Environ Dev Sustain

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-018-0183-2

Environmental impacts of sand mining in the city

of Santarém, Amazon region, Northern Brazil

Eduardo Francisco da Silva1,2 · Darlisson Fernandes Bento 2 ·

Anderson Conceição Mendes3 · Fábio Góis da Mota2 · Luiz Carlos Silva Mota2 ·
Arthur Iven Tavares Fonseca1,2 · Rodolfo Maduro Almeida2 ·
Livaldo de Oliveira Santos2

Received: 12 October 2017 / Accepted: 22 May 2018

© Springer Science+Business Media B.V., part o Springer Nature 2018

Abstract The urban growth in the Amazon countryside region was led by great in ra-
structure projects, which demanded a major amount o raw material or civil construction
such as sand. The sand mining in the Santarém city, Pará state, is being developed over
siliciclastic rocks rom the Alter do Chão Formation. This exploitation lacks technical
knowledge and standards, leading to low regard or the environment. The main purposes
o this paper are to map the sand exploitation areas in Santarém and to understand their
impacts on nearby communities throughout the whole li e cycle o the mine. For that a case
study was per ormed in Serra do Índio, where sand mining was an important activity or
many years. The volume o withdrawn sand was determined, the environmental impacts
were identi ed and classi ed, and measures to mitigate the main impacts were proposed.
Overall, 21 sand-mining areas were identi ed in Santarém. Seven o them are legally
active, three are irregularly exploited, and eleven are inactive. All o them use mechanical
dismantle or the extraction process. This method generates soil compaction and emits air
and sound pollution on site and to nearby areas. In Serra do Índio, between 2002 and 2014,
around 14,059 m3 o sand were extracted. As a consequence, laminar ows and ravines,
which acilitate gravitational mass movements, caused siltation o nearby rivers. The lack
o technical criteria has decreased the mines’ li etime and increased the environmental
harm related to the sand exploitation, in Santarém, Amazon countryside region.

Keywords Sand mining · Amazon · Santarém city · Environmental impacts

* Eduardo Francisco da Silva

e rancisco_geo@hotmail.com
1
Postgraduate Program in Geology and Geochemistry, Institute o Geosciences, Federal University
o Pará, Guamá University Campus, Rua Augusto Correa, 01, Belém, PA 66075-110, Brazil
2
Institute o Engineering and Geosciences, Federal University o Western Pará, Tapajós Campus,
Santarém, PA 68035-110, Brazil
3
Institute o Geosciences, Federal University o Pará, Guamá University Campus, Rua Augusto
Correa, 01, Belém, PA 66075-110, Brazil

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 E. F. da Silva et al.

1 Introduction

Sand exploitation is a global activity that traditionally occurs along the course o river
channels and shorelines due to their natural concentration o raw materials (Dissanayake
and Rupasinghe 1996; Draggan 2008; Shaji and Anilkuar 2014; Van Rijn et al. 2005; Van
der Wer et al. 2010; Van den Eynde et al. 2010).
The sand demand is increasing in the global market, and there is a growing imbalance
between supply and demand. China, India and the USA stood out as the main producers
o sand between 2010 and 2015. Singapore, Netherlands, Japan, and Belgium–Luxem-
bourg are the main consumers, while the USA, Germany, and Australia are among the
main exporters (Gavriletea 2017). Brazil also stands out as a major producer. However, its
exports are inexpressive, and consumption is local, wherein Northern Brazil presents the
lowest sand demand o approximately 14.76 × 106 ton/year (MME 2009).
The city o Santarém is located in the western side o the Pará state (Fig. 1). Sand min-
ing is per ormed all along its metropolitan area. The material availability in this region is
derived rom the ancient drainage o the Alter do Chão Formation. The population increase
and the growing in rastructure projects or sand mining have great in uence on the city’s
construction sector. Micro- and small mining companies generate several environmental
problems, since none o them applies technical knowledge to e ciently extract the raw
materials. The lack o planning and the employment o rudimentary extraction techniques
are still very common. To improve the present material exploitation scenario in the city, it
is necessary to adequate and modernize the sector.
The issues associated with mineral extraction are mostly environmental, or example,
destruction o landscape, reduction in agricultural lands and pastures, collapse o river-
banks, de orestation, and water pollution. These issues are common in mines around the
world (Ako et al. 2014; Nobre Filho et al. 2011; Saviour 2012, b; Pitchaiah 2017), but are
worse in an in ormal exploitation scenario (Lelles et al. 2005; Tobias et al. 2010; Silva
et al. 2012).
Illegal sand mining is the biggest challenge to overcome. The lack o appropriate tech-
niques or extraction has caused environmental issues mainly related to erosion, which
promotes destruction o the original landscape through chemical, biological and physical
agents (Suguio 2003). Erosion occurs in the environment in a natural and balanced way.
However, urban expansion acts as a catalyst, so the environment can become unbalanced

