What is research

Research is a methodical and structured endeavor aimed at exploring problems and offering solutions to
posed inquiries. The research process initiates by formulating precise questions concerning the
problems at hand, necessitating a strategy to address these inquiries. Applied research targets specific
issues, whereas basic or fundamental research strives to enrich our comprehension of a particular
phenomenon. Research is executed through scientific methodologies, maintaining objectivity, and
yielding verifiable conclusions. It is crucial to differentiate between research and merely gathering basic
facts. Extracting information from encyclopedias and reporting on it lacks scientific methodologies; it
may exhibit bias, and its conclusions might not be corroboratable.

Goals of research

The primary goals of scientific research encompass five main areas: describing phenomena, uncovering
relationships, elucidating phenomena, forecasting future events, and impacting occurrences.

1. Phenomena can be elucidated through the collection and categorization of data. This typically
serves as the initial stage in scientific inquiry and forms the basis for subsequent research steps.
Nevertheless, there are instances where a research endeavor solely aims to acquire descriptive
data. For instance, a behavioral scientist might investigate how individuals perceive their
occupations, recognize their employers, or engage with coworkers. Advancing scientific inquiry
involves progressing to the pursuit of discoveries.
2. The subsequent stage of scientific inquiry involves pursuing interconnected discoveries. For
instance, behavioral scientists may explore the correlation between social structures and human
perceptions. Specifically, they might aim to investigate how individuals in various roles, such as
production, administrative, or managerial positions, perceive their duties. They may also analyze
how variables like age, gender, or tenure influence their levels of identification with the
organization, and how different management styles impact interpersonal dynamics among
colleagues. It's important to note that the presence of such correlations doesn't necessarily
imply causation. For instance, if research reveals that female employees exhibit higher
confidence levels compared to males, it suggests a clear link between confidence and gender.
However, gender itself doesn't directly cause this relationship; rather, it may be influenced by
other factors such as the interplay between gender and relationship quality beyond the
workplace.
3. Explanation or understanding of a phenomenon typically implies the existence of cause-effect
relationships among events. Theories, which are based on cause-effect relationships, provide
insights into the causes or effects of events predicted by the theory. For example, we can infer
that female workers are more confident in their abilities because they perceive themselves as
victims of discrimination and consequently strive harder in company training programs
compared to their male counterparts. Events are predicted based on existing cause-effect
relationships. An initial behavioral researcher might be interested in determining whether a new
set of cost standards will positively impact employee motivation and company profits. The
impact of the new standards on motivation and profits can be predicted through well-designed
research studies.
 4. Events are predicted based on pre-existing cause-and-effect relationships. An early behavioral
researcher may be interested in determining whether a new set of cost standards will have a
positive impact on employee motivation and company profits. The effects of the new standards
on motivation and profits can be anticipated through a well-designed research study.
5. The objectives of numerous research efforts include exerting influence and control.
Corporations seek to regulate employee turnover, affect motivation and morale levels, and
influence customer loyalty and purchasing behavior. Strategies for control are formulated based
on our comprehension of the interconnections between events.

Project design

The initial and often considered the most crucial step in behavioral research is defining the problem. The
type of information collected, the methods chosen for data collection, and the sample type depend on
how the problem is perceived, the framework of research questions, and the information selected by
the research designer. Similar to how a doctor diagnoses a case based on a patient's symptoms, a
research director or designer diagnoses an organization's problem based on available information. It's
important to note that the term "research problem" doesn't always imply that all behavioral research
aims to address dysfunction within an organization. In many instances, applied research is conducted to
enhance already satisfactory situations, expand existing markets, seize various opportunities, or prepare
individuals for innovation within the organization.

For example, Company XYZ is presently encountering challenges regarding customer satisfaction.
Specifically, the firm, specializing in financial and human resource management consultancy, has
observed a gradual yet consistent decline in both clients and revenue over the past three years. Despite
experiencing remarkable growth over a decade, with an average annual revenue increase of 20 percent,
the company began witnessing a revenue decrease of 5 to 7 percent approximately three years ago.
What's more troubling for the partners is the loss of valuable clients. Concerned about the company's
future, the partners convened with the research director to address the company's concerns. The
research director was presented with indications such as declining revenue, reduced clientele, and
decreased profits.

Determination of project scope

In many cases, not all areas that may raise concerns can be investigated in a single behavioral research
project. The scope of the project is typically limited to one or two major questions. For various reasons,
it may not be desired, practical, or feasible to examine every aspect of an issue. Often, the primary
limitation on the scope of a project is the amount of funding available. Behavioral research can be
costly, and budget constraints often result in the narrowing of the research scope to focus on the most
critical issues.

