Cracking...
Defect or Normal?
Part 1: When is concrete cracking a construction defect?
by Jeffrey W. Coleman
P
articipants in the design and construction process,
particularly contractors, are frequently faced with the
question of whether cracking of concrete is considered
a defect or whether it falls within the realm of normal
behavior of concrete. This is a difficult question to answer.
First, there are many different concrete applications that are
subject to cracking. Second, the end use will determine
whether the severity of cracking is significant. Third, the
terms of the contract and any warranties or guaranties,
whether expressed or implied, may affect how cracking of
concrete is ultimately resolved. Finally, the expectations of
the Owner or User (whether fair or unfair, realistic or
unrealistic) will determine if a dispute arises. In those
instances, documentation, in the form of contract disclaimers,
will help to avoid disputes between parties.
It’s important to note that there is no magic answer to
this question—no “silver bullet” to conclude the issue once
and for all. If there were, then authorities would have
published it long ago. What follows is a discussion of the
parameters that define the issue and some suggestions to
avoid disputes arising out of cracking of concrete.
Why Concrete Cracks
Concrete cracks can occur because of shrinkage, external
effects, or internal expansion. Shrinkage cracking can be
either a result of plastic or drying shrinkage. External effects
can be in the form of thermal stresses, differential settlement,
differential movement, or freezing and thawing. Internal
expansion can result from corrosion of reinforcement or
chemical reactions between the components of the concrete,
such as alkali-silica reaction (ASR) or delayed ettringite
formation (DEF). On top of all these factors, errors in
design and detailing, poor construction practices (including
construction overloads, excessive water additions during
mixing or finishing, and inadequate curing), or overloading
during use also cause cracks in concrete. Thus, the first
challenge to anyone trying to sort out the cause(s) of concrete
cracking is to attempt to determine the source of the cracks.
The end use of the concrete application will determine
the extent to which cracking is acceptable or unacceptable.
For instance, cracking in a concrete aquarium wall is
generally unacceptable if it causes leaks; however, cracks in
a concrete beam, elevated slab, or slab-on-ground are to be
expected and should be acceptable if they don’t interfere
with the application (if they don’t result in a loss of capacity
or durability). Similar tests may be applied to walls, columns,
footings, mass foundations, bridge superstructures and
decks, dams, and other retention facilities.
The terms of the contract between the parties could also
define the level of cracking that will be acceptable. This will
be more typical in architectural concrete; however, general
terms regarding warranties and guaranties against defective
work may also be used to argue that the level of cracking
experienced is a breach of contract. In many cases, state law
will require compliance with building codes. A supplier of
concrete may also find him- or herself subject to the
Uniform Commercial Code (UCC) Warranties of Fitness
for the Particular Purpose and Merchantability. These UCC
warranties may also be used to argue that cracking in the
applicable concrete placement is unacceptable.
Complicating the matter further, architects, engineers,
owners, contractors, subcontractors, material suppliers, and
homeowners will all have different expectations and
different understandings of what level of cracking in
concrete will constitute a “defect.”
Concrete Cracks Occur…“Period”
ACI Past President and long-time concrete industry
leader Bryant Mather often stated that “Concrete is simply
synthetic sedimentary rock.” Just as rocks crack in nature,
concrete (synthetic rock) will crack as well.
In the introduction of his 1983 Concrete International
article,1 Ed Abdun-Nur stated: “What concrete 10 or more
years old is free of cracks or micro-cracks? I have not seen
any in 65 years of concrete work in all kinds of structures.
Cracking seems to be a universal characteristic of concrete.
Concrete international september 2013 35
Books and hundreds of papers have been written on the
subject of cracking of concrete.
“Large sums of money have been expended in an effort
to find a cure, but concrete seems to go on its own way and
crack anyway. I am sure that researchers will not stop
looking for a cure, and I wish them all the luck—they need
it and the concrete industry needs it also.”
Industry Guidance
Great effort has been undertaken within the industry to
understand and limit the amount of cracking in concrete.
A simple literature search for the word “cracking” in current
ACI documents lists 135 documents with applicable
references to that word. Some guidance can be found
among those documents. ACI 224.1R-072 states in its preface:
“Cracks in concrete have many causes. They may affect
appearance only, or they may indicate significant structural
distress or lack of durability. Cracks may represent the total
extent of the damage, or they may point to problems of
greater magnitude. Their significance depends on the type
of structure, as well as the nature of the cracking. For
example, cracks that are acceptable for buildings may not
be acceptable in water-retaining structures.”
Under Chapter 2—Evaluation of Cracking, the committee
goes on to report:
“Cracks need to be repaired if they reduce the strength,
stiffness, or durability of the structure to an unacceptable
level, or if the function of the structure is seriously impaired.”
