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LG 3 Visual Displays Enviornments
LG 3 Visual Displays Enviornments
CIBSE
The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers
Delta House, 222 Balham High Road, London SW12 9BS
The rights of publication or translation are reserved.
ISBN 0 900953 71 3
There has been a worrying emphasis amongst some designers and users of the previous
edition of this Lighting Guide on selecting luminaires purely on their ability to reduce
screen reflections, without paying due attention to potential problems that this may cause
to the general visual environment in the area. Because of this, greater emphasis has been
given in this new Lighting Guide to the overall visual environment. To highlight this and
the widened scope (to include all display screens) the title of the document has been
changed from 'Areas with visual display terminals' to 'The visual environment for display
screen use'.
The introduction of the Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations(1) in
January 1993 resulted in the Health and Safety Executive issuing guidance(15) to the Regu-
lations which referred to LG3 for 'specific and detailed guidance' on lighting for these
areas. The style and terminology of LG3 have been modified, therefore, to be more
consistent with the Regulations and the HSE's guidance document. This has been done to
make cross-referencing easier and should remove any existing ambiguity between LG3
and the Regulations. A section has been introduced covering the assessment of lighting in
areas where users work with display screens and information has been included on the
Regulations themselves.
The more widespread use of higher quality screens and software with white screen
backgrounds is reducing the problems encountered with screen reflections. This has been
taken into account in this new Lighting Guide by allowing designers working with
known users and screen types more freedom to tailor the lighting to the screens being
used and their locations within the working areas.
It has been found that bright skylight from windows and the effect of sunlight on blinds
are major sources of visual and screen reflection problems. For this reason guidance on
windows and daylighting has been increased from a single subsection in the old edition to
an entire chapter in this one.
Finally it was necessary to update the guidance to match the changing types of display
screen such as flat panel displays and new screen display technologies, and the changing
uses to which display screens are put, such as multimedia and 'at desk' video conferen-
cing.
Paul Ruffles
Task Group Chairman
Task Group
P Ruffles Chairman (Lighting Design and Technology)
E Glenny (Philips Lighting Ltd)
M Perry (Building Research Establishment)
Acknowledgements
Philips Lighting is thanked for providing facilities for experimental work on issues
relevant to this Lighting Guide.
Crown copyright is reproduced with the permission of the Controller of HMSO.
Cover photograph supplied by Thorn Lighting Ltd.
Note from the publisher
This publication is primarily intended to provide guidance to those responsible for the
design, installation, commissioning, operation and maintenance of building services. It is
not intended to be exhaustive or definitive and it will be necessary for users of the
guidance given to exercise their own professional judgement when deciding whether to
abide by or depart from it. For this reason also, departure from the guidance contained in
this publication should not necessarily be regarded as a departure from best practice.
Plates
Please note that the comments in the captions to the plates refer to the impression given
by the photographs — with their limited contrast range — and should not be taken as
comment or judgement on the actual scheme.
Contents
1 Introduction to using LG3 1
5 Design process 14
5.1 New installations for a known user 14
5.2 Refurbishment of existing lighting systems 14
5.3 Speculative space for an unknown user 15
5.4 Design criteria 15
5.5 Main considerations in planning 15
5.6 The influence of display screen and task type 17
6 Design options for daylighting 18
6.1 General requirements for daylighting DSE areas 19
6.2 Minimising the brightness of windows 19
6.3 Interaction between daylight and electric lighting 20
6.4 Window shading techniques 20
13 Conclusions 38
References 53
Bibliography 53
Glossary 54
Index 60
The visual environment for display screen use
The document is divided into three parts. The first gives the background
to problems of using DSE in the working environment and an assessment
of the impact of lighting on users in that environment. The second part
describes the design process and the selection of the most appropriate
lighting design solution for each type of working environment. The last
part gives detailed advice on the application of each lighting design
technique. A number of appendices contain further technical details and
background information.
For those looking at the possible need to provide new lighting in existing
areas of DSE use, a number of important principles should to be taken into
account. A thorough understanding of the use and types of DSE in the area
needs to be gained. Reference to sections 2 and 3 may assist in this
process. If no DSE assessment of the workplaces has been carried out then
a recommendation to the client to carry out such an assessment should be
made. The procedures contained in section 4 will assist this process. It
should be remembered that existing lighting in an installation that does
not conform with the technical specifications in LG3 may well provide
lighting that satisfies The Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment)
Regulations(1).
For new buildings where the use of DSE is intended there is still a need to
consider what type of DSE and users are likely to occupy the space. The
type of lighting and the quality of the lit environment provided will have
quite a bearing on the usability of the space for DSE.
For both new and refurbished lighting schemes, details of the existing or
proposed decor and the physical characteristics of the space need to be
known before an appropriate selection of design technique can be made.
Suitable forms of lighting may be indirect, direct, combined direct and
indirect or task/ambient lighting with one of the main types forming the
general background lighting. The design procedures outlined in sections
5 and 7 will assist in this process. The detailed requirements for the
provision of daylight and the screening of windows, contained in section
6, should also be consulted.
Once the most appropriate form of lighting has been chosen the detailed
application criteria for that choice need to be considered. These criteria
are contained in sections 8 to 11. Technical methods to support some of
the criteria are set out in the appendices.
The following list contains a number of key items that need to be con-
sidered in the design of any area for display screen use. However, they are
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE
not the only points which should be considered and reference to the text
will be required to obtain the most appropriate guidance for each instal-
lation.
(a) This guidance constitutes an assessment and design process.
Compliance with this Lighting Guide can only be ensured by the
application of the guidance as a whole and not just by the use of
the sections on luminaire specification.
(b) Providing a suitable visual environment is key to the efficient use
of DSE in an area, see section 3.
(c) The lighting for DSE tasks should not compromise the lighting for
other tasks performed in that space nor degrade the overall visual
environment of the space, see sections 2, 3 and 4.2.
(d) A full assessment of the risks to the users should be carried out
before expensive, and possibly unnecessary, alterations to the
existing lighting are carried out, see section 4.
{e) Reflections are always present in glass-fronted display screens. It
is the elimination of distracting reflections that is important, see
sections 4.3, 5.4 and Appendix 1.
(f) Disturbing reflections at a workstation can often be eliminated by
suitable re-orientation of the screen and/or the workstation rather
than by relighting the entire space, see sections 4.3, 5.4, 5.5 and
Appendix 1.
(g) Windows and sunlit translucent window screening are likely to
cause more problems with glare and screen reflections than
electric lighting, see sections 4.3 and 6.
(h) The room decor and colours of furniture are very important in
determining the overall appearance of the working space. Light in
a space is interreflected and coloured by the surfaces in that space,
see sections 5 and 7.7.
(0 Simple replacement of lighting equipment without the con-
sideration of the decor and workstation use and orientation rarely
leads to satisfactory interiors or compliance with LG3, see
sections 4.3, 5 and Appendix 1.
Part 1 Display screen equipment: its use and
environment
2 Display screen equipment
Until the general introduction of display screen equipment (DSE) into the
workplace, particularly the office, paper was the most commonly used
medium for recording, manipulating and transmitting information.
Whilst computer technology, and its associated DSE, have not displaced
paper tasks, they have added a new class of visual task to the working en-
vironment. Therefore it is important in the design of lighting for DSE
installations to consider both the lighting, and visual ergonomic require-
ments, of screen-based and non-screen-based visual tasks.
2.1 Ergonomic aspects Paper-based tasks have a number of typical characteristics. Paper-based
information is physically moved about the office from hand to hand, hand
to in-tray or via internal mail to in-tray. The user of the workstation pro-
cesses the paper and then passes it on again or files it. All these actions
involve the user in movement to and from the desk and in a variety of
physical activities.
As more of the tasks are transferred to purely computer-based manipu-
lation, this situation changes. Information may arrive at a user's screen by
electronic mail (e-mail), it can be manipulated on the screen, it can be re-
trieved from on-line databases or analysis performed on-screen. The result
will then be filed on the network or transmitted on by e-mail or fax. The
work carried out may be on text, line drawings or graphic images or a
combination of these, see Plate 1. During all these operations the user has
not left the desk, nor ceased using the display screen equipment.
As paper-based visual tasks are well established, many of the criteria for
designing lighting schemes for the paper-based office are well understood.
Lighting design techniques have been developed to ensure that, with care,
most of the difficulties of illuminating paper tasks can be avoided.
The most commonly used display screens are self-luminous and do not
rely on reflected light to make their contents visible. The use of a glass
screen in front of the screen phosphors places a partially reflective filter
between the user and the visual task. Input to DSE tasks is predominantly
by keyboard and mouse, operations which are often non-visual and
separate from the screen which the user is viewing.
2.2 Technical a s p e c t s Before addressing the lighting requirements for a DSE installation it is
important to ensure, as far as is practicable, that the appropriate standard
of DSE is being used. No amount of enhancing the electric lighting and
daylighting will improve an intrinsically poor screen image, which may
occur if low quality DSE, which does not conform to the relevant stand-
ards, is used.
Some elements of the DSE workstation are non-visual, e.g. the mouse and
keyboard. The ease, or difficulty, of use of these elements directly affects
the operation of the workstation. Paper holders can be used to position the
paper in a similar plane to that of the screen, thus helping to avoid
frequent changes of focusing range or direction of gaze. Although not
directly under the control of the lighting designer or architect, it is impor-
tant to ensure, as far as possible, that the ergonomics of the DSE work-
station are suitable for the task to be carried out. This will contribute to
minimising any visual and lighting problems. It will also help to ensure
that no other ergonomic problems arise, for example problems related to
incorrect posture. See Appendix 5 for a discussion of available screen
technologies and related equipment.
Poor image quality can also lead to postural problems, e.g. stiff necks and
hands, as the user tries to adjust position to avoid glare or reflected
images. The direct cost of medical treatment of injuries caused by poor
posture, for example carpel tunnel syndrome, may be substantial There
are additional hidden costs associated with loss of productivity caused by
the injury to the user.
Figure 3.1 Controlling luminance and illuminance in areas with display screen equipment
3.1 Luminance The human visual system is able to see over a very wide range of lumi-
adaptation nances: from brightly lit sunny scenes to moonlight. The eye is not able
however, to cope with this range all at once. Car headlights by day look
dim but can dazzle a dark-adapted driver at night. Similarly, coming into
a dark room from a sunlit garden can make objects in the room difficult
to see for a while. Looking out from a DSE area onto large areas of sunlit
white cloud can be uncomfortable and viewing information on a rela-
tively dark screen can be difficult, see Plates 4 and 5. This aspect of lumi-
nance adaptation is also likely to contribute to the sensation of discomfort
glare, see section 3.2.
The ability to see detail on a screen relies on the contrast of the informa-
tion being displayed with its background. The ability to perceive this
difference is in part controlled by the level of adaptation of the eye If it
has been looking at very bright areas of the room then the screen image
and background will both appear dark and it will be difficult to resolve
detail Similarly in very dark surroundings the eye adapts to the lower
light levels present and the image and background on the screen will both
appear to be bright and again difficult to discern. The ideal luminance of
areas surrounding DSE is close to that of the screen display itself. This
allows the user to look away from the screen and then back again without
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE
The eye can have particular problems when glancing between two areas
that have significantly different luminances. This can happen, for exam-
ple, when a user is copying a source document at one luminance onto a
self-luminous DSE screen at a significantly different luminance. This
contributes to eye strain or visual fatigue in the user. Therefore, it is
necessary to ensure that luminances in the visual field near to the screen
do not, in general, exceed the screen luminance by more than a ratio of 10
to l.
3.2 Disability glare and As noted in the previous section, the effect of a bright light to an eye
adapted to a lower luminance level is a sensation of dazzle or glare. This
discomfort glare is thought to be partially due to the brightness of the light being above
the upper limit of the adaptation range that the cells in the retina can
cope with and partially due to light scatter within the media of the eye.
This scattered light acts as a luminance veil across the task, reducing the
contrast of the task and making it more difficult to see. The reduction of
task visibility caused by light scatter has been called disability glare. This
type of glare may occur if there is an area of very high luminance close to
the line of sight, for example a high luminance window or luminaire.
3.3 Veiling reflections Veiling reflections occur when the principal visual task is overlaid with a
luminance veil; examples of veiling reflections on display screens of
and their effect on differing display polarities are shown in Plates 3(a) and 3(b). Veiling
focusing reflections on display screens are caused by both electric light and
daylight, and can cause severe reductions in task visibility to the point
where it is impossible to see the screen task. This is a particular problem
where a high luminance reflection may mask a warning indication or a
change of status of a critical value on a displayed screen.
It had also been thought that a clear image reflected in a display screen
caused undue visual fatigue to users by causing them to focus back and
forth between the distant image reflected on the screen and the infor-
mation displayed on the screen itself. However, recent research(7) has
thrown this hypothesis into doubt, although it is still likely that clear
reflected images on a screen are more distracting to the user than diffuse
images. For this reason the use of screens with some form of surface
treatment is recommended.
4.1 General lighting The Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations(8) require
employers to carry out an assessment of the risks to the health and safety
assessments of employees and others visiting the premises. In lighting terms this
generally relates to the illumination on tasks, glare from electric lighting
and windows and the lighting equipment itself.
For many tasks the required illuminance is given for the horizontal plane
where the task is carried out. The most obvious example of this is the desk
or work bench. The working plane may, however, be inclined or vertical,
e.g. a drawing board or the control panel of a printer. To perform a task
safely and adequately in these places lighting is required to fall on the
principal face of the task and this is where the resulting lighting level
should normally be measured. Recommended lighting levels for the many
tasks found in working interiors are to found in the CIBSE Code for
interior lighting(12)
Glare from lighting equipment, sky through windows, bright room sur-
faces or from reflections on equipment can all be distracting or disabling
to workers. A low level of glare, normally referred to as discomfort glare,
is a discomfort to operatives and can, by distracting an operative's atten-
tion from their task, be dangerous. A higher level of glare, normally from
excessively bright luminaires, which causes a reduction in operatives'
ability to perform their task is termed disability glare. This can lead to
higher levels of error and an increased risk of injury in the workplace.
Acceptable levels of discomfort glare for varying tasks are given in the
CIBSE Code for interior lighting(12) although the measurement or assess-
ment of glare within the workplace is difficult.
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE
4.2 The Workplace Among the provisions of The Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare)
Regulations(9) are requirements for every workplace to have 'suitable and
(Health, Safety and sufficient lighting', that it shall 'as far as is reasonably practicable be by natural
Welfare) light', and for suitable and sufficient emergency lighting to be provided 'in
Regulations any room in circumstances in which persons at work are specially exposed to
danger in the event of failure of electric lighting'.
The primary requirement for any workplace is that suitable and sufficient
lighting is provided for each task to be carried out. This means that for
each task performed in the workplace the lighting level, and for certain
tasks the colour rendering of the light, is suitable for the continuous safe
and effective performance of that task. The CIBSE Code for interior
lighting(12) gives the recommended lighting level for carrying out tasks effi-
ciently and without strain on those carrying them out. It includes guid-
ance on corrections to the recommended lighting levels where the task is
more or less visually demanding than normal, or where the criticality or
duration of the task or the age of the operatives is different from normal.
The Code(12) also defines the various aspects that establish the quality of
lighting. Glare needs to be controlled, good modelling should be provid-
ed, and the correct luminance balance between the surfaces in the work-
place and between the task and surfaces need to be provided. Minimum
colour rendering indices are also specified where colour is important for
the performance of a task, such as in some textile and graphics work.
