Chapter 2

Review of Related Literature

This chapter will discuss the different studies gathered related to the paper

starting from illegal logging from different regions and how the law about illegal

deforestation implemented to other regions. This chapter will also discuss the

importance of trees in agricultural factors and the development of small-scale forestry

for smallholder farmers.

Illegal logging crisis locally

The Philippine rainforest, which used to span roughly 90% of the country's land area,

was one of the world's richest in species. Over the last few decades, forest cover has been

reduced to less than 10% of its original level, with just a small portion of it being old-growth

forest. Because of the harmful effects of deforestation, the National Greening Program (NGP)

was established, which involves the planting of over a billion seedlings over a few million

hectares of land from 2011 to 2016. (Perez, et. al., 2020)

In the province of Quezon, there are 39 species and six subspecies of Hoya, according to

literature. 37 of these species are endemic to the Philippines, while two are indigenous to the

country. Moreover, Villanueva, et. al., (2017) states that Illegal logging and slash-and-burn

farming, both of which can lead to forest degradation, have been cited as threats to the Hoya's

existence in Quezon.
Though the cause was heavy rainfall, what basically triggered the disaster was huge

deforestation and decreased control of water runoff. 1800 people were killed in a landslide in the

Quezon Province of Philippines in 2004. It was found that deforestation played a major role in

this disaster. (Khalid, et. al., 2019)

Illegal logging crisis globally.

The forestry service and municipal governments allow unauthorized logging in

the protected region, arguing that prohibiting a key source of income for families living

along the forest border will exacerbate rural poverty. However, according to van der

Ploeg, et. al. (2011) this logic understates the magnitude of timber extraction and

conceals resource appropriation and collusive corruption. Illegal logging, by harming

ecosystems, distorting markets, and undermining the rule of law, is a barrier to

sustainable rural development in and around the protected area.

In a study conducted by Telapak and EIA (2004), CITES has shown to be an

effective instrument in preserving forests from the plague of timber theft, as evidenced

by an endangered tree being logged illegally in National Parks. Though it is not the

ultimate solution to the problem, CITES could - and should - be doing much more where

it is appropriate. The addition of further threatened tree species to Appendix III is

justified and should be supported. Appendix III's implementation and enforcement must

also be improved.

CBFM or also known as community-based forest management, and smallholder

forestry in the Philippines have the potential to supply the country's wood demand while
also helping to alleviate poverty. However, according to Pulhin, et. al. (2016) the

realities on the ground make this ambitious goal seem unrealistic. Community-based

timber companies or CBTEs and smallholder forestry face institutional and informal

impediments to expansion and possibilities along the timber value chain.

Agricultural factor

Many environmental benefits provided by agroforestry are critical to the welfare

of humans in the uplands and lowlands. However, according to Fortenbacher, et. al.

(2014) Despite the Philippines' lengthy history of agroforestry on the uplands, the

practice has not been modernized. National agencies and local governments should

strengthen their cooperation to tackle the sector's institutional, technical, and economic

obstacles in order to encourage more farmers to embrace state-of-the-art agroforestry

practices.

Cruz, et. al. (2013) states that the slow pace of adaptation in agriculture and

forestry education has resulted in a drop in interest among prospective students, as

demand for traditional program graduates drops in favor of increased need for

graduates with new skill sets. Furthermore, the decreasing prospects to find work and

start new agriculture and forestry businesses erodes the appeal of a professional or

business career in agriculture and forestry.

According to Pasicolan, et. al. (1997) Between 1988 and 1992, the Philippine

government took out large loans from the Asian Development Bank and the Overseas

Economic Cooperation Fund to fund its Contract Reforestation Program. During the first

three years of the initiative, people were paid to plant trees on public grounds. Upland
farms have the potential to be used as reforestation management units. Farm-based

tree growing is an effective management modality for squatting public lands or areas

under stewardship agreements, and it is strategic in reaching inaccessible and distant

sites with a high probability of success.