Ultimately, it may be impossible to investigate certain issues. For example, in an effort to attract a larger
percentage of highly qualified college graduates to join their team, a company might consider offering
free lunches to all its employees. Before making this decision, the company planners may want to
ascertain whether this policy (1) will be copied by competitor companies and (2) whether this benefit is
attractive or important to potential recruits. The first concern is an example of a problem that may not
be investigable. Assuming that there is no literature describing the history of similar companies with the
same issue, the only effect of research in this area is to provide information on your competitive
intentions. The second issue can be addressed through research studies.

Other Factor

Project design goes beyond simply determining the scope. Other aspects of design include determining
the population, identifying information needs, selecting data collection methods, and budgeting.

Primary and Secondary Data

Certain information, such as a company's past financial data, can be obtained from publicly available
records. Other information, including company policies, employment history, and meeting minutes, can
be obtained from corporate archives. These are examples of secondary data. Secondary data sources
are information collected, summarized, and prepared by others. The existence of secondary data is not
dependent on the current research project. Other types of information, including attitude and opinion
measurements as well as behavioral observations, are obtained by collecting data directly from the
target population. These are primary data, a term referring to the collection of unpublished data.

The primary advantage of primary data is that it is closest to the source of the phenomenon and,
therefore, more likely to reflect the "truth" we seek. Primary data can be collected and organized in such
a way that it can effectively address research director's questions. However, primary data can be costly
and time-consuming to obtain. In some cases, primary data may not be available; in such cases,
researchers must resort to using secondary data sources.

The benefits of secondary data include cost and time savings, clarifying issues, providing benchmarks for
evaluating primary data, and filling information gaps. Certainly, significant cost and time savings can be
realized by utilizing secondary data if the information is already available. Researchers should consult
libraries, trade or industry associations, and government agencies to ascertain the availability of relevant
information.

Searching for and examining secondary data can help researchers clarify issues. By determining what
questions have been posed and how they have been answered, researchers' understanding of the
problem can be enhanced. Additionally, secondary data can be used as a benchmark for comparing
primary data. For instance, a behavioral accountant may want to know if attitudes towards
decentralization in their company are similar to those held by others in the industry.

Another advantage of secondary data is that it allows researchers to obtain information that was
previously unavailable. For example, a company may be reluctant to disclose information about specific
products or employees to researchers. However, by consulting trade association statistics, researchers
can obtain the desired information.

VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY

The physical attributes of an individual can be measured in inches or pounds. There is no doubt about
what is being measured when we refer to someone's height or weight. However, when it comes to
measuring someone's behavioral attributes, we encounter significant obstacles. There are no ready
rulers or scales to measure attitudes towards work, identification with an organization, or likelihood of
success. A researcher must develop instruments to measure these behavioral phenomena.

Two main risks associated with behavioral research projects are the possibility of measuring the wrong
thing and the results may not be representative. These risks are assessed through tests of validity and
reliability.

Validity refers to the extent to which what we measure actually reflects what we intend to measure and
whether what we measure is related to our research problem. For example, a researcher interested in
assessing to what extent middle managers identify with their company could create a test measuring
managers' knowledge of company policies. This test may be a reliable measure of managers' knowledge
of specific company policies, but it is not a valid identification test for the company. The test does not
measure what the researcher intends to measure.

Reliability relates to whether a particular technique, when applied repeatedly, will produce the same
results each time. So, it refers to the consistency of a measure. We can rely on measures that are
consistent, but we cannot rely on measures that are inconsistent. Researchers who do not know the
validity and reliability of their measurement tools will have less confidence in the data collected or the
conclusions drawn from that data.

Validity

There are various forms of validity. Content validity concerns how effectively we portray the aspects of a
concept or matter we wish to gauge. Specifically, it pertains to the degree to which a specific measure
encompasses the breadth of meanings encompassed within a concept. For instance, if our aim is to
assess employees' identification with their work groups, we would examine pertinent literature to
establish the definition and dimensions of the concept, how employee identification has been gauged in
previous studies, and how the concept can be further elaborated to encompass more nuanced
meanings. Utilizing this analysis, we would devise a set of questions to evaluate the concept. Content
validity essentially involves subjective judgment. Each question we pose is evaluated based on its
relevance to the concept under evaluation.
Criterion-related validity is established through a comparison of the concepts being measured with
established or presumed external criteria that measure the concept under investigation. There are two
types of criterion-related validity, which vary depending on timing and purpose: predictive and
concurrent validity.