The improvement of daylight levels can also have direct advantages for
the building owner over and above possible improvements to staff morale.
Extra daylight can supplement or replace electric lighting during part of
the day and thus lead to energy savings. However, it should be remem-
bered that the requirements of the The Display Screen Equipment Regu-
lations(1) mean that ways of controlling the brightness of windows are
needed. This will naturally reduce the level of daylight available in the
space. The CIBSE Applications Manual Window design(6) provides a great
deal of information to help the architect or designer to achieve a good bal-
ance between the conflicting requirements of windows within the space.
4.3 The Health and The Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations(1), which
came into effect in January 1993, do not include a specific regulation on
Safety (Display lighting. However, Regulations 3(1) and 3(2) refer indirectly to lighting.
Screen Equipment) Regulation 3(1) requires employers to 'ensure that any workstation put into
Regulations service on or after 1st January 1993 ... meets the requirements laid down in the
schedule to these regulations' and Regulation 3(2) requires employers to
'ensure that any workstation first put into service on or before 31st December
1992 ... meets the requirements laid down in the schedule to these regulations ...
not later than 31st December 1996.'
The schedule to which the Regulations refer sets out the minimum
requirements for workstations and states, in section 1, that 'an employer
shall ensure that a workstation meets the requirements laid down in this schedule
to the extent that:
(a) those requirements relate to a component which is present in the
workstation concerned,
(b) those requirements have effect with a view to securing the health, safety
and welfare of persons at work, and
(c) the inherent characteristics of a given task make compliance with those
requirements appropriate as respects the workstation concerned.'
Equipment 2(b) Display screen: 'The screen shall be free of reflected glare and
reflections liable to cause discomfort to the operator or user.'
Note here that there will always be reflections from a glass fronted screen,
unless working in a black room with black clothing. The requirement is
to avoid those reflections which cause actual discomfort to the user.
Environment 3(b) Lighting: 'Any room lighting or task lighting provided shall
ensure satisfactory lighting conditions and an appropriate contrast between the
screen and the background environment, taking into account the type of work and
the vision requirements of the operator or user.'
The requirements look very firmly at the user's whole visual environ-
ment, including the lighting conditions of the space and, specifically, the
background or view beyond the screen.
Section 3(b) continues: 'Possible disturbing glare and reflections on the screen
or other equipment shall be prevented by coordinating the workplace and
workstation layout with the positioning and technical characteristics of the
artificial light source.'
This requirement points out that reflections on the screen can be pro-
duced or prevented by space planning, screen orientation, furniture layout
etc., as well as by lighting.
translucid walls, and brightly coloured fixtures or walls cause no direct glare and
no distracting reflections on the screen. Windows shall be fitted with a suitable
system of adjustable covering to attenuate the daylight that falls on the
workstation.'
It can be seen that The Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment)
Regulations(1) impose requirements on the employer beyond those of The
Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations(9). In areas of DSE use
the lighting system, workstation and equipment used need to be con-
sidered together in order to ensure that no disturbing reflections appear
on the screen and that the visual environment provides the appropriate
contrast between the screen and its background. It is not sufficient to
consider the lighting in isolation. Indeed, the Regulations only consider
lighting in relation to workstation equipment.
4.4 The link between There is no specific requirement to comply with LG3 contained in the
Regulations. The link is provided by the Health and Safety Executive's
LG3 and The Health Display screen equipment work — Guidance on Regulations (1993)(15). The
and Safety (Display guidance to the schedule of minimum requirements, paragraph 24, refer-
Screen Equipment) ring to lighting, states that 'Specific and detailed guidance is given in the
Regulations CIBSE Lighting Guide 3 Lighting for visual display terminals'.
This means that LG3 provides guidance to designers and users but does
not provide a 'deemed to satisfy' route to compliance with the Regulations.
Indeed the introduction to the HSE document states that 'The guidance
covers these regulations only but employers should ensure that they also comply
with the general duties placed on them by other health and safety legislation,
particularly their general obligation under the Health and Safety at Work etc.
Act 1974 and associated legislation'. A full and detailed assessment of the
installed workstations will be needed whatever lighting is used in the
space.
4.5 Assessment of the The following guidance has been written to aid the assessment of the
lighting in an existing DSE installation. References are given to other
visual environment sections of LG3. Some of the items refer to non-lighting issues that may
of display screen affect the posture or position of the user, leading to problems with seeing
areas the screen adequately. As installations vary, the assessor may need to
prepare an assessment procedure tailored to each installation. A summary
checklist is provided in Appendix 4.
10
LIGHTING ASSESSMENT FOR THE HEALTH AND SAFETY REGULATIONS
4.5.1 Existing lighting Assess the lighting installation as a whole for the level of discomfort glare
present. If levels exceed those set out in the CIBSE Code for interior light-
ing(12) then corrective action will be needed.
For each individual workstation check the lighting level against the
recommended level. The contribution of daylight should normally be
excluded from these measurements. If the level does not meet the
recommended level then action should be taken to increase the lighting
available to that workstation. This may be by provision of local supple-
mentary lighting; the removal or repositioning of partitions or furniture
that may be obstructing the light; cleaning or redecoration of walls or
ceilings; cleaning of the luminaires; replacement of old lamps or an
upgrade of the lighting system as a whole.
Check the view for each user for sources of high luminance or distracting
features in the scene visible around the display screen. The workstation
itself should also be checked for unusual levels of brightness or shadow-
ing. Correcting any imbalances may require alterations to the furnishings
or changes to the decor or lighting system.
Check each screen for reflected images of luminaires and bright surfaces.
Where present, they should be assessed in terms of whether they are likely
to distract the user. Users should be asked whether they find them
troublesome. Changes to the position on the work surface, orientation or
tilt of the screen are likely to resolve most reflection problems. Reorien-
tation or repositioning of the workstation itself may be necessary in some
cases.
4.5.2 Existing windows Check workstations positioned with unscreened windows behind or in
front of the user to see if the windows cause distracting reflections on the
screen or are a source of distraction or glare to the user (see Plates 4 and
5). If they are, then check the response of the user when the windows are
temporarily screened or obscured. It should be remembered that the
height and position of the sun and the relative cloud cover vary through-
out the year. Existing window screening material should be suitably
opaque to avoid sunlight on the material turning it into a bright source of
glare. See section 6.4 for information on various window screening tech-
niques.
4.5.3 Screen position and Check each screen is located at a suitable height and orientation for easy
viewing distance viewing from the user's normal viewing position. Whilst this position is
usually obvious for a seated user, some screens are used from a standing
position, e.g. in some hotel receptions, library counters or industrial loca-
tions. The location and height of the seat also affects the viewing angles
and comfort of the user. Although the workstation, and particularly the
screen, should be positioned to provide the best ergonomic position for
the user in terms of body posture and comfort, the screen to eye relation-
ship is crucial in minimising screen reflection problems, see Appendix 1.
11
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE
All DSE users are entitled to an eyesight test to establish if they need
corrective glasses or to change their existing glasses prescription. This is
because the viewing distance to a screen is normally greater than that used
for viewing paper-based tasks and existing reading glasses may not be
suitable. If the user has not had an eyesight test then one should be
recommended.
4.5.4 Display screen image Examine the quality of the image on the display screen. The image should
be clear and stable. Whilst technical standards are available for display
screen quality(2) it is possible to check some of the desirable charac-
teristics of a display image by a close examination of the working unit.
Checking whether it is easy to distinguish between X and K, O and Q, T
and Y, S and 5,1 and L, U and V, I and 1, O and 0 (zero), with the screen
displaying the character fonts normally used by the user, will help.
The other aspect of the display to consider is stability. The frequency with
which the screen phosphors are refreshed (refresh rate) should be as high
as possible with a non-interlaced display to minimise flicker. If an opera-
ting DSE is showing flicker, jitter or drift, the possibility of an instability
in the power supply or in the associated circuitry should be considered. If
the image is stable but is too small, blurred, or in any other way unsatis-
factory, it should be checked against the manufacturer's specification.
4.5.5 DSE luminance Check that the luminance and/or contrast of each display is adjustable
adjustment and that the user has been instructed in the use of the controls. The
extent of adjustment should be sufficient to provide a wide range of com-
fortable display contrasts. Contrast can be produced by either dark char-
acters on a light background or light characters on a dark background.
The former has the advantage that the light background diminishes the
prominence of any high luminance reflections but the disadvantage of
making any instability in the display more noticeable. Thus a display
consisting of dark characters on a light background has to be associated
with a high refresh rate to be satisfactory. A display of light characters on
a dark background makes any display instability less noticeable but
intensifies the effect of high luminance reflections.
4.5.6 Display screen Where display units can be tilted and rotated, ensure that the users are
movement fully aware of the scope of these movements and that the screens are
suitably adjusted. These adjustments provide flexibility in working
posture and aid the avoidance of high luminance reflections. The screen
centre should typically be 15-20° below a horizontal line from the eye
with the screen face normal to the direction of sight, see Appendix 1.
4.5.7 Special DSE Large high resolution displays are particularly difficult to position on
some desks. This can lead to poor ergonomic positioning or locations that
are not suitable from a lighting point of view. Check that suitably large
and/or adapted desks have been provided for unusually large screens.
Where screens are mounted in furniture the ability of the user to move the
screen to remove reflection is reduced or removed. Ensure that lighting is
suitable around these locations. Where screens are mounted near to
horizontal ensure that overhead lighting does not cause reflections on the
screen, see Plate 7.
4.5.8 Bright sources For isolated problems with screen reflections or glare in an office, check
whether the affected users have tried reorienting their screens or work-
stations to avoid the reflections or glare sources. If they are being affected
by particular unshaded windows or bright luminaires then it may be
possible to shield or eliminate these bright sources. As a last resort it may
be worth experimenting with new screens or add-on filters before con-
sidering general relighting. Such filters should be used with care as whilst
they may reduce reflection problems they may degrade image quality,
reduce acceptable viewing angles or introduce fringing at the corners of
the screen.
12
LIGHTING ASSESSMENT FOR THE HEALTH AND SAFETY REGULATIONS
4.5.9 DSE hoods and barriers Hoods or flaps are sometimes attached to display screens. These can help
to avoid reflections but can also restrict the directions from which the
screen can be seen, which may affect working posture. Check to see if
alternative means of screening bright sources are possible.
4.5.10 Document holders Check to see that, where users have requested them, workstations are
equipped with document holders on which working documents can be
mounted. Not all users like using these, but they can, in most cases, ease
problems associated with frequent referral between screen and document.
Ideally document holders should be positioned such that the documents
are mounted near to the plane of the screen and at the same distance from
the eyes.
4.5.11 Separate keyboards Ensure that keyboards are separable from the display units and that the
keys are matt finished and easily cleaned. Separating the keyboard from
the display allows greater flexibility in working posture. Keys with a matt
finish reduce specular reflections and ensuring that they are easily
cleaned allows the greasy specular film that builds up on keys to be
removed. Symbols on the keys should be large and clear to aid legibility.
Old keyboards with worn or polished keys may need replacing.
4.5.12 Surrounding areas Check that the keyboard surround and the surround to the display are of a
light colour in a matt finish. Black surrounds should not be used as they
increase the contrast with light screens and cause problems with the
adaptation range that needs to be covered. A matt finish avoids high
luminance reflections near to the screen or keys.
4.5.13 Luminance range Check that the luminance ratio between the display screen and other
items in the visual field close to the screen, e.g. documents and partitions,
is not too large, see Plate 2. A maximum range of 1 to 10 is a good
standard to aim for. In other words dark backgrounds should not have
less than one tenth of the screen luminance, nor white paper text more
than ten times the screen luminance.
4.5.14 Non-visual problems It is worth remembering that lighting is often the most obvious environ-
mental factor that discontented staff can blame, even though it may not
be the actual source of discontent. An individual may experience eye
strain due to the wrong posture rather than glare, or be frustrated at the
inability to affect the environment, e.g. control the lighting or pace of
work. A detailed ergonomic assessment will reveal if complaints with the
lighting have their origin in postural problems, general staff discontent-
ment, or are restricted to one particular group or a specific area of the
office.
13
Part 2 Design and implementation
Design process
This section outlines the design process necessary to establish a high
quality visual environment for an area that is to be refurbished or for the
design for a new area to accommodate users of DSE. It is assumed that, for
existing areas, an assessment of the existing lighting has established the
need for new lighting suitable for DSE.
Where the designer is involved with new office space for a known client it
is essential to liaise with the client to determine the types of DSE and
potential tasks to be carried out in the space. Existing sites where the
client already has DSE in use may provide valuable insights into the
equipment and working practices of the client's staff.
Designers of speculative office space where working areas for DSE are
proposed may have no existing DSE installation on which to judge the
severity of the DSE tasks or screen types likely to be used in the space.
Users could bring in any type of DSE or task. For this reason the exact
nature of the lighting and decor to be provided must be established with
the owner or developer. Trying to let a space as suitable for high intensity
DSE activity, e.g. dealing, when the lighting has been designed for
moderate use of basic applications on general display screens can lead to
serious problems for all concerned.
5.1 New installations When starting the design of a new installation it is important to find out
as much as possible about the types of display equipment to be used,
for a known user where it is to be installed and the way the users intend to work with the
equipment. This may mean visiting the client's existing premises or
premises where equipment and operating methods are similar. Possible
applications vary widely from control centres, with control consoles with
many fixed position screens, to open plan offices with randomly
orientated screens of varying types.
5.2 Refurbishment of Lighting refurbishment's often involve existing users and DSE in the space
and the need for a refurbishment has often arisen following a detailed
existing lighting assessment of the lighting. This should have gathered a great deal of
systems information on the DSE in use and the way users are operating it which
can be used in the preparation of the design. Refurbishment of an empty
building should proceed as with a new design.
14
DESIGN PROCESS
5.3 Speculative space Before starting the design process for space that will be let to an unknown
user, it is important to establish with the building owners, and possibly
for an unknown the letting agent, the types of user to which the space will be marketed.
user This helps to establish the likely types and quantity of DSE to be used in
the space. The space planning flexibility also needs to be established. This
helps determine the likely effect of partitioning options on both the
illuminance levels and cut-off given by the partitions to long views of
luminaires across the space.
5.4 Design criteria The primary aim of any lighting design for a working interior is to
provide a pleasant visual environment free from disturbing glare or lumi-
nance imbalances whilst providing sufficient visual variety and the
correct levels of task illuminance. Factors such as the colour of the light
source in relation to the interior decor, the shape and form of the lumi-
naires themselves and their energy consumption and methods of control
are all important factors. Reference should be made to the CIBSE Code for
interior lighting(12) for details of general criteria for lighting design.
5.5 Main considerations To avoid luminance adaptation problems caused by excessive variance of
surface luminance in the area around the DSE it is important to consider
in planning those surfaces that are looked at in rapid succession. These are likely to be
the display screen, source documents and keyboard as well as adjacent
desk and partition/wall surfaces. Problems can be minimised by selecting
equipment and furnishings which have similar reflectances, which are
matt and which are not brightly coloured or have high contrast patterns.
Lighting systems should be selected and positioned so as to avoid sharp
differences in lighting level or heavy shadowing in the workstation area.