According to Rodenburg, et. al. (2022) The advantages and hazards of rice

agroforestry systems have not been thoroughly investigated. Given the urgent need for

ways to address low fertility and high soil degradation while also contributing to

smallholder farm productivity, livelihoods, and climate resilience, such research is both

timely and relevant. As a result, this study examines the existing literature on integrating

trees into rice production around the world and offers recommendations for further

research, with a focus on Africa, where the potential for long-term productivity

improvement is judged greatest.

Small-scale forestry

Small-scale farmers are now major timber producers. Farmers' intensive tree

planting and care practices assure tree survival and growth. However, the timber

harvesting technology used have some limitations. Bertomeu, M. (N.D.) states that by

spreading out the labor and capital costs of agroforestry over time, a simple linear

programming model developed for optimal land allocation to monocropping and tree

intercropping showed that cumulative additions of widely spaced tree hedgerows

provide higher returns to land and reduce the risk of agroforestry adoption. For

resource-constrained farmers, progressive planting of widely separated tree hedgerows

can make farm forestry more adoptable and promote more diverse and profitable

agroforestry systems.

Seedlings are generally raised in government nurseries for free distribution to

landowners, although the extension strategy does not reach the majority of smallholder

farmers. (Gregorio, et. al., N.D.) Landowners' seedling needs are primarily met by the

more numerous and easily accessible individual and communal nurseries. Problems

with capital expenditure, germplasm sources and supply, technical competence in

nursery management for both timber and fruit trees, and low sales are among the key

hurdles to small-scale nurseries' long-term viability.

Calderon, et. al. (2011) states that the Philippines is dedicated to dealing with

climate change, as indicated by its adoption of the UN Framework Convention on

Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol, as well as the passage of Republic Act 9729,

also known as the Climate Change Act of 2009. The estimated carbon loss in the

ancestral domain owing to possible deforestation in the old growth forest is much larger

than the projected carbon loss in increasing second growth forests and brushlands,

providing an excellent opportunity for the community to participate in a forestry carbon

project.

Local Legislations concerning deforestation

During the Commonwealth time, the Forest Act of 1904 was passed, allowing the

country's forest reserve to be used and regulated. Other forestry precedent legislation,

such as the Public Land Act No. 926 and the Commonwealth Act No. 452, were

eventually enacted, regulating public land for pasturing. During Marcos' presidency, the
forestry regulations were strengthened, resulting in the creation of the Philippine

Forestry Reform Code in 1974, which was later updated in 1975. This literature

examines the true objective of forestry laws from their inception to the present, as well

as their purposes in the Philippines' fast developing urbanization. (Pablor, R., 2018)

In everything that has to do with internal and external government relations, the

communication system is crucial. One example is the enforcement of laws, particularly

forest laws. However, Juan, et. al. (N.D.) states that according to the literature studied,

this is one of the most frequently missed instances in the execution of forest regulations.

They concentrated on the main participants in the implementations, such as agencies

and civilians, rather than the communication flow or system that occurs throughout the

enforcement process.

International Legislations concerning deforestation

The fate of forests and savannas on Brazil's 394 million hectares of privately

owned property is governed under the Brazilian Forest Code of 2012. The government

says that a new national land registry (SICAR) developed under the updated law will

significantly reduce the cost of monitoring, enforcement, and compliance, hence ending

unlawful deforestation. However, Azevedo, et. al. (2017) states that in order to achieve

zero unlawful deforestation in this setting, the private sector would have to make 100%

compliance a market criterion, while state and federal governments would have to build

SICAR as a de facto enforcement instrument.

 According to Schmidt, et. al. (2014) noncompliance is linked to widespread social

stress as well as lived experiences of inconsistencies in legal processes, such as

shifting legal discourses and inconsistent local law enforcement. Forest conservation

regulations are associated with socio-economic and legal inequality, as well as the

maintenance of social exclusionary structures, in such social circumstances.

Deforestation sanctions must be severe enough to prevent illegal cutting but not

so severe that they are unenforceable. To address the core causes of deforestation,

particularly the role of clearing in establishing land claims, policy reform is also required.

(Fearnside, P., 2005)

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