Fig. 1 a Location o the city o Santarém, b location o the metropolitan region o Santarém, highlighting
Serra do Índio; c, d upper view o Serra do Índio. UTM coordinate system, Zone 21, datum SAD 69, with
units in meter. Images modi ed rom Google Earth

13
Environmental impacts of sand mining in the city of Santarém,…

and might even reach a collapse. The expansion o the erosive processes occurs due to sup-
pression o vegetation, a necessary step in the extraction process. This suppression leads to
an increased laminar sur ace runof, which gives rise to ravines, and later on to more harm-
ul land orms, gullies (Santos et al. 2002). This process is denominated anthropic erosion
(Santoro 2009), a highly noted process in the mining activity, whenever it is per ormed
incorrectly (Silva 1988).
Sand mining can generate social issues as well. There can be an increase in alcohol
consumption and it land con icts which can even lead to deaths. This situation has been
recorded during uncerti ed exploitation in developing countries such as India (Shaji and
Anilkuar 2014; Khan and Sugie 2015).
The demographic growth in the city o Santarém city is leading to a higher demand o
raw materials such sand or civil construction. There ore, mining activities and their envi-
ronmental and social consequences are becoming more common. With that in mind, the
purpose o this paper is to map the sand exploitation areas and to analyze the local impacts
generated by the mining activity. A case study in an old extraction area denominated Serra
do Índio was also per ormed. The material extracted and eroded between 2002 and 2014
was quanti ed to identi y the impacts and consequences o the activity, and to propose
environmental remediation measures.

2 Study area characterization

2.1 Location and access

Santarém is located in the Mesoregion o the Low Amazon, on the right border o the
Tapajós River, Pará state, Northern Brazil. The territorial extension o the city is approxi-
mately 23,000,000 km2 (IBGE 2010). The access to the studied is easy. There are several
areas, which modi y the natural landscape o the city, exploited to provide construction
materials. Serra do Índio, target o the case study, has an estimated height o 90 m and is
located in the district o Santarenzinho, Center-South portion o Santarém (Fig. 1).

2.2 Geological setting

The exploitation areas are registered in the central portion o the Amazonas Basin, Pará
state, Brazil. It is an approximately 500,000 km2 wide intracratonic basin with 5,000 m o
sedimentary lling (Cunha et al. 1994, 2007). In the stratigraphic sequence o the basin,
there are our second-order depositional sequences rom the Paleozoic age, and one mega-
sequence rom Meso-Cenozoic age, represented by the Javari Group, which is constituted
by the Alter do Chão and Solimões ormations (Vasquez and Rosa-Costa 2008). In the
urban area o Santarém, the deposits rom the Alter do Chão Formation arises. The depos-
its were described, or the rst time, by Kistler (1954), who de ned that the unit is com-
posed by reddish sandstones, mudstones, conglomerates, and intra ormational breccias
attributed to river and lake/deltaic systems (Daemon 1975), meandering rivers (Mendes
et al. 2012), uvial-lacustrine to deltaic systems (Mendes 2015), and waves-in uenced del-
taic systems (Rossetti and Netto 2006).
The Alter do Chão Formation and the Paleozoic unit contacts are represented by an
expressive erosional uncon ormity. On both borders o the basin close to Manaus City,
cutting and lling channel eatures were identi ed in seismic sections at the base o the

13
 E. F. da Silva et al.

ormation (Costa 2002). Over the deposits o Alter do Chão Formation, there is a er-
ruginous-laterite expressive layer which correspond to the paleosol rom the Paleogene
age (Boulangé and Carvalho 1997). The essentially siliciclastic nature o the Alter do
Chão Formation, its large area o occurrence, as well as the riable nature o the rocks
avors the easy extraction o the material to be directly employed in civil construction.
In some events, this exploitation already generates environmental issues in Santarém
associated with land lls (Mendes et al. 2017).