To avoid problems with glare and reflections a larger area of the interior
needs to be considered. For direct glare the area close to the main line of
sight is important, see Plate 2. Relevant surfaces may be distant walls or
the view through windows. Reducing the luminance of such surfaces,
either by reducing the reflectance, decreasing illuminances or shielding
the bright sky, will usually eliminate this problem, see Plates 4, 5 and 6.
15
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE
Problems with reflections on the screen are likely to involve the whole of
the interior. This is a simple matter of geometry. Figure 5.1 shows the
area within which high luminances may be reflected towards an observer
looking at a conventionally mounted screen. The area is large and extends
a considerable distance behind the DSE user. In cellular offices, and near
to walls in open plan offices, the chances of luminaires or bright ceiling
images appearing on a screen are greatly reduced, see Figure 5.2.
Screen angle and height have a significant effect on the likely intrusion of
reflections on the screen. Compare Figure 5.1 with Figure 5.3, in which
the screen has been raised and tilted forward slightly to give the user an
almost perpendicular view of the screen. The effect of the changes is to
reduce the area of the ceiling that is reflected onto the top of the screen.
Any luminaires seen further back in the room are seen at higher angles
where their luminance is normally lower.
Figure 5.2 Reflected images of the window and luminaire seen in Figure 5.1 are avoided
16
DESIGN PROCESS
Figure 5.3 Screen position altered to remove reflected images of nearby luminaires
5.6 The influence of The finish of a screen affects the degree of clarity of any reflected image.
If the front glass of the display has no surface treatment to soften the
display screen and reflected image then the image will be more distracting to the user, can
task type reduce task effectiveness and may lead to tiredness. In general a higher
luminance reflection can be tolerated if the image is diffused by some
surface treatment of the front glass. Part 7 of ISO 9241 (in draft only at
the time of publication) proposes two categories of display screen: one
with enhanced treatment of the screen surface and one with reduced sur-
face treatment. The use of the enhanced screens will help to minimise any
problems with screen reflections.
The type of task being carried out on the DSE also affects the need to limit
the luminance of screen reflections. If the screen is displaying critical
information, such as in a control room; or changing information in fixed
positions on a screen, such as stock exchange rates; the obscuring of part
of the screen by a reflected image can have serious consequences. If
information is moving across the screen the human visual system is more
able to filter out static reflections from the information. Thus a standard
word processing task can accommodate a few reflected images without
causing too great a strain on the user. There are limits, however, and even
the simplest of tasks can have the information so degraded by high
luminance screen reflections that the user cannot perform their task cor-
rectly or safely.
17
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE
screen. If this level is much lower than the luminance of any reflected
image on the screen then the reflected image will start to dominate and
will obscure part of the screen information. The contrast inherent in the
displayed image will also affect the relative visibility of the image and
screen reflections. If text contrast is inherently soft, such as grey on a
white background then reflected images, especially sharp ones, will easily
distract. If on the other hand the text contrast is bolder, such as black on
white or yellow on blue, then a reflected image will be less noticeable.
BS 8206: Part 2 Code of practice for daylighting(18) states that: 'an interior
which looks gloomy, or does not have a view of the outside where this can reason-
ably be expected, will be considered unsatisfactory by the users.' Regulation 8(2)
of The Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations(9) states that: 'The
lighting [in every workplace] shall, as far as is reasonably practicable, be by
natural light.'
18
DESIGN OPTIONS FOR DAYLIGHTING
6.1 General In common with electric lighting the general design principle for day-
lighting DSE areas is to maximise the visibility of the screen display while
requirements for ensuring the best possible visual environment for the DSE users and other
daylighting users of the space. The same problems apply with daylighting as with
DSE areas electric lighting, namely luminance adaptation, glare and veiling reflec-
tions. The main differences are that the light source, i.e. the window, is
generally much larger and its luminance varies widely throughout the day
and from month to month. The very bright sun within a bright window is
effectively a luminaire within a luminaire.
One of the simplest and most effective methods for achieving a satis-
factory luminance adaptation range is to arrange viewing geometry for the
DSE workstation to avoid users looking directly out onto potentially bright
patches of sky or having windows behind them reflecting on their screens.
This generally requires that the plane of the display screen is placed as
near to the perpendicular to the plane of the window as is practical, so that
the user's viewing axis runs nearly parallel to the window plane.
Glare from windows can be caused both by diffuse skylight and, more
seriously, by direct sunlight or sunlight on light window coverings. Glare
from these sources can be reduced by lowering the contrast between the
sources and the internal wall surface. This can be achieved by either
reducing the brightness of the sky seen through the window, by covering
the window, or by increasing the apparent brightness of the window
surround, see Plates 5 and 6. It should be noted that susceptibility to dis-
ability glare increases markedly with age.
However, these measures will not be sufficient to reduce glare from direct
sunlight, which requires some form of nearly opaque shading device, such
as roller blinds. Black-out blinds are not appropriate in most situations,
and should only be used where there is a specific requirement for them.
Whatever form of shading device is installed, its control should be imme-
diately adjacent to the window, and easy to use. Where this is not the case,
and glare from sunlight is a problem, users may keep the blinds down and
the lights on. This leads not only to a poor environment but also to exces-
sive and unnecessary energy consumption by the electric lighting.
6.2 Minimising the Lighting designers may be able to affect overall window design if they are
involved at an early stage of the building design. Windows which are
brightness of wider and less tall than conventional windows, so as to minimise the area
windows of bright visible sky, are more suitable for effective DSE lighting. Reveals
should be splayed and of a light colour to reduce the magnitude of the
luminance step that occurs between the window and surrounding wall.
19
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE
6.3 Interaction between The field of view adjacent to a screen may include both the interior envi-
ronment and views through a window, possibly onto bright sky. In such
daylight and electric cases the range of luminances in the field of view can be very large,
lighting possibly greater than the simultaneous luminance adaptation range of the
eye, so causing visual discomfort and potential visibility problems.
Electric lighting can be used to balance the range of luminances. The use
of electric lighting with lighting controls, especially controls that are
daylight linked, is recommended.
Whether controls are manual or automatic the control zones within the
overall space should be local to the DSE workstations, i.e. individual zones
should have switches close to the user to allow easy and convenient con-
trol of the lights in that zone.
6.4 Window shading Screening a window from DSE screens can be a simple matter of adding
free-standing, part-height partitions between the screens and the window.
techniques These allow adjustability in positioning whilst allowing some daylight to
pass over the partition. Some obstruction to daylight penetration into the
office is, however, inevitable. Other methods of screening include posi-
tioning high furniture or fixed partitioning between the DSE and win-
dows, though this may prove difficult where there are a large number of
windows. The main disadvantage of such screening is the loss of a view
out of the window. Widespread use of high partitioning is likely to
degrade the quality of the space for most occupants. High partitioning is
also likely to throw hard shadows from the electric lighting across the
working space and will affect the uniformity of light in the space.
For areas where DSE is in widespread use it is preferable to screen the light
at source, i.e. at the window. Many forms of internal window screening are
available, from curtains to vertical louvre drapes. Whatever method is
chosen simple local control and adjustability of the screening is impor-
tant. This allows users to feel more in control of their environment and
allows them to determine the degree of shading or admission of daylight.
Another effect of direct sunlight is thermal gain, which can cause consid-
erable thermal discomfort, especially for users near to windows. Although
beyond the scope of this Lighting Guide, consideration should be given to
minimising adverse thermal effects when selecting shading devices.
Where windows provide a means of ventilation any screening system must
be selected to allow users safe and easy access to the window opening
device. The movement of air through a window can cause annoying flap-
ping or vibration of some screening systems.
6.4.1 Curtains Full length curtains have a major drawback in that, once drawn, they
cover the entire window thus cutting out not only the bright sky, but also
the view. With changing sunlight conditions curtains will normally need
to be drawn forwards and backwards across the entire window. To avoid
obscuring part of the window when curtains are open, over-runs of track
should be provided to store the curtains away from the window opening.
To retain some contact with the outside environment, curtains should not
be totally opaque, but of a dense, translucent fabric. Their colour should
be light, with a material reflectance of greater than 0.5 so that they do not
20
DESIGN OPTIONS FOR DAYLIGHTING
present too great a luminance contrast with the surrounding walls once
daylight has faded. Where curtains are liable to be lit directly by sunlight
there is a danger of the material becoming too bright and appearing as a
bright image in DSE. Here the material should have a close weave and have
a transmittance less than 0.1.
6.4.2 Vertical louvre drapes Vertical louvre drapes are similar to curtains in that they generally need
to be drawn across the entire window to be effective, but have the
advantage that the louvres may be part opened, see Plate 5. This can help
vary the lightness of the louvres by allowing some daylight to inter-reflect
through them but may cause a striped reflection on display screens facing
the windows. If no DSE is positioned to one side of a window, then the
louvres can be opened in that direction to allow daylight in and a view out
by office users on that side. DSE and its users on the other side remain
screened from the bright sky by the angle of the louvres. The louvre angle
may need to be altered during the day as the sun moves across the sky.
The material of the louvres should conform to the reflectance and trans-
mission characteristics given above for curtains.
6.4.3 Horizontal (Venetian) Horizontal blinds, unlike curtains or vertical louvres, can be useful when
blinds part lowered, cutting off the bright sky whilst allowing a view out. They
are least useful when made of a glossy material which can transmit bright
highlights into the interior by inter-reflection and may cause a striped
reflection on display screens facing the windows.
6.4.4 Roller blinds Roller blinds can be an inexpensive and effective solution to existing
problems with window glare. They have the advantage of being able to be
part-drawn to shield the bright sky, see Plate 6. The material of the roller
blinds should conform to the same reflectance and transmission charac-
teristics as for curtains.
6.4.5 Overhangs and Overhangs and awnings, which need to be considered early in the design
awnings of a building, act in similar ways, shielding a window from high bright
sky areas, although neither device is able to shield users inside a room
from low winter sun. To help lower the contrast between the underside of
these devices and the sky beyond, they should have as light a surface
finish as possible. Automated awnings can be used but careful setting-up
and regular maintenance is needed.
6.4.6 Light shelves Light shelves are a specialised form of overhang consisting of a light-
reflective shelf located part way down the window. They may be mounted
externally, internally or a mixture of the two. Light shelves are designed
to shade the areas of a space by the windows while reflecting daylight and
sunlight from their reflective upper surface onto the ceiling. This helps to
redistribute daylight away from the generally overlit periphery deeper
into the space, thus reducing contrast within the space. To maintain their
effectiveness, regular cleaning is needed. Some additional form of screen-
ing is likely to be needed to restrict direct sun penetration.
In order to avoid areas of ceiling near the window becoming too bright
(greater than 1500 cd/m2) or sunlight penetrating directly into the build-
ing through the gap above the shelf, it is vital to study the geometry of the
shelf in relation to yearly sun paths, see the CIBSE Applications Manual
Window design(6). The relative benefits and disadvantages of internal, ex-
ternal or both types of mounting should also be assessed.
21
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE
6.4.7 Prismatic glass Prismatic glass, usually a panel of prismatic refractors installed in the
upper part of a window, gives a similar effect to that of a light shelf. Its
effect is to bend the light from the upper sky up onto the ceiling. This can
be effective in throwing daylight deep into the space and reducing the
brightness of the upper window.
When purpose designed for the room, the refractor panel appears quite
dark and the ceiling wash is uniform. If poorly designed, the ceiling close
to the window may be too bright and, if low quality refractor systems are
used there is a danger of light and dark banding occurring within the
prisms which can be very distracting in DSE screens.
6.4.8 Tinted or reflective Whether tinted or reflective glass are incorporated within the glazing or
glass as a stick-on surface film, the result is the same — they both provide a
uniform reduction in light transmission. Not only is the high sky lumi-
nance reduced by a certain percentage, but also the luminance of the
general view. Other forms of screening are also required to limit the
brightness of direct sunlight and high sky luminances.
6.4.9 Fritted glass Fritted glass has small coloured dots, or frits, fixed to its surface. These
are used to reduce the transmission of and, where the outer surface of the
dots is white, to reflect the sun's rays. Where the inner face of the dots is
also white the window restricts the view out. Where they are black a view
out is possible.
If uniformly applied to a window, fritted glass can lead to a dull view out
but the technique could be extended to allow a gradation in the density of
dots from the top to the mid-part of the window. This would allow maxi-
mum attenuation of the bright, upper part of the window progressively
reducing until the bottom where a clear view out is provided. Other forms
of screening are also required to limit the brightness of direct sunlight
and high sky luminances.
The selection of the type of lighting most suitable for the space depends
on the physical constraints of the space; the proposed decor; user and
designer preferences; and capital, energy and maintenance costs. Electric
lighting needs to provide the appropriate lighting level for all tasks to be
carried out in the space without causing glare or leading to wide variances
in luminance between various surfaces.
22
DESIGN OPTIONS FOR ELECTRIC LIGHTING
Physical restrictions One of the most obvious restrictions on the selection of lighting types is
of the space room height, which can vary from as low as 2.2 m to a lofty 4 to 6 m in
banking halls or factory units. Indirect lighting can be considered for
higher spaces with sufficient height above the luminaires to allow a wide
distribution of light without overlighting the area of ceiling directly over
luminaires. Careful thought needs to be given to suspension height and
layout for suspended indirect lights or indirect/direct luminaires. Units
need to be low enough to provide a good distribution of light across the
ceiling but be high enough to avoid being a physical danger or a visual
intrusion to those below.
If the proposed space has a floor to ceiling height of less than 2.5 m it is
difficult to use indirect lights successfully without causing bright patches
on the ceiling that may appear as images on display screens. Below 2.3 m
direct lighting is likely to be the only viable option. For heights above 3.2
m suspended indirect or indirect/direct lighting may be used, as these can
be suspended far enough from the ceiling but high enough for people to
pass underneath without feeling that they are going to hit their heads:
typically not lower than 2.3 m. For high spaces, access for relamping and
maintenance must be considered before using ceiling mounted or sus-
pended luminaires; wall or column mounted indirect lights may be more
suitable.
The electrical supply for free-standing indirect lights comes from floor
level, so a number of aspects of the electrical system need to be con-
sidered. Due to the relatively high power load, and even higher starting
loads for discharge lamps, it is recommended that the number of indirect
lights that can be plugged into a single circuit is checked. Starting in-
direct lights may cause voltage spikes which could interfere with personal
computers using the same circuit, so a separate floor power system may be
preferred for supplying floor mounted indirect lights. To avoid other
equipment being plugged into these circuits, non-standard plugs and
sockets can be used. This arrangement allows the central control and
switching of the indirect lights but also results in a further set of floor
services in addition to the normal power, data and telecoms services. This
may not be a problem where false floors are used but difficulties may arise
with floor trunking due to overcrowding. Floor supplied indirect lights
can, however, be an advantage where they remove the need for lighting
supply trunking and conduit in an otherwise congested ceiling void.
The use of ceiling mounted or suspended luminaires frees the floor, not
only of additional power supply distribution but also the area occupied by
the indirect lights. Their major disadvantage is that in general the light-
ing array is fixed. This tends to make the use of the space less adaptable
where full height partitioning is required, unless individual luminaire
regulation is used. Where direct lighting luminaires are recessed they
need to be physically co-ordinated with other services in the ceiling.
Surface mounted luminaires can be considered unsightly in certain spaces
and may interfere with air distribution across the ceiling from supply air
grilles in mechanically ventilated buildings.