ACI 302.1R-043 states under Chapter 11—Causes of
Floor and Slab Surface Imperfections:
“Some curling and cracking can be expected on every
project.”
And further in Section 11.2:
“Contractors are not necessarily responsible for all
cracks. Many floor or slab design features and concrete
mixture proportions are responsible for, or contribute to,
cracking of concrete construction.”
Errata for ACI Publications
Available Online
Under the pull-down menu for “Bookstore &
Publications” at www.concrete.org, errata can be
searched by document number or keywords.
Call ACI Member Services at (248) 848-3700 for
more information.
36 september 2013 Concrete international
Special considerations need to be taken with respect to
mass concrete. Mass concrete is defined by ACI 116R4 as
“any volume of concrete with dimensions large enough to
require that measures be taken to cope with generation of
heat from hydration of the cement and attendant volume
change, to minimize cracking.” Mass concrete thus requires
special precautions because of the large thermal buildup
due to heat of hydration and attendant volume changes.
ACI 207.2R-075 states in Section 1.3:
“The measures used to control cracking depend, to a large
extent, on the economics of the situation and the seriousness
of cracking if not controlled. Cracks are objectionable where
their size and spacing compromise the strength, stability,
serviceability, function, or appearance of the structure.
“While cracks should be controlled to the minimum
practicable width in all structures, the economics of
achieving this goal should be considered.”
ACI 360R-106 also discusses cracking and crack mitigation
in the abstract:
“Advantages and disadvantages of these slab design
methods are provided, including the ability of some slab
designs to minimize cracking and curling more than others.
Even with the best slab designs and proper construction, it
is unrealistic to expect crack-free and curl-free floors. Every
owner should be advised by the designer and contractor
that it is normal to expect some cracking and curling on
every project. This does not necessarily reflect adversely on
the adequacy of the floor’s design or quality of construction.
Design examples are given.”
When is Cracking Expected?
To understand when concrete cracking is expected, one
must understand the basics of structural concrete design.
In general terms, concrete is about 10 times stronger in
compression than it is in tension. In a simple span beam
subjected to a gravity load, the top and bottom surfaces
will be in compression and tension, respectively. Because
the bottom surface would crack under a fraction of the
compression required to crush the top surface, design
engineers place reinforcing steel in the concrete to carry
the tensile load. Before the reinforcing steel becomes
effective (that is, carries the load), the concrete must crack.
Thus, cracking in concrete beams, columns, or walls that
are subject to bending forces is to be expected and is
quite normal.
While cracking is normal, it’s difficult to precisely
define acceptable crack widths. The title to Table 4.1 in
ACI 224R-01,7 for example, indicates that the table provides
“reasonable” crack widths in reinforced concrete under
service loads. But a footnote to the table states:
“It should be expected that a portion of the cracks in the
structure will exceed these values. With time, a significant
portion can exceed these values. These are general guide-
lines for design to be used in conjunction with sound
engineering judgment.”
ASCC Position Statements
The American Society of Concrete Contractors (ASCC)
has published position statements on the subject of
cracking. Position Statement No. 29, “Cracks in Slabs
on Ground,” quotes part of the forward of ACI 302.1R,3
text that is quite similar to that previously quoted from
ACI 360R-10.6
“Even with the best floor designs and proper construction,
it is unrealistic to expect crack-free and curl-free floors.
Consequently, every owner should be advised by both the
designer and contractor that it is normal to expect some
amount of cracking and curling on every project, and that
such occurrence does not necessarily reflect adversely on
either the adequacy of the floor’s design or the quality of
its construction.”
ASCC Position Statement No. 29 goes on to recommend
a crack repair allowance and also makes the point that
repairing cracks may not hide them, but may in fact
accentuate them and that removing and replacing cracked
floor panels often constitutes economic waste and is
counter to sustainability ideals.
ASCC Position Statement No. 5, “Specifications for
Crack Repair,” also gives guidance regarding crack repairs
and highlights the practical difficulty contractors face in
attempting to estimate crack repair costs. An allowance for
unit prices for crack repair is a more equitable solution.
This of course is based on an assumption that the cracks are
within the “normal and expected” range based upon the
given design, concrete mixture, and restraints (if any) on
placement, finishing, and curing.
ASCC Position Statement No. 33, “Cracks in Structural
Concrete,” provides guidance for ensuring awareness of
the potential for cracking:
“ASCC concrete contractors will make themselves
available to meet with the design team, construction manager,
and general contractor to discuss crack expectations for the
project. Concrete contractors want to ensure awareness by
all parties that cracking will occur when the structure is
built in accordance with the Contract Documents.”