3 Materials and methods

To identi y the sand extraction areas, the irregular mining areas and the modi ed sur-
aces, Google Earth aerial photographs (2002 and 2014) and Landsat 8 images, OLI
sensor, orbit/point 227/062, 30 m spatial resolution were added to aerial shooting rom
Google Earth, SA-21 Zone—Santarém with 1:300.000 re erence scale (Fig. 1). From
that images combination, a 15-m spatial resolution images were created by a usion (pan
sharpening) band 8 (panchromatic) and multispectral images (Landsat 8/OLI) generated
by color composition (RGB). Google Earth and Landsat 8 area photographs were geo-
re erenced and redesigned in SIRGAS 2000 zone 21S.
In addition to that, sand-mining data was rom the Brazilian National Mining Agency
(ANM) database was utilized to identi y the extraction areas registered in Santarém.
The eldwork analysis identi ed active and inactive mines and the modi ying actors o
the local landscape. Lithological descriptions, sampling collection and measurement o
the direction o the drainage ow were supported in that stage. To identi y the impacts
in the sand mining, the ELAW proposal (2010) was ollowed by dividing the mine li e
in three phases.
The estimated extracted volume rom Serra do Índio (Fig. 2) was based on the trun-
cated-cone model proposition (Borges 1994; Veiga 2007). This multi-temporal quanti-
tative analysis utilizes images rom 2002 (Google Earth) and 2014 (Google Earth and
Landsat 8) in the geographical in ormation system (ArcGIS), similar to Jianjun et al.
(2012). The territorial limits and the road vector data were acquired rom the Brazilian
Institute o Geography and Statistics (IBGE) database.

Fig. 2 Frustoconical model used

to calculate the volume o mate-
rial removed rom Serra do Índio
between 2002 and 2014. Adapted
rom Veiga (2007)

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Environmental impacts of sand mining in the city of Santarém,…

4 Results and discussion

4.1 Extraction areas

Twenty-one sand-mining areas are registered in the metropolitan area o Santarém.

Seven o them are legally active (Fig. 3). Three o them are illegally exploited as
interpreted rom the remote sensing images (Fig. 3; Table 1). The remaining 11 areas
were identi ed as inactive mining sites. In the actives areas, both negative and posi-
tive impacts are generated afecting the population and the environment. In the irregular
exploration areas, we did not attain access permission to analyze the local impacts.
The impacts were identi ed in the three phases o the sand extraction process: (1)
opening and maintenance o access ways; (2) site preparation and clearing and (3)
extraction and transport. The impacts to the environment occur along those phases
(Table 2).
Vegetation suppression along the opening and maintenance o access ways was
observed (Fig. 4a, b). This suppression leads to soil weathering and erosion, which are
the major environmental impacts generated during the mine li e (Lelles et al. 2005;
Tobias et al. 2010; Silva et al. 2012) and can compromise the uture use o those areas.
The mechanized dismantle is the main extraction method used in the Santarém sand
mines (Fig. 4c). This method attens the soil and alters the relie in a signi cant way
(Fig. 4d). Constant rain all action in the Amazon combined with vegetation suppression

Fig. 3 Location map o the extraction areas, urban area o Santarém. A1 to A7—active exploration areas;
P1 to P3—irregular extraction areas

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 E. F. da Silva et al.