23
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE
7.2 Selection of The CIBSE Code for interior lighting(12) and the CIBSE Lighting Guide
illuminance LG7: Lighting for offices(19) recommend that the design maintained illumi-
nance over the task area in any room containing DSE should be in the
range 300 to 500 lux. This is a compromise between the illuminance
necessary for reading working documents, which are frequently of poor
quality, and the most comfortable illuminance for operating DSE. A much
higher illuminance will normally produce difficulties because of the
difference in luminance between documents and screen while a much
lower illuminance may cause problems in reading documents. Where
tasks are mainly screen-based, such as data retrieval or telephone sales,
then illuminances at the lower end of the range should be used. Where
tasks are mainly document-based, such as data entry or copy typing,
illuminances towards the top of the range are more appropriate.
The CIBSE Code for interior lighting(12) also provides general recommen-
dations on limiting glare index, colour rendering, uniformity and energy
limits for lighting in many environments where DSE may be found, such
as factories, libraries, offices and reception areas. More detailed guidance
for the general lit environment in offices can be found in the CIBSE
Lighting Guide LG7: Lighting for offices(19).
7.3 Direct lighting Figure 5.1 illustrates how large areas of the ceiling can be visibly reflected
in a typical display screen. Luminaires within this area will appear as
distinct objects reflected on the screen unless their luminance is limited
at the angles from which they are seen. It is therefore essential that the
luminance of direct lights which can be seen from any screen in the space
is low enough to ensure that any reflected image seen does not distract the
user.
24
DESIGN OPTIONS FOR ELECTRIC LIGHTING
Because the light output from a direct light is directed downward, illumi-
nances on horizontal surfaces predominate and those on vertical surfaces
are lower. There can be strong shadows and it is possible for strong
veiling reflections to occur on keyboards and documents, especially where
there are few, high output luminaires in a space. If this effect is to be
minimised and the problems of shadows and luminance imbalance
reduced, reflectances in the interior surfaces, and particularly the floor,
must be kept high. This is explained further in section 8. If designed
badly, directly lit interiors can be rather oppressive or cave-like in appear-
ance; done well they can be bright and comfortable to work in. Plates 8
and 9 show the effect of low and high surface luminances on the appear-
ance of a space.
7.4 Indirect lighting As the significance of reflections on a display screen is determined not
only by their contrast relative to the display luminance but by the clarity
of individual images, another approach is to reduce the luminance of the
luminaires themselves. Indirect lighting does this by directing light
upwards and using the ceiling as a large area, low luminance secondary
reflector. Although reflections in display screens of the light ceiling are
inevitable, they will not appear as distinct and distracting objects as long
as the peak luminance on the ceiling is low and the luminance changes
gradually over a large area. Particular care needs to be taken where in-
direct lights are mounted on walls to avoid high brightness images on the
wall above them. Where indirect lights are mounted on columns there is
likely to be a sharp transition between the bright image on the column
and the relatively dark room beyond.
Indirect lighting does not involve any assumptions about the geometry of
the viewer/DSE/luminaire. Instead, the essential characteristic of an
indirect lighting installation is a uniform, or gradually varying luminance
on the ceiling and upper walls. Unless this is achieved, conspicuous reflec-
tions will be seen on display screens. Care needs to be taken to prevent
sharp shadows being thrown by, or highlights caused by, ceiling beams or
features. The top face of the indirect light should be above the eye height
of a standing person — typically 1.8 m. Unshielded indirect lights should
not be positioned on staircases or in positions where they can be viewed
from balconies.
7.5 Indirect/direct Indirect/direct lighting combines direct and indirect light, either by
separate indirect and direct luminaires or by a single suspended luminaire
lighting producing both indirect and direct light. With separate systems the
physical constraints of each, such as power supply and ceiling height
limitation, need to be considered. With a single unit the physical prob-
lems are similar to those for suspended indirect light, requiring distance
from the ceiling for uniformity and height above the floor so as not to feel
too intrusive. Examples of indirect/directly lit interiors are shown in
Plates 13 to 15.
25
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE
7.6 Other options In principle, the only options available for controlling reflections from
display screens are those listed above. In practice other possibilities such
as cove lighting, luminous ceilings, and task/ambient lighting are also
available. These are either special cases of direct or indirect lighting or
combinations of them.
7.7 Room decor and Emphasis for direct lighting schemes should be placed on high floor
cavity reflectance and, to a lesser degree, high wall reflectance. This is to
surface reflectances ensure that light is reflected back up onto the ceiling so as to avoid an
oppressive atmosphere and to allow users to look around without having
to cope with a wide range of surface luminances. A variety of colour
finishes in the interior is to be encouraged to help avoid a gloomy appear-
ance caused by the inherently low vertical illumination on walls. Highly
coloured desk or carpet finishes will result in colour patches being reflect-
ed back up onto the ceiling.
26
Part 3 Detailed design
8 Designing with direct lighting
Direct lighting uses luminaires designed to emit the majority of their
light output directly onto the working plane. Any light emitted upwards
plays an insignificant part in lighting the task. Direct luminaires can be
surface mounted, recessed into the ceiling or suspended. They are gener-
ally viewed as individual lit objects in the space and for this reason can
appear as a distinct and distracting object when reflected on a display
screen.
8.1 Characteristics The downward flow of light from direct lights means that the lower sur-
faces of a room are lit in preference to the upper walls and ceiling. The
extent of this effect varies from one luminaire to another, with some lumi-
naires emitting some light sideways or upwards and thus providing some
direct light to the walls and ceiling. However, where downlights with a
restricted distribution to the side are deliberately used to reduce direct
and reflected glare for display screen users, little light will reach the walls
directly. This can lead to rather dark walls unless the floor and working
plane surfaces are light and reflect light onto the walls and ceiling.
Alternatively, it is possible to deliberately wash light over the walls to
offset their dark appearance. The walls and ceilings themselves should be
light coloured so as to appear brighter, see Plates 8 and 9.
8.2 Criteria There is a danger of luminaires on or near the ceiling directing light
downwards being visible in display screens below. Whether they are
visible or not will depend on the geometry of the screen, user and lumin-
aires. If luminaires can be seen then it needs to be established whether
they are likely to be a distraction to the user.
If the display screen has a smooth, specular front glass the luminaire
image will appear as a sharply defined object which the user can clearly
see. If the screen has some anti-reflective treatment then the reflected
object will be less well defined and less likely to distract the user.
In many cases it cannot be established with any certainty that all screens
in an area will be modern and incorporate surface treatment, or that all
software being run displays dark characters on a light background. In
these cases the luminance limit for luminaires should be set for the worst
case of dark background display on clear fronted screens. Where the
designer can establish with a client or user group that all screens in an
27
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE
area have screen treatment, or that all software is running with light back-
grounds then a higher luminance limit can be selected.
Luminance limits have been established for these cases based on typical
screen luminances and qualities, these are shown in Table 8.1. The terms
are defined in Appendix 2.
Table 8.1 Luminaire luminance limits for screen and software types
Notes:
(a) The appropriate luminance limit for luminaires can be selected
where the nature of the screens and software to be used is known. When
this information is unknown or subject to doubt the lower limit of 200
cd/m2 should be selected.
(A) Where only a few screens in an area have poor screen treatment or
run negative polarity software it is generally better to move these to
positions where the lighting will not affect them and to use the higher
luminance limits.
In addition to the luminance limits given in Table 8.1, limits have also
been established for peak luminances of bright spots or patches on the
luminaire. These are shown in Table 8.2 and the method of their measure-
ment given in Appendix 2.
Table 8.2 Spot luminance limits for screen and software types
8.3 Luminance limit Once selected, it needs to be ensured that the luminance limit is not
exceeded at the angle of elevation at which luminaires are likely to be seen
angle selection from screens in the space. If the heights and typical angles of tilt of the
screens are known, this angle can be established by simple geometry as
described in Appendix 1. If they are not known, then assumptions need to
be made before a set angle can be chosen.
The normal viewing position of a display screen is with the screen tipped
slightly back from vertical with the user looking slightly downwards
towards it. This means that an area of the ceiling behind the user is seen
reflected on the screen, see Figure 5.1. The angle at which each luminaire
is seen will depend on the screen tilt, height and size and the angle from
which the user looks down at the screen. It is possible in installations
28
PLATES
(a) (b)
Plate 3 The reflected image of the single luminaire on these screens is
less noticeable on the screen with a light background (a) than on that
with a dark background (b). (Photographs supplied by Lighting Design
and Technology.)
Plate 4 When facing the window the user has difficulty reading the Plate 5 With the blinds closed the user has to cope with a much reduced
information on the relatively dark screen. (Photograph supplied by luminance range around the screen and can therefore see the screen
Lighting Design and Technology.) information more easily. Note the vertical stripes produced by these
louvre blinds. (Photograph supplied by Lighting Design and
Technology.)
Plate 7 Direct lighting has completely obscured the text on this near-
horizontal feature display on a dealer desk. (Photograph supplied by
Lighting Design and Technology.)
where screen positions, orientations and tilts are known, or can be con-
trolled or specified, to select luminance limit angles that avoid any high
luminance part of the luminaires being reflected in the screens. Appendix
1 gives more detail on determining the angle of view for any given
geometry.
8.3.1 Known screen geometry Where the screens in an installation are fixed, such as in some dealing
and control rooms, the calculation of an acceptable luminance limit angle
is straightforward. However, fixed installations are unusual in general
office environments and other DSE areas. It may be possible, with a known
client, to look at the types of screens that are, or will be, used in the space
and to establish with the users and client a worst case geometry that
allows the selection of a fairly wide luminance limit angle which also
gives the users some freedom of adjustment.
For example, it could be agreed that all screens will be mounted on their
base computer units or be raised on arms. This brings the top of the
screen up to a comfortable viewing position and means that the screen is
tilted back only slightly. If the maximum reasonable tilt back is establish-
ed and agreed then the designer can calculate the luminance limit angle.
If at a later stage an individual wishes to alter their screen tilt or height
they can do so, but will be advised to be aware of the possible introduction
of screen reflections at the top of their screens. They may of course not
find such reflections distracting in any case.
8.3.2 Unknown screen Where the heights or angles of tilt of display screens to be used in a space
geometry are unknown, it may be assumed that they will be used within the stan-
dard ergonomic limits described in Appendix 1. If the selected luminance
limit angle for the luminaires is too high, a number of users in the area
will see screen reflections. If the angle is too low then the lighting quality
of the space may be compromised unnecessarily and, as luminaire
efficiency is likely to be reduced, more energy will be consumed by the
installation.
To balance these risks and to ensure that safe luminance limits are select-
ed for more onerous tasks being performed in a space, three standard DSE
luminaire types have been defined, each with a different luminance limit
angle. The luminaires so derived are referred to as Category 1, 2, or 3.
These have luminance limitation at and above 55°, 65° and 75° respec-
tively to the downward vertical. In general, the greater the density of
display screens in an area, the greater the intensity of use and the more
critical the errors, then the lower the luminance limit should be, i.e. a
smaller category number.
These luminance limit angles are not 'cut off angles, but denote the angle
above which the luminance will not rise above a limiting value. Indeed it
is preferred that the luminance above this angle does not drop rapidly as
this is more likely to result in poorer flow of light across the space. The
full definition and specification for the luminance limit is given in
Appendix 2.
29
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE
8.3.2.1 Category 1 luminaires For Category 1 luminaires the calculated luminance is limited to 200
cd/m2 or less at and above 55° to the downward vertical at the angles of
azimuth defined in Appendix 2. Such luminaires would be specified for
screens containing safety-critical or similar information where errors have
serious consequences. They may also be required in areas where there is a
high density of screens and display screen usage is of an intensive nature
or sustained over long periods.
8.3.2.2 Category 2 luminaires For Category 2 luminaires the calculated luminance is limited to 200
cd/m2 or less at and above 65° to the downward vertical when viewed
from the angles of azimuth defined in Appendix 2. Category 2 luminaires
would, in general, be slightly more efficient than Category 1, while main-
taining good luminance control. This category of luminaire should be
used in an interior for which fairly widespread use of display screens is
intended. This could include areas where there is one terminal per desk
for general usage or a few terminals used continually.
8.3.2.3 Category 3 luminaires This is the greatest relaxation of the luminance limiting angle that can be
recommended for areas where display screens may be used. The calcu-
lated luminance is limited to 200 cd/m2 or less at and above 75° to the
downward vertical when viewed from the angles of azimuth defined in
Appendix 2.
8.3.3 Relaxation of category Category 2 or 3 luminaires are also acceptable where the space planning is
applications either small cellular offices, or open plan with screen dividers where, by
simple geometrical checking, it can be shown that the luminaires will not
be seen at angles below their limiting angle from the display screens. See
Figure 5.2 and Appendix 1 for further details.
8.4 Lighting layout The luminaire layout adopted will depend on the type of installation, the
illumination level selected and the constraints of the space. In multi-
function control rooms where there may be horizontal glass-faced instru-
mentation and inclined screens, the design process will usually result in a
dedicated layout to the console, possibly with special luminaires. Some
dealing rooms may also have horizontally mounted instrumentation or
keying screens, large numbers of screens per station and many work-
stations in different orientations. Such specialised installations need
careful consideration of the geometry and relative positions of luminaires
and screens. Proving the design by use of a full scale mock-up can be
invaluable.
Designers are often confronted with a space brief indicating the likelihood
of display screens being present but without any guidance on space
30
DESIGNING WITH DIRECT LIGHTING
planning. In such cases, the designer must establish the correct standard
category of luminaires, and design the lighting layout accordingly. The
designer must justify the use of Category 1 or 2 luminaires, where
selected, rather than Category 3. Particular care must be taken over
spacing limitations. It should be emphasised that Category 1 luminaires in
particular have small space-to-height ratios and can easily be over-spaced
leading to poor uniformity. The number and height of partitions will also
affect the overall uniformity of illumination over the working space.
Where there are open plan areas which may be divided into cellular
offices the selection and layout of luminaires is more problematic. Cellular
offices are unlikely to require category luminaires as the geometry of small
rooms means that luminaires are unlikely to be seen in the screens, see
Figures 5.1 and 5.2. However, luminance limitation is needed in the open
plan areas due to the long views to luminaires. If non-Category luminaires
are installed in cellular areas which are later opened up to become part of
the open plan, there are likely to be problems with screen reflections.
Luminaires with exchangeable louvres may be a possible solution
although the luminance limit and angle need to be known for both situa-
tions. If the luminaires used in open plan areas are used at the same
spacing in cellular offices, the lighting level in the cellular offices will be
lower than that in the open plan areas due to a lower room index. Desk
task lighting may be used in the cellular spaces to bring the illumination
up to that of the open plan areas.
31
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE
9.1 Characteristics While the characteristics of room surfaces affect the appearance of a space
for all types of lighting installations, they are especially important for
indirect lighting. The lighting produced by an indirect lighting instal-
lation is typically diffuse, without strong modelling effects or strong
shadows. It is important to use the interior decor to create some variety
and interest in the interior. This could involve small areas of strong
colour or the picking out of salient architectural features, for example, but
care should be taken to avoid abrupt changes in reflectance. It is also
possible to add variety to a space by introducing some feature lighting,
using gentle spotlighting of features such as notice boards or works of art.
Spotlighting should not be so bright that the objects become sources of
reflection in the display screens.
