The disease characterized by high

blood glucose levels – Hyperglycaemia

 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL) millimoles per liter (mmol/L)

 Normal Fasting Blood Glucose: 70-100 mg/dL (3.9-5.6 mmol/L)

 This is the range for blood glucose levels after an overnight fast

(usually at least 8 hours without eating).

 Postprandial Blood Glucose (2 hours after a meal):

 Normal: Less than 140 mg/dL (7.8 mmol/L)

 Prediabetes: 140-199 mg/dL (7.8-11.0 mmol/L)

 Diabetes: 200 mg/dL (11.1 mmol/L) or higher

 Random Blood Glucose (taken at any time of the day):

 Normal: Less than 125 mg/dL (7.0 mmol/L)

 Prediabetes: 126-199 mg/dL (7.0-11.0 mmol/L)

 Diabetes: 200 mg/dL (11.1 mmol/L) or higher

 Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (T1DM) Causes:
1. Autoimmune Destruction of Pancreatic Beta Cells:
 The primary cause of Type 1 diabetes is believed to be an autoimmune reaction
where the body's immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys the insulin-
producing beta cells in the pancreas.

2. Genetic Factors:
 Family history: Individuals with a family history of Type 1 diabetes have a
higher risk of developing the condition, suggesting a genetic component to the
disease.
 Twin studies have shown a higher concordance rate for Type 1 diabetes in
identical twins compared to fraternal twins, indicating a significant genetic
influence.

3. Environmental Factors:
 Viral Infections: Certain viral infections, particularly during childhood, have
been implicated as potential triggers for the autoimmune destruction of
pancreatic beta cells.
 Dietary Factors: Early exposure to cow's milk or certain dietary proteins may
increase the risk of developing Type 1 diabetes in genetically susceptible
individuals, although the evidence is not conclusive.
 Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) Causes:
1. Insulin Resistance:
 Insulin resistance is a key underlying factor in the development of Type 2
diabetes, where the body's cells become less responsive to the action of insulin,
leading to impaired glucose uptake and elevated blood glucose levels.
2. Beta Cell Dysfunction:
 Over time, pancreatic beta cells may fail to compensate for insulin resistance by
increasing insulin secretion, leading to beta cell dysfunction and relative insulin
deficiency.
3. Obesity and Sedentary Lifestyle:
 Obesity, particularly central adiposity (abdominal obesity), and a sedentary
lifestyle are major risk factors for Type 2 diabetes.
4. Genetic Predisposition:
 Family history: Individuals with a family history of Type 2 diabetes are at
increased risk of developing the condition, indicating a genetic predisposition.

5. Environmental Factors:
 Unhealthy Diet: Consumption of a diet high in refined carbohydrates, sugars,
saturated fats, and processed foods contributes to obesity, insulin resistance, and
Type 2 diabetes risk. And Sedentary Lifestyle:
 General Risk Factors for Diabetes Mellitus:
1. Obesity:
2. Physical Inactivity: Lack of regular physical activity or a sedentary lifestyle is a
significant risk factor.
3. Family History: Having a family history of diabetes mellitus increases the risk,
especially for Type 2 diabetes.
4. Age: The risk of diabetes mellitus increases with age, particularly after the age of 45.
5. Ethnicity/Race: Certain ethnic groups, including African Americans, Hispanic/Latino
Americans, Native Americans, Asian Americans, and Pacific Islanders, have a higher
risk.
6. Gestational Diabetes: Women who have had gestational diabetes during pregnancy or
who have given birth to a baby weighing over 9 pounds are at increased risk for Type
2 diabetes later in life.
7. Hypertension (High Blood Pressure) and Dyslipidemia (Abnormal Blood Lipid
Levels): These are often associated with insulin resistance and increase the risk of
Type 2 diabetes.
8. Smoking: Smoking increases the risk of developing Type 2 diabetes and complicates
diabetes management.
9. Unhealthy Diet: Diets high in processed foods, sugars, and unhealthy fats increase the
risk of developing Type 2 diabetes.
10. Stress: Chronic stress may contribute to insulin resistance and increase the risk
of Type 2 diabetes.
 Investigating diabetes mellitus
1. Medical History:
 Gathering information about symptoms, such as increased thirst, frequent
urination, unexplained weight loss, fatigue, blurred vision, and slow wound
healing.

2. Physical Examination:
 Checking vital signs, including blood pressure, heart rate, and respiratory rate.

3. Laboratory Tests:
 Fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG) Test: Measures blood glucose levels after an
overnight fast. Fasting blood glucose levels ≥126 mg/dL (7.0 mmol/L) on two
separate occasions indicate diabetes mellitus.
 Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT): Measures blood glucose levels before and
2 hours after consuming a glucose solution. A 2-hour plasma glucose level ≥200
mg/dL (11.1 mmol/L) confirms diabetes mellitus.
 Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) Test: Reflects average blood glucose levels over the
past 2-3 months. An HbA1c level ≥6.5% confirms diabetes mellitus.
 Random Blood Glucose Test: Measures blood glucose levels at any time of the
day. A random blood glucose level ≥200 mg/dL (11.1 mmol/L) with classic
symptoms of diabetes confirms the diagnosis.
1. Type 1 Diabetes:
 Insulin Therapy: Since people with type 1 diabetes don't produce insulin, they require insulin
injections or insulin pump therapy to regulate blood sugar levels.
 Blood Sugar Monitoring: Regular monitoring of blood sugar levels is crucial to adjust insulin
doses and manage diabetes effectively.
 Meal Planning: Following a balanced diet that helps to manage blood sugar levels is important.
 Regular Exercise: Regular physical activity can help improve insulin sensitivity and manage
blood sugar levels.

2. Type 2 Diabetes:
 Lifestyle Modifications: This includes maintaining a healthy diet, engaging in regular physical
activity, achieving and maintaining a healthy weight, and quitting smoking if applicable.
 Oral Medications: Many people with type 2 diabetes may initially manage their condition with
oral medications that help lower blood sugar levels. These medications work in various ways,
such as increasing insulin sensitivity, decreasing glucose production in the liver, or helping the
body to better use insulin.
 Injectable Medications: Some individuals with type 2 diabetes may eventually require insulin
therapy or other injectable medications if oral medications are insufficient to control blood sugar
levels.
 Blood Sugar Monitoring: Regular monitoring of blood sugar levels is important for tracking
progress and making adjustments to treatment as needed.
 Regular Check-ups: Regular visits to healthcare providers are essential for monitoring diabetes
control, assessing complications, and adjusting treatment plans as necessary.
 complication of diabetes

1. Acute Complications:
 Hypoglycemia (low blood sugar)
 Hyperglycemia (high blood sugar), leading to diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) or
hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS)

2. Chronic Complications:
 Microvascular complications:
 Diabetic retinopathy (eye damage)
 Diabetic nephropathy (kidney damage)
 Diabetic neuropathy (nerve damage)
 Macrovascular complications:
 Cardiovascular diseases (heart disease, stroke)
 Peripheral vascular disease (reduced blood flow to extremities)
 Other complications:
 Foot ulcers and amputations
 Skin complications
 Dental complications