Table 1 Descriptions o the areas and methods o sand extraction in city o Santarém, Amazon region
Site Present situation o the mine Extraction method

Extraction area—A1. Active sand extraction Mechanical dismantle

PA–370 Curuá-una (Fig. 4B)
Extraction area—A2
Extraction area—A3.
Close to residences (Fig. 4E)
Extraction area—A4
Extraction area—A5
Extraction area—A6
Extraction area—A7
Possible extraction area—P1
Possible extraction area—P2
Possible extraction area—P3
Active sand extraction
Apparently abandoned extraction
Active sand extraction
Active sand extraction Mechanical dismantle (Fig. 4)
Active sand extraction Mechanical dismantle
Active sand extraction Mechanical dismantle (Fig. 3)
Possible sand extraction area Undetermined
Located rom the spatial analysis o the
high-resolution images rom Google
Earth

and soil exposure can result in erosions, which intensi es the mass ow and the hill-
sides dismantle (Mota et al. 2015).
Increased CO2 emissions into the atmosphere by industrial processes and ossil uels
burning can promote climate alternations (Xi et al. 2016). The internal combustion o
diesel-engine vehicles emits large amounts o dust particulates which can pollute the
air. This pollution can pose health risks through increasing respiratory disorders such as
asthma and irritation o lungs and bronchial passages (Ghose and Majee 2000; Saviour
2012, b). The machine tra c also causes soil compaction and decreases water in ltra-
tion (Santos et al. 2002; Silva et al. 2012). Furthermore, noises rom machines have
been observed in the extraction areas.
From the three cited exploitation phases, extraction and transport generate the most
adverse set o impacts, o medium magnitude and long-lasting duration (Table 2). Each
o these impacts demands measures which should be implemented to avoid, minimize
or remedy the consequences (Faleiro and Lopes 2010). For example, the adequate
dimensioning o the equipment in the extraction blueprint can increase productivity and
decrease costs, wastes and other undesirable impacts (Barros 2002).
There are many areas where the extraction is interrupted. This disruption occurs
mainly when: (1) the advanced extraction ront reaches regions close to housing areas,
thus precluding the sand extraction (Fig. 4e) and/or (2) there is raw material exhaus-
tion due to unplanned exploitation. As sand has a low aggregate value, it demands large
extracts and amounts in areas close to the nal consumer. However, i the mine is too
close to urbanized areas, there are nancial losses to a decrease in the volume extracted.
As or the exhaustion o raw materials, whenever the ronts reach clay layers, sand
extraction is no longer easible. In this case, the clay layers are represented by the ood-
plain o the Alter do Chão Formation (Fig. 4 ).
Depreciation o the soil quality occurs a ter the sky mining operations cease. There
is high potential or deterioration generated by soil compaction and removal o organic
matter in the areas where the soil is exposed. Social–environmental impacts were also
observed, and the decrease in topophilia is the most common o them (Annibelli and
Souza Filho 2007).

13
 Table 2 List o the environmental impacts generated in the sand mining areas
Mining activity Environmental impacts generated Level o impact

Opening and maintenance o the access ways Geothermal alteration o the land −S1
Geomorphological alteration −S2
Noise, gas and dust −S1
Business expansion—assets and services +S3
Tax revenue +S3
Vegetal suppression −M2
Favoring o the erosion −S1
Exposition o the aqui er recharging areas −S1
In ltration o oil derivate into the soil −M2
Soil compaction −S3
Site preparation and clearing o the extraction area Noise, gas, and dust −S1
Fauna disturbance and escape −S1
Geomorphological alteration −S2
Slope instability −S1
Favoring o the erosion and in ltration −M2
Environmental impacts of sand mining in the city of Santarém,…

Employment and revenue +S3

Business expansion—assets and services +S3
Excavation, extraction and transportation o the mineral asset Relie alteration −M2
Acceleration o the erosive process −M3
Air pollution and noise −M3
Soil compaction −S3
Fauna disturbance and escape −S2
Employment and revenue +M3
Business expansio n—assets and services +M3
Visual alteration o the extraction area −S3
Tax revenue +S3
Growth o the mineral economy +M3

13
Character: + positive, − negative, Magnitude: S small; M medium; Duration: 1 = short, 2 = medium, 3 = long
 E. F. da Silva et al.