9.2 Criteria For indirect lighting to be successful it is essential that the luminance of
the reflecting surfaces be limited. It is recommended that:
(a) the average luminance on the major surfaces used for reflecting
light (such as the ceiling) should be less than 500 cd/m2,
(b) the maximum luminance of any point on the major surfaces
reflecting light should not exceed 1500 cd/m2,
(c) the value of luminance should change gradually across the sur-
faces, i.e. with no sudden changes in luminance across or between
surfaces.
9.3 Luminaire selection The desirable photometric properties of all indirect lights are that they
should have as high an upward light output ratio as possible and spread
the light emitted over as wide an area as possible without allowing a view
of the lamp or luminaire interior. Unless the luminaire gives a widespread
luminous intensity distribution there is a risk of a high luminance spot
immediately above the light and hence of exceeding the maximum lumi-
nance criterion. For wall mounted indirect lights the luminous intensity
distribution should be asymmetrical such that there are no high lumi-
nance spots, above 1500 cd/m2, immediately above the unit on the wall or
ceiling, see Plate 11.
Indirect lights should not give a sharp cut-off in the luminous intensity
distribution at any angle, as this produces a step change in luminance on
the ceiling or wall of the interior. Another feature which needs care is the
32
DESIGNING WITH INDIRECT LIGHTING
9.3.1 Free-standing, wall or Indirect lights rely on height to shield a direct view of the lamp and
furniture mounted interior from occupants. This is why the majority of floor mounted
indirect lights are 1.8 m high. Similarly, wall mounted and furniture
mounted indirect lights should have their top surface located at least 1.8
m above the floor. This minimum height imposes a limit on the ceiling
height acceptable for indirect lighting. As a rule of thumb, most commer-
cial floor mounted indirect lights are designed to be used with ceiling
heights of between 2.5 and 3.5 m above floor level. Indirect lights can
only be successfully used with ceiling heights below 2.5 m if particular
attention is paid to the luminous intensity distribution and means are
taken to avoid the creation of a high luminance spot immediately above
the light. Ceiling heights greater than 3.5 m can be used at extra cost in
terms of installed power. Indeed, if indirect lighting is required in a space
with a ceiling height above 3.5 m, wall mounted or suspended indirect
lights should be considered.
Care should be taken when positioning large indirect lights over, or close
to, a desk or work surface as the lights can themselves act as an obstruc-
tion to the lit ceiling above. Although any shadow thrown by the indirect
light would be very soft — due to the large lit area of ceiling — it may
reduce the total illumination locally.
9.3.2 Suspended indirect Here the major requirement is to ensure that units are suspended far
lights enough below the ceiling to provide a wide, soft spread of light onto the
ceiling. There is often a temptation in very large spaces to install a few
high wattage units to save money. This may result in separate high
luminance spots appearing on the ceiling.
In all cases fittings need to be suspended well above normal head height
to prevent users of the space feeling that they may strike their heads on
the units. A minimum height of 2.3 m is recommended.
9.3.3 Cove lighting Cove lighting aims to throw light evenly onto the ceiling from a ledge or
recess high up on the wall. Unless luminaires with purpose designed
Rear wall shielded from reflectors are used there is a danger of the back wall of the cove and the
direct illumination if possible ceiling adjacent to it becoming very prominent, see Figure 9.1. Great care
has to be taken to ensure that the luminance of the surfaces in the cove
Even throw does not exceed 1500 cd/m2, the limit set for maximum ceiling luminance
of light over
with indirect lights. Depending on the distance from the cove to the
ceiling
ceiling it may be difficult to light the ceiling evenly beyond the first two
to three metres from the cove, due to light fall-off. Ceiling illuminance is
likely to be more even if the ceiling curves up gently from the cove. The
average illuminance on the working plane can be calculated using the
lumen method once the utilisation factor has been calculated by the
Figure 9.1 Cross-section of a typical cove lighting
methods given in CIBSE Technical Memoranda TM5: Calculation and use
system of utilisation factors(20)
33
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE
9.3.4 Luminous ceilings Whilst the use of luminous ceilings is not an indirect system of lighting,
it creates a similar effect of soft, even ceiling luminance — although often
too even and perhaps bland. Luminous ceilings were popular 30 years ago
but appear only rarely today. They generally pose major problems of
access for relamping and cleaning. The cavity above a luminous ceiling
should be painted white and be high enough to conceal the light sources
from view through the diffusing material below.
Frosted or opal lay-lights below roof lights can have some of the charac-
teristics of a luminous ceiling although their luminance is variable and
depends on prevailing daylight conditions. They are often small and
hence suffer from contrast problems with the relatively dark ceiling along-
side.
9.4 Lighting layout Indirect lighting can be used to provide general lighting to an area or to
provide localised lighting in the centre of groups of workstations. Where
used as localised lighting the ceiling uniformity should be considered to
prevent a 'patchy' appearance.
9.5 Room decor and To ensure a reasonable level of energy efficiency with indirect lighting, it
is desirable to use high reflectance room surfaces, especially the ceiling. A
surface reflectances minimum reflectance of 0.7 is recommended. To allow for the build-up of
dirt and degrading of the surface an initial surface reflectance of 0.8
should be aimed for. Ceilings of lower reflectance can be used but at the
cost of additional installed load. The surface should have a matt finish as
specular finishes produce high luminance images of lamps when viewed
from particular directions. Even relatively small areas of specular material
used in the ceiling or ceiling support system can produce unacceptably
bright reflections of the bright interior of uplighters.
In an indirect lighting installation all the light that reaches the working
plane does so after reflection from the ceiling and upper walls. Light
falling on the working plane will thus be highly coloured if these surfaces
are highly coloured. White or very pale colours should be used for the
major areas of reflecting surfaces, although this recommendation does not
rule out the possibility of adding small areas of strong colour to add visual
variety. In indirectly lit areas, dark columns can appear reflected in dis-
play screens as distracting dark bands against the bright background of
the ceiling.
34
DESIGNING WITH DIRECT/INDIRECT LIGHTING
10.1 Characteristics By combining indirect and direct lighting a lit environment can be pro-
duced which has well lit walls and ceilings and some directional element
to provide modelling. Horizontal illumination is good without either
creating a gloomy interior or having over-bright ceilings and walls. The
exact proportion of indirect to direct light is not critical in most circum-
stances, although a room's visual characteristics change markedly as the
proportions are altered.
10.2 Criteria When using separate systems of floor standing indirect lights and ceiling
mounted direct lights it is important to ensure that each system meets the
criteria laid down in sections 8 and 9 for direct and indirect lighting.
Direct lights still need luminance limit angles suitable for the intended
DSE and its use, and indirect lights still need to provide an even wash of
light over the ceiling. However, if the ceiling is uniformly lit then it is
acceptable to allow the luminance of the direct light to increase to match
the average luminance of the ceiling. Indeed if the direct light luminance
is much lower than that of the ceiling it is possible for direct lights to
appear on a display screen as dark objects against the brighter ceiling.
10.3 Luminaire selection The first type of installation to be examined uses a combined suspended
unit, see Plate 13 for an example. Units are suspended from the ceiling
and provide both indirect and direct light, either from separate lamps and
reflectors, or from the same lamp or array of lamps, see Figure 10.1. This
type of luminaire can be highly efficient. The lamp type used can vary
widely. Most typical are high efficiency fluorescent lamps in linear
luminaires, but discharge lamps and compact fluorescent lamps can also
be used.
35
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE
affect the luminaire's light distribution. Where two systems are to be used
together care is needed to ensure that high luminance images of the in-
direct light do not appear on the flanges or louvre elements of the direct
lights.
The final type of combined lighting uses a luminaire complete with its
Figure 10.2 Recessed fitting
own indirect light 'canopy', see Figure 10.2. The canopy may take the
with indirect light into a canopy form of large white 'wings' that catch and redirect the indirect light.
as well as direct light Luminaires may be suspended or the wings integrated into the ceiling in
place of one or more ceiling tiles, see Plate 15. Luminaires can also be
positioned within coffers which are either part of the ceiling or the
structural soffit. The coffer then forms a large upper reflector to utilise the
indirect light from the luminaire.
10.4 Lighting layout Suspended luminaires should use the same ceiling offset and headroom
criteria as suspended indirect lights, as described in section 9. Where the
installation uses a single set of lamps this can be supplied by a single
electrical circuit, but where there are two separate lamp sets the indirect
and direct lighting components can be controlled separately. This can
provide reduced level lighting for cleaning or when under standby power
supply.
10.5 Room decor and The criteria for room surface reflectances, especially that of the ceiling,
are as for indirect lighting, see section 9.5. The advantage of mixing some
surface reflectances direct lighting with indirect lighting is that room surface luminances
tend to be more balanced. This allows the interior designer or architect
more freedom in their choice of colours and reflectances.
11.1 Task/ambient In task/ambient lighting design, the task light provides top-up lighting
from the lower ambient level up to the selected task illumination level.
design Positioning local lights in front of a reader provides a potential source of
glare and the reflection of light from paper towards the reader will result
in low contrast between the text and background of the paper. Local
lights should therefore be positioned to throw light from the side of the
task area. It should be possible to provide light from either the left or
right hand side of the desk, to suit the user. The spread of light should
cover the area of the desk used for reading written text as evenly as
possible. A uniformity over the task area of 0.8 should be achieved. It is
essential that the luminaire be provided with a local switch or, ideally, a
dimmer control.
36
DESIGNING WITH SUPPLEMENTARY TASK LIGHTING
11.2 Special screen Where special workstations are being designed with fixed screen geome-
try, perhaps set into control desks or in graphics stations, the lighting
geometry may need to be integrated into the desk or surrounding partitions or
furniture. Although fixed local lighting systems seldom meet with user
approval, the luminaire position may need to be fixed to avoid possible
screen reflections. Such fixed units should generally be located to the side
of the user to throw light evenly across the working plane. It is important
in these circumstances that dimming control is provided for the users.
11.3 Task lighting design The ability to adjust the level of light provided by a task light and the
screen luminance provides the user with a large degree of control over the
luminance contrast between the screen, written text and the room. Users
need to be shown the range of adjustments available to them and allowed
to set their own levels. This should minimise any adaptation problems for
the user.
The light source in any type of desk light system should be of a good
colour quality and have a low heat output. Suitable lamps would be linear
fluorescent lamps or compact fluorescent lamps with high frequency
control. In certain installations it may be possible to use low wattage
discharge lamps, but the difficulty in dimming these and their slowness to
restrike after switching off reduces the user's control.
As the desk light will be accessible to the user it must be electrically safe
and comply with BS EN 60598(14) (which has replaced BS 4533(13)). This
is especially important with desk lights designed for a one-off project.
Steps should be taken to ensure that power wiring in desks can be
segregated from any unscreened data or telecommunications cabling that
may be sensitive to electrical interference.
11.4 Regulations relating Extra care is needed in the selection and positioning of luminaires that
are within the reach of users. Luminaires need to be cool to the touch and
to task-specific be electrically and mechanically safe. This is especially so in public access
lighting areas, such as libraries, where the users may not be familiar with the
operation of the lighting.
The Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations(10) are one of the six
sets of health and safety regulations based on the European directives
mentioned in section 4. Whilst these regulations were drafted mainly in
relation to the lighting of industrial machines the definition of work
equipment does include any machine, appliance, apparatus or tool.
Regulation 21, Lighting states that: 'Every employer shall ensure that suitable
and sufficient lighting, which takes account of the operations to be carried out, is
provided at any place where a person uses work equipment.'
37
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE
and easily adjustable, but not enough to become a source of glare to other
users. They should also stay fixed in the user's preferred position and have
local on/off or dimming control. Such an installation will provide a safe
and adaptable lighting system which users can tailor to their own needs.
The digitiser board is often positioned at right angles to the desk con-
taining the screens, and can be used almost vertically by some operators.
As drawing work is rarely carried out on such boards a high level of task
lighting is not normally required. The task normally performed is to
move a digitiser 'mouse' across the sketch or drawing to strategic points
where a button on the 'mouse' is pressed. For a drawing of normal clarity
300 lux on the digitiser surface is sufficient for this task, but supple-
mentary lighting should be provided for the viewing of any poor quality
drawings. If normal drafting work is to be carried out at the same position
then supplementary lighting to increase the level to 750 lux should be
made available.
The operator will normally look from the digitiser to the graphics screen
to ensure that the graphic image being built up is correct. Reference to the
control screen, to the keyboard and to a flat keyboard on the side of the
digitiser board will also need to be made. The range of visual tasks is
therefore quite wide and can involve the user in some movement and in
frequent changes of view. For this reason it is advisable to keep the range
of luminances at the workstation and in the immediate surroundings
within a range of 1 to 10.
Where a digitiser board is lit to around 300 lux its luminance is approxi-
mately 70 cd/m2. The luminances from background walls, desk, screen
and keyboard should, ideally, all lie in the range 20 to 200 cd/m2. This can
be achieved by aiming for a fairly constant level of illuminance on the
desk and vertically on surrounding walls. The average reflectance of these
major surfaces should be kept within a range of 5 to 1. Indirect lighting is
recommended to achieve a constant illumination over an area both
horizontally and vertically. The soft, even illumination from indirect
lighting also helps avoid distracting shadows on the digitiser board.
13 Conclusions
A wide variety of DSE workstations are used across a diverse range of
applications and environments. However, most environments where DSE
is used must satisfy the statutory requirements for DSE contained in the
Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations(1). This is true
even where only one person in the workplace uses DSE for a significant
proportion of the day. The Regulations cover all aspects of DSE and its
environment, including lighting. It is important, and good practice, to
ensure appropriate, quality lighting is installed for workstations irrespec-
tive of the type of work carried out. It is also important to ensure good
visual and workstation ergonomics. Good lighting and ergonomics will
encourage quick and efficient use of DSE, something which is particularly
important where the DSE workstation controls critical processes. The
principles of good practice lighting design for DSE should be applied
irrespective of the need to conform to the Regulations.
38
CONCLUSIONS
The basis of any working environment where DSE is used should be a high
quality display screen and an ergonomically designed workstation. The
display screen itself should be a type that minimises the intrusion of re-
flected images on screen information. The screen and keyboard should be
movable so that they can be adjusted as desired by the user. The user's
seat and/or work surface should be adjustable to allow maximum postural
comfort. Users should receive training in the use and adjustment of all
these features. Users' eyesight should be checked to ensure that they can
cope with the viewing distances to the screen and any written material
that they have to view. Lighting within the workstation should provide
adequate illuminance on all tasks while avoiding undue contrasts between
the screen, its background and paper documents.
Beyond the workstation, the room must be lit in such a way that it appears
pleasant, with no large areas of extreme light or dark and with the
luminance of any area seen reflected in the screen low enough not to
obscure information on the screen. In addition, no object should be bright
enough to appear on the screen as a distinct object, as this will be
distracting. To achieve this, luminances across the room surfaces should
change gradually. The luminances of luminaire elements should not be
bright enough to cause distraction or disability to the user. Windows
should be screened to avoid a view of bright cloud. Local, user operable
lighting controls and window shading should be provided. If users feel
that they have control over their immediate environment they tend to feel
more able to cope with their tasks and any minor problems with the
lighting.
39
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE
This Appendix illustrates how user-to-screen geometry formed by the intersection of the line of sight and
affects the area of a room that may be reflected in a screen. the normal to the surface of the display where the
It shows the effect that the height and tilt of a screen have line of sight intersects the surface of the display,
on distracting reflections. It also illustrates how a suitable see Figure ALL
luminance limit angle can be selected for a given screen
geometry and the limitations imposed on the height and
inclination of the screen by this limit angle. A1.2 The effect of workstation
geometry
A1.1 Ergonomic criteria and
Figure A 1.2 shows the factors that affect the angle of view
standards up into ceiling mounted luminaires from a screen.
