy ‘Bee ot coms secre ronosr 0 iar onion somuesity om AF al Us taste encenace sit oF pons ano rion toro ara wit eowraoe arm remweamuty 4 | |otsuler is yg te womzomrar oy |] ten be sswermaauiny aru ans