Fig. 4 a Overview o the disorderly opening o roads (area A3); b removal o the vegetation, exposing the
soil to weathering and erosive processes; c sand extraction by mechanical dismantle method (area A7) and
suppression o the vegetation; d impacts over the relie caused by material withdraw and soil leveling (area
A5); e Tra c o heavy vehicles, which compacts the soil and result in decreased in ltration (continuous
arrow—area A3); f Floodplain with clayey material (arrows) reached by the extraction, resulted in abandon-
ment (area A3)

Abandoned extraction areas do not have an adequate destination in the Amazon. When
the sand mine is no longer explored, deep depressions are lled with domestic and con-
struction waste. These depressions become dumpsites, leading to signi cant changes in
topography, landscape stability, and air and groundwater quality. An instance o water con-
tamination occurred in the Alter do Chão aqui er by the old Santo André dumpsite. Lea-
chates reached the aqui er and compromised the quality o the water which used to be the
community’s source o drinking water (Mendes et al. 2017).
Despite the environmental and social impacts, there are also bene cial outcomes rom
the sand mining in Santarém, or example, increased tax revenue, generation o employ-
ment and income, and business growth, which generates goods and services. These posi-
tive impacts reduce poverty and contribute to the local economic growth (Table 2). They
are also observed in sand-mining areas o other developing countries (Pegg 2006; Balanay
et al. 2014, Mobtaker and Osanloo 2014).

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Environmental impacts of sand mining in the city of Santarém,…

Fig. 5 a General aspect o Serra do Índio a ter vegetal cover withdraw, exposing its rocks to weathering;
b clay layer delimitation interpreted as a oodplain (black dotted lines). At the top, the immature lateritic
pro le (red dashed line); c Serra do Índio in 2002 and 2014 with data to calculate the volume

Table 3 Estimation o the volume extracted rom Serra do Índio, between 2002 and 2014
Ano
2002 2014
( )
3.14 × 90 ( ) V = 3.14×90 × 72 + 52 + (7 × 5)
V= × 10.52 + 82 + (10.5 × 8)
3
V = 94.2 × 109
V = 94.2 × 258.25
V = 10, 268 m3
V = 24, 327 m 3
( )
V m3 = 24, 327 − 10, 268 = Vfinal = 14, 059 m3

4.2 Quantifying the material exploitation at Serra do Índio

Serra do Índio is ormed by medium-to-coarse strati ed sandstones and variegated

massive mudstones (Fig. 5a) limited, at the top, by a Paleogene immature laterite layer
(Fig. 5b) (Boulangé and Carvalho 1997). The sand rom the mountains was used or
several years as a primary source or civil construction in Santarém due to its riable
nature. There are still studies being per ormed to investigate possible applicability,
including utilization o rein orced concrete (Quemel 2015).
In Santarém, the demographic expansion associated with the increasing demand o
construction material led the sand exploitation to be developed with no technical criteria
such as geotechnical surveys. The volume o sand exploited in Serra do Índio between
2002 and 2014 was estimated in 14,059 m 3 (Fig. 5c, Table 3). This exploitation exposed
the soil and intensi ed the laminar erosion process (Mota et al. 2015).

13
 E. F. da Silva et al.

Landslides, mass ows (Fig. 6a), gravitational movements (Fig. 6b), laminar erosion,
gullies, and ravines on the hillsides o Serra do Índio (Fig. 6d) are consequences o the
Amazonian rain all oods (Mota et al. 2015; Silva et al. 2015). The laminar erosion ea-
tures are characterized by the transportation o high amounts o sediments in a uni orm
way. That leaves evidences on the ground such as grooves, ravines and gullies (Salomão
1994). On the hillsides o Serra do Índio, such characteristics were observed. The erosion
was acilitated by the occurrence o riable sandstones rom the Alter do Chão Formation.
In Serra do Índio, eroded sediments are transported by the rains under the laminar ow
rom into the Irurá igarapé. This causes a signi cant water pollution due to changes in
water quality. The increased amount o suspended and dissolved materials increases the
water turbidity (Fig. 6c, e). The laminar ow is responsible or the river siltation, since it
determines the amount o sediments and their transportation into the river (PROIN/CAPES
and UNESP/IGCE 1999; Abdon 2004). The constant rain all regime in the Amazon

Fig. 6 Erosive processes identi ed at Serra do Índio. a Landslide and mass ows. The arrow indicates the
direction o the movement; b landslide o the clay block probably originated by the oodplain; c laminar-
type erosion. The arrow indicates the path o the sediments; d gullies and ravines on the hillsides o Serra
do Índio; e suspended sediments transported in the laminar ows (arrows) up to the riverbeds; f sediment
deposition into the Irurá Igarapé causing the partial siltation o the Igarapé