Recommended ergonomic limits for viewing visual dis- The first factor to consider is α, the angle of view down
plays are laid down in BS EN 29241: Ergonomic require- onto the top of the screen. This is important as reflections
ments for office work with visual display terminals(3) and all are most likely to be seen towards the top of the screen. As
DSE used in a working environment should conform to a increases the user looks further downwards onto the
this standard. Among specifications and guidance on all screen. If the screen face remains close to perpendicular to
aspects of DSE the standard provides a number of recom- the user's line of view then more of the ceiling will be
mendations of direct interest to lighting practitioners and reflected on the screen.
users:
(a) The minimum design viewing distance for usual The angle a is determined by the height of the user's eye,
office tasks shall not be less than 400 mm, with the height of the screen top and the horizontal distance
certain qualifications. between them, see Figure A 1.3:
40
EYE-SCREEN-LUMINAIRE GEOMETRY
the back of the tube at the edges of the screen. This part of
the screen is normally masked by the case around the
screen. If screen curvature figures are not available from
the manufacturer then the angle of the upper screen
surface to the centre of the screen can be measured or
estimated, see Figure A1.2. The angle, δ, can be calculated
from the screen curvature R and the screen height H by:
δ = sin-1 H/2 R
The seated eye height of the 95% man is 1317 mm above A1.3 Luminance limit angle
the floor and for the 5% woman, 1028 mm. If we deduct a selection
desk height of 700 mm from these we arrive at the eye
height above the desk of 617 mm for the tall man and 328 Where the geometry of the user and screen relationship is
mm for the short woman. Using a viewing distance from known or assumed, reference to Figure A1.2 and the
the screen of 500 mm gives the following formula for nomogram in Figure A 1.4 allows the correct luminance
calculating α for the 95% man: limiting angle to be determined. Luminaires meeting this
angle can then be selected from manufacturers' ranges.
41
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE
the luminance limit angle of the luminaires would need to If this data is not obtainable a sample luminaire could be
be checked again. sent for testing in a photometric laboratory.
42
EYE-SCREEN-LUMINAIRE GEOMETRY
This way of using the nomogram is not only useful in the screen top 10° below the eye height of the 5% woman.
checking for the allowable movement of a known screen (For taller people the reflection problem will be less severe
with existing luminaires, but can also check for the maxi- in this case.)
mum allowable screen curvature for a fixed screen posi-
tion.
Using the nomogram from γ = 55° (Category 1), across to
a = 10°, down to β = 15° gives us an upper screen slope,
Assume that Category 1 luminaires are installed through- δ, of 5° maximum. For a maximum screen height of 300
out the area. The dealing desks are designed to take 300 mm, the screen must have a radius of curvature of more
mm high screens, inclined back at an angle of 15°, with than 1800 mm.
43
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE
c = azimuth plane angle, 0°, 10°, 20° ... 350° (c) The Dollar range meets CIBSE LG3 Category 1
when using halophosphor lamps but with tri-
γ = angle of elevation from the downward vertical phosphor lamps they meet Category 2.
44
DIRECT LIGHT LUMINANCE LIMIT CALCULATION
It is also acceptable to publish the actual angle where a ments alone may be more appropriate than the calculated
luminaire meets the luminance limit, i.e. the Sprite 1800 luminance figures used for the louvered luminaires.
mm is a CIBSE LG3 Category 2 luminaire with a 63° Compliance is still required above the stated luminance
luminance limit angle. The Sprite 1500 mm is Category 2 limit angle at all the required angles of azimuth.
with a 58° luminance limit angle.
The other difference with higher luminance luminaires is
For preliminary manual checks of compliance only, the that the calculation is used to ascertain above what angle
luminance can be quickly checked using the figures for the luminaire meets the luminance limit specified. For a
the axial, transverse, 30° and 60° azimuth planes. given luminaire, the calculation can be used to ascertain at
what angle it meets the 500 cd/m2 limit and at what angle
A2.1.2 Patch test for 200 cd/m2 luminaires it meets the 1000 cd/m2 limit, at the specified azimuth
planes. Thus a particular luminaire may meet the 500
Category 1, 2 and 3 luminaires must also be checked to cd/m2 limit at 68° and the 1000 cd/m2 limit at 76°. Al-
ensure there are no high luminance spots visible on the ternatively a designer may ask a manufacturer which of its
optical system or luminous parts of the luminaire, as these range meet a 500 cd/m2 limit at, say, 70°.
can be particularly distracting when reflected in a display
screen. The luminance of any spot of area 500 mm2 (25
mm diameter) should not exceed 500 cd/m2 at any angle A2.2.2 Patch test for 500 and 1000 cd/m2
above the luminance limit angle. This should be checked luminaires
in the 0°, 30°, 60° and 90° planes of azimuth. Thus for a
Category 2 luminaire the patch luminance should not Manufacturers must also check to ensure that there are no
exceed the limit at or above 65° in any of these four high luminance spots of area 500 mm2 (25 mm diameter)
azimuth planes. The methods of carrying out this test are visible on the optical system or luminous parts of the
detailed in BS 5225: Photometric data for luminaires(2l) luminaire at or above the luminance limit angle. The
(Note that a new methodology for patch testing is being luminance of these spots should not exceed the limits
discussed within the lighting industry and revised patch given below. This should be checked in the 0°, 30°, 60°
test criteria may be produced either within BS 5225 or as a and 90° planes of azimuth. Methods for carrying out the
standalone procedure within the lifetime of this Lighting test are detailed in BS 5225(21). Patch test luminance limits
Guide.)
are:
(a) 500 cd/m2 for areas where screens with poor sur-
A2.1.3 Failure to comply face treatment are in use with software using a
negative polarity display (light characters on a
It should be noted that a luminaire that fails to meet the dark background),
luminance limit above the appropriate limit angle at any
of 10° azimuth steps around the luminaire, or fails to meet (b) 1000 cd/m2 where only screens with enhanced
the patch test limit at any 30° azimuth angle, cannot be surface treatment or screens using only positive
described as complying with the category for which it is polarity display (dark characters on a light back-
being tested. A luminaire being tested for Category 3 ground) software are in use,
compliance will fail if the luminance measured at 75°
elevation is less than 200 cd/m2 except at one angle of (c) 1500 cd/m2 for areas where only screens with
azimuth where it is 210 cd/m2. enhanced surface treatment using only positive
polarity display (dark characters on a light back-
ground) software are in use.
A2.2 500 and 1000 cd/m2
luminaires These figures are summarised in Table 8.2.
45
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE
where:
B = average luminance of the ceiling (cd/m2)
N = number of indirect lights
F = initial light output of the light source
(lumens)
UFC = luminaire's utilisation factor for the ceiling
(see TM5(20))
ρ = reflectance of the ceiling A3.2 Maximum surface luminance
A = area of the ceiling (m2) over free-standing indirect
For irregularly spaced indirect lights, the average lumi- lights
nance can be estimated from the luminances calculated
for a regular array of points on the ceiling. The luminance Estimation of the maximum luminance achieved above an
at each point can be calculated using the following indirect lighting installation requires knowledge of the
formula (see Figure A3.1): luminous intensity distribution of the indirect light and
the reflectance properties of the surface. This information
will enable the likely location of the maximum luminance
to be predicted. Once this has been done the luminance at
that location can be calculated using the formula given
above. In general the point directly over the indirect light,
the point where Iγ is highest, and the points at 5 ° inter-
where: vals between, should be checked. The contribution of
Bn = luminance of the ceiling at a specified point neighbouring uplighters to the peak value must also be
(cd/m2) taken into account.
46
LUMINANCE ABOVE INDIRECT LIGHTS
47
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE
This Appendix outlines the checks likely to be required to screen, nor distinct enough to be distracting.
ensure that the visual environment in display screen areas Remember that the changing sunlight position
is acceptable and can be maintained in that manner. may affect certain windows and blinds at different
Section A4.1 describes the reasoning behind the checks times of the year.
while sections A4.2 and A4.3 outline the checks that
should be made to an installation, both initially and then Check that there are no disturbing reflections
through its life. A full description of health and safety from the desk surfaces: generally matt surfaces of
regulations can be found in the CIBSE Guidance Note a light tone are required. Glossy surfaces reflect
GN2: Healthy workplaces(11). images of overhead lighting and dark desks cause
high contrasts with white documents.
Check that there are no extremely bright reflec-
A4.1 Checklist criteria tions from room surfaces: these can be distracting
and may cause reflection in display screens.
— Check that there is sufficient ambient light in
each area: it is recommended that 200 lux is Check that desk task lights are provided where the
provided in any continuously occupied area to type of task or work environment requires them:
avoid it appearing gloomy or oppressive to the such lights are needed where reading text-based
occupants. information is carried out in an area lit to a low
ambient level.
— Check that there is sufficient illumination on each
task: the recommended lighting levels for typical, Check that, where desk task lights are provided,
purely screen-based tasks are 300 lux and, when they do not act as a source of heat to the user, are a
combined with paper-based tasks, 500 lux. Light- danger to the user or allow light to stray onto
ing levels for other tasks are given in the schedule adjacent workstations: desk task lights should be
of the CIBSE Code for interior lighting(12). adjustable and remain in the position required by
the user. The light should be of a low energy
— Check that there is no undue glare from the room design to minimise heat output and should be
lights: this is difficult to check in detail. The most shielded or have a range of movement that does
extreme cases will be obvious but in marginal not allow stray light to annoy adjacent users.
cases expert assistance will be required to deter-
mine if recommended glare levels have been ex- Check that the direction of light falling on the
ceeded. task aids perception and that no disturbing shad-
ows are cast over the task area: directional lighting
— Check that there is no undue glare from windows: can be used to provide task lighting to text adja-
as with room lights the more extreme cases will be cent to a screen or on a text holder and avoid stray
obvious, although the situation will change con- light reaching display screens. However, poorly
siderably with season and weather conditions. If positioned light sources can throw shadows across
there is a problem, screening in the form of roller the workplace and lead to luminance imbalance.
blinds or similar may be needed.
— Check that there is no undue contrast between
windows or window shading and adjacent wall A4.2 Primary checks
surfaces: this often occurs with small windows in
otherwise dark walls. The solution is normally The following checks should be carried out in each
either to increase the brightness of adjacent in- display screen area when it is first assessed:
ternal wall surfaces or to increase the shading of
the window opening. — Check that the ambient lighting level in the space
provides sufficient general light.
— Check that there is no undue contrast between any
display screen and its immediate surround: if — Check that the lighting level is sufficient for the
there is, then the lighting of the workstation or task(s) being carried out at each workplace.
surface reflectances within the workstation may — Check that for any workstation where local task
need to be altered. lighting is provided to boost the ambient lighting
that it is not providing a risk to the users and is
— Check that there is no undue contrast between a not allowing stray light to affect other users.
display screen and the room seen beyond it: if
there is, the room lighting or room surface reflec- — Check to see if existing lighting equipment or
tances may need to be altered. windows are a source of glare.
— Check that there are no distracting or disturbing — Check that the windows are clean and are not un-
reflections on any display screens: some reflec- necessarily obstructed. Consider the relocation of
tions are inevitable but they should be of a level existing workplaces to increase the proportion of
low enough not to obscure the image on the daylight available for lighting the task.
48
CHECKLISTS FOR ASSESSING LIGHTING QUALITY IN A SPACE
Check that there is no undue contrast between the Check that there are no distracting or disturbing
windows or window shading and adjacent wall reflections on any display screen or desk surface.
surfaces.
Ensure that all new lighting schemes are designed
Check that no lighting equipment provides a to provide the correct level of task illuminance
danger of striking or being struck by an employee and that the lights do not provide a source of glare
or items being carried by employees. to the occupants.
Check that there is no risk of burns, fire or over- Ensure that all new lighting equipment is in-
heating of materials near to lamps or light sources, stalled in such a manner and in such a location
especially mobile lighting or workplace mounted that it does not constitute a risk of collision with
lighting. staff or items they may be carrying, and that the
Check for safe access to all lighting equipment for equipment itself can be safely maintained and
maintenance and lamp changing. relamped.
49
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE
At present the great majority of computer display screens, A5.2 Alternative display screen
particularly those used in offices, employ cathode ray tube
(CRT) technology. Such screens are self-luminous, i.e. they equipment technologies
produce the light that the user sees. Alternative display
technologies such as liquid crystal displays (LCD) use The most common alternatives to CRT-based DSE tech-
reflected light to display the image. nology are plasma and electroluminescent screens, and
liquid crystal display (LCD) screens. These types of DSE are
relatively thin and can be used for applications where CRT
Until the start of the 1990s most display screens were screens would be too bulky.
monochrome, displaying bright, mainly alphanumeric
characters on a dark background. This has been changing
progressively to colour displays and the use of more A5.2.1 Plasma displays
graphical images, even in traditional word processing
applications. The screen polarity used by modern soft- Plasma display technology appeared at the beginning of
ware, including word processing software, has been chang- the 1970s and can be used for quite large screens. Plasma
ing from negative, i.e. light text on a dark background, to displays use a grid of vertical and horizontal electrodes on
positive, i.e. a light background with a darker foreground, the inside of two glass plates, between which is a layer
for example black text on a white background. composed mainly of neon gas. The gas is ionised, and
discharges when a voltage of about 200 volts is applied
between activated electrodes. Due to their red-orange
colour, given by the neon gas, plasma screens have a rela-
A5.1 Cathode ray tube technology tively low visual efficacy and are difficult to see under
certain conditions.
CRT displays consist of an evacuated glass tube (similar to
a television tube) encased within a fibreglass, metal or
plastic housing. In the tube a cathode emits an electron A5.2.2 Electroluminescent displays
beam which is focused by an electronic lens system and
deflected, by either electrostatic or electromagnetic forces, Electroluminescent displays (ELD) have an electrode
towards a screen which has been coated with a phosphor. system of the same type as plasma screens, but instead of
The display is formed by the phosphor, or phosphors in neon gas an electroluminescent element (manganese-
the case of colour displays, emitting light when activated doped zinc sulphide) emits light when exposed to an
by the electron beam. electric field. Like plasma display screens, ELD screens are
run primarily on AC. Their colour is usually pale yellow,
but modifications produce red, green, and blue light,
The phosphor begins to fade immediately after it is ex- which makes colour presentation possible. The image
cited. To obtain a steady image, the phosphor must be quality with ELD is better than that with the CRT. However
reactivated frequently. This is done by repetitive sweeping ELD can be susceptible to the same visibility problems as
of the electron beam across and down the screen. This plasma display screens. Also, they can require high
process is called the raster scan. Once the bottom of the operating voltages, up to 650 V. This makes the control
raster scan has been reached, the electron beam is de- circuits expensive.
flected back to the top of the screen to repeat the process.