Managing Owner Expectations
Because concrete is known to crack and, in fact, certain
cracking is not only expected but also required, cracking of
concrete is a good example of an area where educating
the ultimate Owner and User through the design and
construction process is important. One way to accomplish
this would be to provide a disclaimer in the contracts used
for concrete construction, such as:
“Some amount of minor cracking is to be expected in
any concrete work. In fact, structural concrete is required to
crack in order for the reinforcing steel to become effectively
engaged. The (contractor/supplier/designer/subcontractor)
is not responsible for minor cracking in the concrete work
that does not affect the strength or serviceability of the
structure of which the concrete is a part.”
With respect to slabs-on-ground, a disclosure might state:
“Minor cracking is expected on any concrete slab-on-
ground. The (contractor/supplier/designer/subcontractor)
is not responsible for minor cracking that occurs in
concrete slabs or that are due to subgrade preparation
and/or settlement.”
In the event that the contractor was responsible for
subgrade preparation, a disclaimer might state:
“Minor concrete cracking will occur in any slab-on-
ground. The (contractor/subcontractor) is not responsible
for minor concrete cracking. In the event of crack widths in
excess of ___inches or crack faulting in excess of ___inches,
the contractor may elect to repair or replace the concrete
work or a section thereof.”
In any event, the contractor should always exclude the
UCC warranties of fitness for the particular purpose and
merchantability. The contractor should also consult with
legal counsel to determine the proper language required to
disclaim these warranties in the state in which the project is
located, as state laws may differ.
The following is an example of a disclaimer in a concrete
supplier’s warranty:
“limitations. THE WARRANTY STATED ABOVE
IS THE SOLE AND EXCLUSIVE WARRANTY APPLICABLE
TO THIS PURCHASE. ALL OTHER WARRANTIES,
EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED
TO, THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY
AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, ARE
EXPRESSLY DISCLAIMED. THE PURCHASER MAY
NOT TRANSFER OR ASSIGN THIS WARRANTY.
“This warranty does not cover:
•• Cracking of any kind caused by, but not limited to,
improper joint installation, improper placement,
improper finishing, improper curing, structural over-
loading, and improper subgrade and/or base preparation;
•• Surface or other distress caused by improper placement,
finishing and/or curing;
•• Any defects caused by the addition of water exceeding
the water-cement ratio specified above and/or water
added to the surface of the concrete during placing and/
or finishing;
•• Concrete placed between October 1 and May 1;
•• Any concrete specified by others that does not meet the
mixture proportions listed above;
•• Damage caused by others including, but not limited to,
damage resulting from the use of snow plows or other
equipment.”
Principles and Precedents
In Part 2 of this article, I’ll present relevant legal principles
and case law regarding concrete cracking. Principles of
particular interest to concrete contractors will be
discussed, including:
•• Substantial performance;
•• Measure of damages;
Concrete international september 2013 37
•• Impossibility of performance; and Note: Additional information on the ASCC position statements
•• Assignment of responsibility. discussed in this article can be found at www.ascconline.org.

References Selected for reader interest by the editors.

1. Abdun-Nur, E.A., “Cracking of Concrete—Who Cares?”
Concrete International, V. 5, No. 7, July 1983, pp. 27-30.
2. ACI Committee 224, “Causes, Evaluation, and Repair of
Jeffrey W. Coleman, FACI, is an
Cracks in Concrete Structures (ACI 224.1R-07),” American
Attorney at Law and Principal of the
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2007, 22 pp.
Coleman Law Firm, LLC, Minneapolis,
3. ACI Committee 302, “Guide for Concrete Floor and Slab
MN. An ACI member for more than
Construction (ACI 302.1R-04),” American Concrete Institute,
30 years, he currently serves on the
Farmington Hills, MI, 2004, 76 pp.
ACI Board of Direction and chairs
4. ACI Committee 116 (discharged), “Cement and Concrete Ter-
ACI Committee 132, Responsibility
minology (ACI 116R-00) (Reapproved 2005),” American Concrete
in Concrete Construction. He is a
Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2000, 73 pp. member of the Construction Award
5. ACI Committee 207, “Report on Thermal and Volume Committee, Construction Liaison Committee, Convention
Change Effects on Cracking of Mass Concrete (ACI 207.2R-07),” Committee, Financial Advisory Committee, TAC Construction
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2007, 28 pp. Standards Committee, and ACI Committee 563, Specifi-
6. ACI Committee 360, “Guide to Design of Slabs-on-Ground cations for Repair of Structural Concrete in Buildings.
(ACI 360R-10),” American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Coleman is the author of Legal Issues in Concrete
MI, 2010, 72 pp. Construction, which was published by ACI in 2004. A
7. ACI Committee 224, “Control of Cracking of Concrete licensed professional engineer, he received his BS in civil
Structures (ACI 224R-01) (Reapproved 2008),” American Concrete engineering and MS in structural engineering.
Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2001, 46 pp.

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38 september 2013 Concrete international