13
Environmental impacts of sand mining in the city of Santarém,…

Fig. 7 a, b Illustration o the suggested protection measures, including grass and a gabion ence

aggravated the Irurá igarapé case. It contributes to the resuspension o sediments into the
water, causing its reddish color and making that water improper or consumption (Fig. 6 ).
The river siltation results rom a high input o sediments greater than the transporta-
tion and dispersion capacity o the watercourse (Brito and Sant’anna 2007). Despite being
a natural process, the siltation is intensi ed by anthropic actions (Marcondes 2011). In
the Irurá Igarapé case, the aggravated siltation was a consequence o the vegetal cover
removal, which le t the soil rom Serra do Índio unprotected.

4.3 Measures proposed to restraint hillsides

The public government o Santarém no longer allows sand exploitation in Serra do Índio.
However, they have no plain o action rom the city government to recover or use the area.
As the laminar ow with sediments reaches the whole area o the district around the moun-
tains, the locals build contention walls trying to mitigate the efects o the oods. How-
ever, even this is an inadequate solution. Protective measures are required to decrease this
unwanted transport o materials rom Serra do Índio. To stabilize the area and constrain the
hillsides, the grade o slopes should be reduced through constructions, ground vegetation
should be planted as a way to intervene in the shallow erosions, and soil nailing should
be implemented to rein orce and stabilize the ground (Guidicini and Nieble 1984; Dutra
2013).
In addition to that, another efective and low-cost solution is to construct ences and
gabion walls in both ends and ll them with rocks o several grain sizes (Fig. 7). Combined
with revegetation, this would acilitate the water drainage, which inhibits the transport o
sediments (Onodera 2005).

5 Final considerations

Sand exploitation is essential to civil construction. However, a high degree o environmen-

tal degradation can be involved in this activity. To prevent and mitigate the environmental
impacts, there are measures must be adopted throughout the li e cycle o the mine. Both
in undeveloped and developing countries demand special attention, as illegal mining and
lack o regulation afect the environment. Accountability or the impacts a ter the mine
is closed is particularly important, but commonly neglected. In Santarém, this creates a

13
 E. F. da Silva et al.

reality where it is impossible to ul ll the sand-mining potential, even though the activity is
undamental to the local growth.
The lack o planning or the good usage o those assets and the presence o avoidable
environmental impacts are issues ound in the mining activity in Santarém. There is great
environment degradation, aggravated by the di culty to monitor and control those areas.
The implementation o mitigating measures by the companies o this sector, along with
awareness and control measures rom the agencies in charge o inspection can reduce the
impacts rom the mining activity.
Illegal mining is another complicating actor to the environment. Though signi cantly
small on its own, the synergetic efect generated by many illicit miners causes major envi-
ronmental and social problems to the city. The use o satellite images by the municipal
environmental monitoring agency could help to detect those areas with illicit sand extrac-
tion activity, thus acilitating the inspection process.
A sand-mining database o Santarém was created to provide assistance and improve the
environmental control. The construction o the database considered the need to conciliate
the use o mineral assets with the environmental preservation or the uture generations.
The social–economic development o the city depends on the ability o the public and
private stakeholders to provide inputs and partnerships to monitor and control the min-
ing activity rom its rst steps, or example, through the implementation o an adequate
extraction plan which addresses the recovery o the extraction area a ter withdrawing the
resource.
Planned measures must consider the whole li e cycle o the mine, rom prospect and
exploration to closure and reclamation. This can improve the extraction per ormance and
the consequent social impacts. The Serra do Índio case has shown that the impacts go rom
small erosions up to rivers and igarapés siltation. Negative environmental impacts gener-
ated by the mineral exploitation are re ected in the whole community. Thus, measures to
minimize these impacts are required through the implementation o adequate extraction
techniques. To contain and rehabilitate degraded areas, public policies are required to make
the sand exploitation more sustainable and less harm ul to the Amazon environment.

Acknowledgements The authors want to thank the Federal University o West Pará—UFOPA or the
nancial and logistic support, the geologist Raphael Neto Araújo rom the Brazilian Geological Service
(CPRM) and the anonymous reviewers or their comments and suggestions that improved the nal text and
Antônio Emídio Santos Jr. or his contributions and review o the manuscript.

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