A5.2.3 Liquid crystal displays
Because the raster scan takes some time to complete,
single scan CRT screens are susceptible to flicker. If succes- LCD technology allows lightweight and space-saving
sive scans of the screen are not in registration with the screens to be produced. Image quality can be high, for
primary scan then the screen image will appear to jitter. example screen text can have a similar quality to printed
Some users find flicker and jitter distracting and un- text. Also, LCD screens are not susceptible to screen flicker
comfortable. Flicker and jitter can also lead to problems of or jitter. This is because screen images are not produced
screen task visibility. by a raster scan, but instead are produced by small volt-
ages applied to the screen grid. Other advantages include
To help the electron beam remain in focus across the their use of flat screens, which are less susceptible to
whole of the screen, the screen is curved both horizontally screen reflections, freedom from interference from mag-
and vertically. This slight convex curvature of the screen netic fields, and a complete absence of potentially harmful
results in a wide area behind the user being reflected in radiation.
the screen, see Figure A1.2. The occurrence of reflections
on the screen can produce significant reductions in screen LCD screens are controlled by small to moderate control
task visibility. With advances in CRT technology, screens voltages, and do not therefore require the bulky control
are becoming less curved. Flatter, squarer tube (FST) circuits of CRT, plasma display or ELD screens. Thus LCD
screens are now available which, because of their reduced screens consume negligible amounts of energy and,
curvature, are less susceptible to screen reflections. because of the absence of heavy control gear, can be made
50
DISPLAY SCREEN EQUIPMENT TECHNOLOGY
very light in weight. A typical LCD screen weighs about 2 near and far images(23). An unnatural posture adopted to
kg, compared to a typical CRT screen weighing approxi- attain a satisfactory line of sight will probably cause dis-
mately 12 kg. comfort.
However, despite its advantages LCD screen technology Text visibility can be enhanced by the use of positive
needs further development before it can be adopted for polarity displays. However, jitter and flicker are more
widespread use. LCD screens are therefore used mainly noticeable on positive polarity screens.
where small, lightweight screens are required, e.g. for use
with portable computers. Part 3 of BS EN 29241(3) sets the specification for visual
displays, and all DSE used in the working environment
The LCD technology that holds the greatest potential for should conform to this standard. The standard provides
development for widespread use as DSE is 'thin film specifications for manufacturers relating to average dis-
technology' (TFT). Screens using TFT provide a large range play luminance, colour of screen surround, glare reduction
of screen contrasts, enhancing visibility. They also allow and enhancement techniques and safety. Guidance on
the use of colour and have fast response times, allowing those aspects of DSE use within the control of the user,
screen animation to be run. Short term production prob- such as screen tilt, typical viewing angles and viewing
lems make TFT screens prohibitively expensive for wide- distances are also included. These issues are discussed
spread introduction. However, once these problems are more fully in Appendix 1.
overcome TFT screen technology is likely to become an
established component of the range of commonly used
display screen technology. The regulations on DSE state that either a positive or
negative polarity display is acceptable. However, research
indicates that positive polarity is preferred by users,
despite the increase in problems related to flicker and
A5.3 The display image jitter. Two studies'24'25) reported that 80%-and 94% of
users preferred positive polarity screens. Both studies also
The quality and resolution of screen-based graphic images found an improvement in performance with the use of
rely on the pixel size (larger pixels produce coarser positive polarity screens.
images), the range and stability of screen luminances, the
range and stability of screen colours, and the flicker and
jitter characteristics of the screen. The legibility of text
displayed on DSE is determined by the size, shape and A5.4 Portable display screen
layout of the characters, and by the overall quality of the equipment
screen image, which depends on the same characteristics
as those which control the quality of graphic images. The
quality of a screen image contributes significantly to The use of portable computers, which often use flat, liquid
fixing the distance at which users can view the screen crystal display (LCD) screens, is increasing. Flat LCD
without undue effort, and hence to the visual comfort of screens have very good reflected glare characteristics and
the screen task. are generally much less susceptible to screen reflections
because they are flat. Also, because of their portability
they are easily relocated if reflected glare is a problem.
Visually demanding work, particularly under adverse However, they do rely on general lighting to produce an
viewing conditions, can result in visual fatigue or eye- acceptable contrast on the screen and suffer from a
strain, or both. This is likely to be due to the excess use of reduced quality image when viewed from an angle.
muscles in and around the eye. These include:
— the ciliary muscles employed in changing the Small portable computers are not generally used for pro-
shape of the lens for accommodation and focusing longed periods. However if they are, they must conform to
to allow viewing at different distances, The Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regu-
lations(1).
— the extra-ocular muscles employed in convergence,
turning both eyes inward to focus simultaneously
on a single point of the visual field e.g. part of the The Regulations state that: 'While there are no hard and fast
display screen, rules on what constitutes 'prolonged' use, portable equipment
that is habitually in use by a display screen user for a significant
— the constrictors and dilators of the pupils which part of his or her normal work,..., should be regarded as covered
partly control the amount of light admitted, but by the regulations.' The definitions of 'habitual' and 'sig-
more importantly determine the quality of the nificant part' appear in the Regulations.
retinal image,
— the muscles controlling facial expression may also
be involved(22). A5.5 Keyboards
The positioning of the screen relative to the user signifi- The keyboard is the most frequently used means of data
cantly influences the posture of the head and neck. Users entry and control of individual display screens. Most key-
should not have to twist their heads to avoid glare, stoop boards are separate from the screen console and main
forward to see more clearly, move their eyes or head to computer unit. This allows the user to move the keyboard
switch from image to image, or frequently refocus between to a comfortable operating position.
51
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE
Keyboards can suffer from distracting reflections if the Table A5.2 ISO 9241 Ergonomic requirements for office work with visual
key surface is glossy. This is sometimes called 'twinkle'. display terminals
Better keyboards have matt surface keys with the charac-
ters in a bold contrasting colour. The surround to the
keys is normally also matt, to avoid reflections, and of a
similar colour and reflectance to the keys, to avoid large
luminance contrasts with them.
Notes:
(a) Each committee produces committee drafts for international
comment. Once a committee draft is agreed it becomes a Draft
International Standard. This is again voted on internationally
until it gains approval and becomes an International Standard.
(b) Draft International Standards are voted on in parallel by ISO
and CEN member countries. This means that the standard
automatically becomes a Euro Norm once agreed.
52
REFERENCES
15 Display screen equipment work — Guidance on Regulations L26 Visual environment in lecture, teaching and conference rooms CIBSE Lighting
(London: HMSO) (1992) Guide LG5 (London: Chartered Institution of Building Services
Engineers) (1991)
16 Collins B L Review of the psychological reaction to windows
Lighting Res. Technol. 8(2) 80-85 (1976) Calculation of glare indices CIBSE Technical Memoranda TM10 (London:
Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers) (1985)
17 Cakir A E An investigation on state-of-art and future prospects
of lighting technology in German office environments Light Emergency lighting CIBSE Technical Memoranda TM12 (London:
and Health — Influence and Well Being of Office and Computer Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers) (1986)
53
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE
The explanations and definitions given in this glossary are A measure of the degree to which the colours of surfaces
intended to help readers to understand this Lighting illuminated by a given light source conform to those of the
Guide. They are based on BS 4727: Part 4: 1971/2 Glossary same surfaces under a reference illuminant, suitable allow-
of terms particular to lighting and colour and on the Inter- ance having been made for the state of chromatic adap-
national Lighting Vocabulary 1987 issued jointly by the tation. See also adaptation and CIE publication 13.2.
Commission Internationale del l'Eclairage (CIE) and the
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). These Colour temperature (T c , unit: K)
documents should be consulted if more precise definitions
are required. The temperature of a 'full radiator' which emits radiation
of the same chromaticity as the radiator being considered.
Adaptation
Computer aided design (CAD)
The process which takes place as the visual system adjusts
itself to the brightness or colour (chromatic adaptation) of The use of computers to assist in the design of plans,
the visual field. The term is also used, usually qualified, to components, circuits, etc., normally using graphic display
denote the final state of this process. For example 'dark screens and digitising tablets.
adaptation' denotes the state of the visual system when it
has become adapted to a very low luminance.
Constancy
Average illuminance (Eave) See brightness constancy.
54
GLOSSARY
Lighting in which the greater part of the luminous flux Lighting provided for use when the main lighting instal-
from the luminaires reaches a surface (usually the working lation fails.
plane) directly, i.e. without reflection from surrounding
surfaces. Luminaires with a flux fraction ratio less than 0.1 Escape lighting
are usually regarded as direct.
Emergency lighting provided to ensure that the means of
Direct ratio (DR) escape can be safely and effectively used at all times.
55
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE
The luminous flux density at a surface, i.e. the luminous Lightness constancy
flux incident per unit area. This quantity was formerly
known as the illumination value or illumination level. See See brightness constancy.
also average, initial, maintained and minimum illuminance.
Limiting glare rating
Illumination
The maximum value of the glare rating which is recom-
The process of lighting. mended for a specific lighting application. See glare index
system.
Indirect lighting
Liquid crystal display (LCD)
Lighting in which the greater part of the flux reaches the
surface (usually the working plane) only after reflection at A display device which works on the principle that a
other surfaces, usually a roof or ceiling. Luminaires with a liquid crystal polarises light under an applied voltage.
flux fraction ratio greater than 10 are usually regarded as
indirect.
Local lighting
Initial illuminance ( E a v i , units:Im/m 2 , lux) Lighting designed to illuminate an interior and at the
same time to provide higher illuminances over a particular
Average illuminance for a new installation when lamps, part, or parts, of the interior.
luminaires and room surfaces are clean. See also maintain-
ed illuminance and maintenance factor.
Lumen (Im)
Initial light output (unit: Im) The SI unit of luminous flux, used to describe a quantity
of light emitted by a source or received by a surface. A
The luminous flux from a new lamp. In the case of dis- small source which has a uniform luminous intensity of
charge lamps this is usually the output after 100 hours of one candela emits a total of 4π lumens in all directions and
operation. emits one lumen within a unit solid angle, i.e. 1 steradian.
A diagram showing contours of equal illuminance. Apparatus which controls the distribution of light given
by a lamp or lamps and which includes all the components
necessary for fixing and protecting the lamps and for
Light output ratio (LOR) connecting them to the supply circuit. Luminaire has
officially superseded the term 'lighting fitting' which is
The ratio of the total light output of a luminaire under still used colloquially.
stated practical conditions to that of the lamp or lamps
under reference conditions. For a luminaire, the output is
usually measured in the designated operating position at Luminance (L, unit: cd/m2)
25 °C ambient temperature with control gear of the type
usually supplied in a luminaire and operated at its normal The physical measure of the stimulus which produces the
voltage. For a lamp the output is measured at 25 °C ambi- sensation of brightness measured by the luminous in-
ent temperature and with control gear of standard proper- tensity of the light emitted or reflected in a given direction
ties. This is a practical basis for evaluating the total light from a surface element, divided by the projected area of
56
GLOSSARY
the element in the same direction. The SI unit of lumi- Maintained illuminance (Em, unit: lux)
nance is the candela per square metre.
The average illuminance over the reference surface at the
Luminance factor ( b v , b) time maintenance has to be carried out by replacing lamps
and/or cleaning the equipment and room surfaces. See also
Also known as gloss factor. The ratio of the luminance of a design maintained illuminance and standard maintained
reflecting surface, viewed in a given direction, to that of an illuminance.
identically illuminated 'perfect white' uniform diffusing
surface. For a non-matt surface the luminance factor may
Maintenance factor (MF)
be greater or less than the reflectance.
The ratio of the illuminance provided by an installation at
Luminance limit angle some stated time, with respect to the initial illuminance,
i.e. that after 100 hours of operation. The maintenance fac-
Angle at and above which the calculated luminance does tor is the product of the lamp lumen maintenance factor,
not exceed the limits set out in this document. the lamp survival factor (where group lamp replacement
without spot replacement is carried out), the luminaire
maintenance factor and the room surface maintenance
Luminous area factor. Note: the introduction of maintained illuminance
has fundamentally changed the definition of this term
The area of a lamp or luminaire which emits light. For a which was formally associated with service illuminance.
flat surface the projected area varies with the cosine of the Because of this recent change, the definition in the
angle between the direction of view and the normal to the International Lighting Vocabulary, CIE publication 17.4 895-
surface. For a spherical surface the projected area is 09-59, is now incorrect.
constant for all directions of view. For less regular solids,
e.g. a surface diffuser luminaire, the luminous surfaces in
various planes must be calculated separately. For specular Maximum spacing-to-height ratio (SHRmax)
reflectors or prismatic optics the 'flashed luminous area'
varies with viewing angle and no simple relationship The SHR for a four-by-four square array of luminaires that
applies in practice. gives a ratio of minimum to maximum direct illuminance
of 0.7 over the central region between the four innermost
Luminous flux (fv,f, unit: Im) luminaires. For the majority of luminaires SHRmax is the
spacing-to-height ratio at which the mid-point (or mid-
area) ratio is 0.7.
The light emitted by a source, or received by a surface.
The quantity is derived from radiant flux by evaluating
the radiation in accordance with the spectral sensitivity of Maximum transverse spacing-to-height ratio
the standard eye as described by the CIE standard photo- (SHR m a x t r )
metric observer (ISO/CIE 10527).
The SHR in the transverse plane for continuous lines of
Luminous intensity (/, unit: cd) luminaires that gives a ratio of minimum to maximum
direct illuminance of 0.7 over the central region between
A quantity which describes the power of a source or the two inner rows.
illuminated surface to emit light in a given direction. It is
the luminous flux emitted in a very narrow cone contain-
ing the given direction divided by the solid angle of the Minimum illuminance (E min , unit: lux)
cone. Intensity is given by the product of illuminance
multiplied by distance squared, when distance is large The lowest value found by calculation or measurement on
compared with the source dimensions. points of a stated grid. Note that a search for the absolute
minimum value is rarely, if ever, justified.
Luminous intensity distribution
Mixed reflection
The distribution of the luminous intensity of a lamp or
luminaire in all directions. Luminous intensity distri-
butions are usually shown in the form of a polar diagram, Partly specular and partly diffused reflection, as from
or a table, for a single vertical plane, in terms of candelas smooth, glossy paint. See also luminance factor.
per 1000 lumens of lamp luminous flux.
Mounting height (h m )
Lux (lux)
Usually the vertical distance between a luminaire and the
The SI unit of illuminance, equal to one lumen per square working plane. In some cases the floor may be the effective
metre. working plane.
57
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE
The highest value of SHR in the series 0.5, 0.75, 1.0 etc., The maintained illuminance recommended for the
that is not greater than SHRmax. Utilisation factor tables are assumed standard conditions of the application. See also
normally calculated at a spacing-to-height ratio of SHRnom. design maintained illuminance.
In an electric circuit, the power factor is equal to the ratio The unit of solid angle. A complete sphere subtends 4π sr
of the root mean square power in watts to the product of from the centre.
the root mean square values of voltage and current. For
sinusoidal waveforms the power factor is also equal to the
cosine of the angle of phase difference between voltage Stroboscopic effect
and current.
An illusion caused by modulation of luminous flux that
makes a moving object appear as stationary or as moving
Projected area
in a manner different from that in which it is truly mov-
ing.
See luminous area.
Task area
Reflectance (factor) (R, r)
The area containing those details and objects that must be
The ratio of the luminous flux reflected from a surface to seen for the performance of a given activity, including the
the luminous flux incident on it. Except for matt surfaces, immediate background of the details or objects. In the ab-
reflectance depends on how the surface is illuminated but sence of precise dimensions the task area is assumed to be
especially on the direction of the incident light and its a 0.5 m square, which is placed within a 1 m square sur-
spectral distribution. The value is always less than unity round. See also working plane.
and is expressed as either a decimal or as a percentage.
Task lighting
Reflection factor
Placing luminaires in such a way as to throw most of their
See reflectance.
light output onto the task or area where the task is per-
formed.
Scalloping
Transmission
A regular pattern of light and shade caused by luminaires
with a narrow light distribution mounted close to vertical
room surfaces. The passing of radiation through a medium.
The illuminance received directly at a point indoors from The ratio of luminous flux transmitted by a material to the
a sky of known or assumed luminance distribution expres- incident luminous flux.
sed as a percentage of the horizontal illuminance outdoors
from an unobstructed hemisphere of the same sky. Direct
sunlight is excluded from both values of illuminance. Unified glare rating (UGR) system
Specular reflection
Uniform diffuser
Reflection without diffusion in accordance with the laws
of optical reflection, as in a mirror. A surface that emits a cosine intensity distribution.
58
GLOSSARY
Upward light output ratio (ULOR) The full extent in space of what can be seen when looking
in a given direction.
The ratio of the total light output of a luminaire above the
horizontal under stated practical conditions to that of the
lamp or lamps under reference conditions. Visual impairment
59
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE
40 Filters 12, 17
Index viewing distance
Designing Fixed screen installations 29
for graphics workstations 38 Flaps 13
Access to lighting equipment 49 with direct lighting 27 Flatter, squarer tube (FST) display 50
Adaptation 5,54 with direct/indirect lighting 35 Flicker 12,18,50-51,55
Ambient lighting 48 with indirect lighting 31 Floor mounted indirect lights 31,33
Angle of incidence 40 Desk Floor standing indirect lights 35
Average illuminance 54 light 37 Flux fraction ratio 55
working plane 33-34 task lighting 26,31 ,48 Free-standing indirect lights 23, 33,46
Average luminance 32 Diffuse Fringing 12, 17
ceiling 46 lighting 55 Fritted glass 22
reflection 55 Furniture mounted indirect lighting 31
Background lighting 24 Dimming control 31,36-38 Furniture mounted screens 12
Blinds 6,11,19,20-21,48 Direct/indirect lighting 24
Body posture 11 designing with 35 General lighting 31,34
Brightness 54 Direct light luminance limit calculation 44 General surround lighting 55
constancy 54 Direct lighting 24, 35, 55 Geometry, eye-screen-luminaire 40
reduction 20 designing with 27 Glare 4,6,8-10,19,27,36,38,48,55
wall 31 Direct ratio (DR) 55 avoidance of 3
surface 48 Directional lighting 48,55 disability 5, 7, 19, 55
workstation 11 Disability glare 5,7,19,55 discomfort 5-7,11,55
Discomfort glare 5-7,11,55 disturbing 9
Calculation Display index system 55
light luminance limit calculation 44 cathode ray tube (CRT) 50,54 Glazing
surface luminance 46-47 contrast 12 fritted 22
Candela 54 electroluminescent 50 reflective 22
Category 1 luminaires 29-30, 43-44 high resolution 12 tinted 19,22
Category 2 luminaires 29-30, 42, 44 image 18,27-28,45,51 Graphics workstation 38
Category 3 luminaires 29-30, 44 liquid crystal 50-51,56
Cathode ray tube (CRT) display 50, 54 plasma 50 Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment)
Ceiling Display screen equipment (DSE) Regulations 7,9-10,38,51,53
coffered 26 based tasks 3 Health and Safety Regulations 7-13, 37-38, 48,
illuminance 33 definition 55 51,53
inclined 34 flaps 13 High resolution displays 12
luminance 34,46 flatter, squarer tube 50 Hoods 13, 17
luminous 26, 32, 34 hoods 13 Horizontal blinds 21
mounted direct lights 35 portable 51
mounted luminaires 3 statutory requirements for 38 Illuminance 56
reflectance 46 technology 50 average 54
surface finishes 31 Distracting reflectances 48 working plane 33-34
Checklist Distracting reflections 2,7,10-11, 15,49,52 ceiling 33
assessment of visual environment 10 from keyboards 52 controlling 5
Colour Disturbing glare initial 56
9
rendering 8, 24, 54 Disturbing reflectances maintained 57
48
rendering index (CRI) 54 minimum 57
Disturbing reflections 49
room surfaces 15, 26-27, 32, 36 standard maintained 58
Document-based tasks 24
temperature 54 surface 6
Downlighters 27,55
Column mounted indirect task 49
Downward light output ratio (DLOR) 55 Image, display screen 4-5 , 12,27,48,51
lighting 23, 31, 47
Drawing board 38 quality of 5,51
Combined indirect/direct lights 22
Computer aided design (CAD) 54 stability of 12
Effective reflectance 55 Indirect/direct lighting 25
Computer-based tasks 3
Constancy 54 Electric lighting 4,18 combined 22
Contrast 54 design options 22 luminaire 23, 35, 56
text 18 Electrical system 23 Indirect lighting 22, 24-25, 31 -34, 38,46, 56
Controlling Electroluminescent display (ELD) 50 column mounted 23,31,47
illuminance 5 Emergency lighting 8, 55 designing with 31
luminance 3,5 Energy floor mounted 31,33
Correlated colour temperature (CCT) 54 efficiency 18,34 free-standing 23, 33, 46
Cove lighting 26, 32 limits 24 furniture mounted 31
Curtains 20 Ergonomic suspended 22-23
aspects 4 wall mounted 22,31,47
Daylight 4,8-9,11,18-19 criteria 40 Indirect 'spill' light 35
design options 18 limits 40 Initial illuminance 56
factor 54 recommendations 41 Initial light output 56
Decor 2, 15, 22, 32 standards 52 Isolux diagram 56
Design Ergonomics 4,38
maintained illuminance 24,54 Escape lighting 55 Jitter 12,18,50-51
options for daylighting 18 Eye-screen-luminaire geometry 40
options for electric lighting 22 Eye strain 6 Keyboard 4,13,15,25,51-52
process 14 Eyesight test 12 operating position 51
60
INDEX
61
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE
62
Society of Light and Lighting
This latest update is to be read in conjunction with the existing version of LG3 The visual environment for display
screen use, published in 1996. This update makes changes to the use of the fallback 'category' system of downlights
and revises the recommendations given in LG3 relating to the maximum luminance of luminaires to align with
new European standards.
If we know that display screens are to be used in a space but we know little about them, then we can not
tell at what angle of tilt or heights they will be used in. We have to assume that they will be used within
the standard ergonomic limits as described in appendix 1. The designer needs to select luminaires with
an appropriate luminance limit based on the type(s) of screens likely to be used in that space. This
luminance limit will be applied at a standard 65° limit angle unless it is known that the likely screen tilts
would require a lower limit angle.
Considering only the luminaire's light distribution, however, does not guarantee a successful
lighting installation. The designer needs to consider all aspects of the guidance in order to
design an installation that complies with Lighting Guide 3. The key to success is the avoidance of
any very high luminance patches in a space and any abrupt change in luminance across a surface or
between adjacent surfaces. It is therefore necessary for the designer to have some influence over the
control of daylighting and the specification of the reflectance of ceiling, wall and other surfaces.
In addition the existing Appendix 2 of Lighting Guide 3 is withdrawn and the following text is substituted as a
guide to selecting an appropriate lighting distribution for downlights.
where:
Bc = Luminance in azimuth plane C (cd/m2)
C = Azimuth plane angle 0°, 15°, 30°... 345°
γ = Angle of elevation from the downward vertical
/cy = Intensity at angle g in azimuth plane C (cd/1000 Im)
N = Number of lamps
F = Initial lumen output of lamp (lumens)
/ = Sum of bottom plan length of louvre elements (meters)
w = Sum of bottom plan width of louvre elements (meters)
K = Factor to account for any fixed turn down ratio when regulated or dimmed ballasts are used, or
factor to account for higher output from standard high frequency ballasts
For luminaires with significant emission of light from the sides of the luminaire the more complex
equation within CIBSE TM10 should be used (this will be superseded by a section on the calculation of
glare in the Society of Lighting Code for Lighting 2002).
The calculations for luminance limit should normally be carried out with the lamp (or lamps) normally
used in the luminaire and with the standard luminaire ballast and taking the initial lumen output value.
If the luminaire only meets a certain limit with a lower output lamp or different ballast then this must be
stated in the luminaire data. If certain luminaire lengths, normally the longer lengths, do not meet the
limit achieved for the rest of the range then this must also be stated in the luminaire data.
The 17 parts of the standard cover all ergonomic aspects of working with display screens from the way keyboards
are laid-out to the way input dialogues spring-up on Windows. This update covers the implications for LG3 of
just part 6 of the standard, 'Guidance on the work environment', and part 7 'Display requirements with reflec-
tions'. Part 6 provides the standards required of luminaires to be used in an area where screens of a particular
type are to be used. Part 7 provides a method of selecting display screens based on the amount of anti-reflective
treatment needed to cope with the existing lighting within an area.
It should also be remembered that the Health & Safety Executive's guidance document to the Health and
safety (display screen equipment) Regulations 1992 refers readers onto LG3 for specific guidance on lighting
issues.
(It is also likely within the next year to 18 months that prEN 12464 Light and lighting. Lighting of indoor work
places will become a full European standard. The present final draft of this standard aligns with the luminance
limits given here and stated in part 6 of BS EN ISO 29241.)
At the time the current edition of Lighting Guide 3 was being written in 1995/6, the work on parts 6 and 7 of
the BS EN ISO 29241 was running in parallel. Although the standard was in draft, it was decided to adopt the
standard's criteria for different luminaire luminance limits for screens with different types of anti-reflectance
properties. As noted in section 5.6 of LG3, at the time of publication only two classes of screen anti-reflectance
were proposed. Now that the standard is published there are three.
This means that the international standard has three classes of screen quality whereas LG3 has only two. The
three ISO monitor classes are Class I for screens with good anti-reflective properties, Class II for moderate anti-
reflective properties and Class III for screens with little or no anti-reflective properties. The two existing LG3
screen types are screens with 'poor surface treatment' and screens 'with anti-reflective treatment'. LG3 refers to
the standard for the final definitions of these screen types.
The luminance limits laid-out in Table 8.1 on page 28 of LG3 and as discussed in section 8, are to be
replaced by the values given in the table below. The limits for areas where some negative polarity soft-
ware is in use align with the BS EN ISO 29241 values. Where only screens using positive polarity software
will be affected by the lighting then the specifier can increase the luminaire's luminance limit to the
figures indicated below the table.
Where positive polarity software only is being used on Type I and II screens the luminance limit can be
increased to 1500 cd/m2.
Where positive polarity software only is being used on Type III screens the luminance limit can be
increased to 500 cd/m2.
The present draft prEN 12464 'Light and Lighting, Lighting of indoor work places' recommends that the lumi-
nance limits are normally applied at a 65° angle of elevation where the screens in the area are not tilted back
beyond 15° from the vertical. In special circumstances, where screens may be unusually sensitive to reflections, a
55° luminance limit angle is recommended. As it is likely that these recommendations will be contained in the
final approved version of EN 12464 we are also recommending that the luminance values listed above in table
8.1 are applied at 65° for areas where screens are not tilted back beyond 15° to the vertical (or 55° where
necessary).
An additional recommendation is introduced into LG3 as below.
The wall illuminance needs to be considered to ensure that the walls do not appear dark in relation to
the working plane. With pure downlighting, there is a danger of the upper walls, especially, appearing
dark. In certain spaces wall washing may be needed. To achieve a good luminance balance in a space,
the average wall illuminance above the working plane, from both the direct and reflected components,
should be at least 50% of the average horizontal illuminance on the working plane. Where these walls
may be seen reflected in any display screens, then care must be taken to avoid bright scallops or patches
appearing on the walls, i.e. gradual changes in illuminance will be necessary on these walls.
To avoid the ceiling appearing dark, the ceiling average illuminance from both the direct and reflected
component should be at least 30% of the average horizontal illuminance. This could be from the sides
of surface mounted downlights; from uplighting elements of suspended luminaires; from dropped ele-
ments of recessed downlights or from supplementary uplights. In large spaces with unusually low ceil-
ings this may be difficult to achieve and in such circumstances the proportion of light on the ceiling
should be as high as is practicable.
The following figure, reprinted from Fig 2.1 of the 1994 edition of the CIBSE Code for interior lighting (as
amended in the reprint) indicates recommended surface characteristics.
B2.2 Designing with indirect lighting
The recommendations contained in Lighting Guide 3 remain, i.e.
• The average luminance on the ceiling or other surfaces lit directly should not exceed 500 cd/m2
• The peak luminance should not exceed 1500 cd/m2
• The luminance should vary gradually across the surfaces being directly lit.
C Certificate of conformity
To ensure that designers and installers comply with all the criteria set out in LG3 and do not assume that the
specification of a particular luminaire type will mean they comply we will be introducing a Certificate of Con-
formity to LG3.
The designers of an installation will complete this to demonstrate to the client/user of the space that all known
ergonomic and visual criteria were considered in the formulation of the lighting design.
The installer also signs to confirm that they have installed the specified products, including lamp and control gear
type, in the specified locations. Where the installation has had to deviate from that specified then the installer has
to state this on the certificate.
The Society of Light and Lighting's Technical and Publications Committee is working on the new Certificate at
present and this will be issued at a later date.
2 The key points list from LG3 included a number of requirements that are still not being applied by some
designers and specifiers leading to possible failure of lighting projects to meet the 'good visual environment'
requirement contained in the Health and Safety (Display Screen) Regulations.
These points were:
(a) This guidance constitutes an assessment and design process. Compliance with this Lighting Guide
can only be ensured by the application of the guidance as a whole and not just by the use of the sections
on luminaire specification.
(b) Providing a suitable visual environment is key to the efficient use of DSE in an area, see section 3.
(c) The lighting for DSE tasks should not compromise the lighting for other tasks performed in that space
nor degrade the overall visual environment of the space, see sections 2, 3 and 4.2.
(d) A full assessment of the risks to the users should be carried out before expensive, and possibly
unnecessary, alterations to the existing lighting are carried out, see section 4.
(e) Reflections are always present in glass-fronted display screens. It is the elimination of distracting
reflections that is important, see sections 4.3, 5.4 and Appendix 1.
(0 Disturbing reflections at a workstation can often be eliminated by suitable re-orientation of the screen
and/or the workstation rather than by relighting the entire space, see sections 4.3, 5.4, 5.5 and Appen-
dix 1.
(g) Windows and sunlit translucent window screening are likely to cause more problems with glare and
screen reflections than electric lighting, see sections 4.3 and 6.
(h) The room decor and colours of furniture are very important in determining the overall appearance of
the working space. Light in a space is inter-reflected and coloured by the surfaces in that space, see
sections 5 and 7.7.
(/) Simple replacement of lighting equipment without the consideration of the decor and workstation
use and orientation rarely leads to satisfactory interiors or compliance with LG3, see sections 4.3, 5 and
Appendix 1.
This update to LG3 was produced by Paul Ruffles on behalf of the Society of Light & Lighting's Technical & Publications Committee.
© 2001: Society of Light and Lighting.
The Society of
Light and Lighting
222 Balham High Road, London SW12 9BS, UK
Tel: 020 8772 3680. Fax: 020 8673 3302. e-mail: sll@cibse.org. web: www.cibse.org
The Society of Light and Lighting is part of CIBSE. Registered Charity no 278104