Predictive validity focuses on whether a test or measure can accurately forecast behavior. Predictive
validity necessitates criteria, or external benchmarks, regarding what will be predicted. For instance, a
researcher might aim to predict the performance of job applicants in a particular role. A proficiency test
could be employed for this purpose. Predictive validity relies on the correlation between the predictions
from the proficiency test and the actual performance exhibited by new employees. If scores on the
proficiency test successfully forecast success, and the employees perform well in their roles (i.e.,
complete all job-related tasks according to company standards), then it can be inferred that the
proficiency test possesses predictive validity. In this scenario, the external criteria – workplace success –
would encompass standardized performance evaluations in specific tasks.

Concurrent validity pertains to the relationship between our measure and criteria from the past or
present. Essentially, this validity differs from predictive validity because the measurement of predictive
behavior is obtained concurrently with the measurement of actual behavior. For example, concurrent
validity would be established if the ratings of supervisors for each typist (our measure of employee
productivity) highly correlate with the actual speed and accuracy of each typist (the predicted criteria or
behavior). Tests that exhibit concurrent validity aid researchers in distinguishing individuals based on
several criteria; in this case, typing speed and typing accuracy.

Construct validity is based on assessing whether our measurement outcomes align with theory. For
instance, we anticipate a positive relationship between employee morale, or overall satisfaction levels
with a company, and the length of time an employee has worked for that company. Construct validity is
useful for measuring behavioral phenomena when external criteria are not available.

Reliability

Reliability measuring device provides consistent measurements over time. For instance, when using a
wooden ruler to measure a cereal box, it consistently indicates that the box is 13 inches tall. On the
contrary, an elastic ruler may show varying measurements over time, such as 11 inches at one instance,
14 inches at another, and 12 inches elsewhere. The wooden ruler demonstrates reliability as a
measuring tool, whereas the elastic ruler does not. Nonetheless, the stability or consistency of our
measurements does not ensure their accuracy. If the ruler is not properly calibrated, even if the box
consistently measures 13 inches, it remains inaccurate.

Validity versus Reliability

The conflict between reliability and validity arises because reliable measures often tend to be simpler
and fail to capture all the intricacies of the concept we aim to measure. For instance, tracking the
number of employees who stay with a company for at least five years is unquestionably a reliable
indicator of satisfaction. However, this approach disregards numerous crucial aspects of satisfaction and
thus cannot be considered a valid measure. There is no singular solution to reconcile the trade-off
between reliability and validity. However, employing various methods to measure a concept and
considering all its dimensions typically does not compromise reliability, although it may enhance validity.

DATA COLLECTION METHODS.

Primary data can be obtained through behavioral observation, surveys, or laboratory experiments.
Observation may or may not entail direct engagement with the individuals under study. Non-intrusive
observation does not necessitate interaction. For instance, a researcher might observe individuals on a
production line or customers inspecting merchandise. This approach is apt for situations where
individuals are disinclined or unable to elucidate their actions and methods. There are two drawbacks to
this approach: (1) the observer may not grasp individuals' actions and motivations, and (2) due to the
limited sample size, generalizing findings to the entire population carries risks. Nonetheless, the
method's advantage lies in its non-intrusive nature, ensuring it does not sway observed behavior in any
manner.

Observers can partake in group activities being studied. Participatory observation tackles the challenges
of understanding observed behavior as participating observers can ask questions. However, participating
observers risk standing out, potentially leading to the fabrication or distortion of subjects' behavior. The
issue of extrapolating from the group to the population remains pertinent.

Survey

Surveys involve interaction between the researcher and participants. Data can be gathered through
mail, telephone, or face-to-face interviews, each with its own pros and cons. Mail surveys are cost-
effective, offer anonymity, allow respondents to answer at their convenience, and are suitable for
lengthy repetitive questions. However, they often yield lower response rates compared to telephone
interviews and lack the ability for immediate follow-up. Telephone interviews are quick but costlier than
mail surveys. Face-to-face interviews allow for deeper exploration of behavior but are the most
expensive and time-consuming. Both telephone and face-to-face interviews require trained interviewers
to minimize bias.

Choosing the right data collection method depends on the project's circumstances. For instance, if
question wording is critical, mail surveys are preferable. For control over question sequence, flexibility,
and prompt responses, telephone interviews are suitable. For longer-term data collection, face-to-face
interviews lasting 30 to 90 minutes might be ideal.
Experiments

Experiments are utilized when a researcher seeks to manipulate or regulate particular variables to
establish causal relationships. For instance, if a researcher wishes to assess the impact of feedback on
productivity, experiments can be structured to control other variables that are known to influence
productivity.

SELECTION OF RESPONDENTS

The population encompasses the entirety of individuals or events relevant to the research endeavor.
The initial step in respondent selection involves identifying the population. Following population
identification, researchers must choose between conducting a census or utilizing a sample. A census
endeavors to gather information from every component of the population, whereas a sample collects
data from a subset of the population.

A census is deemed appropriate when: (1) the population is small and the expense of data collection is
not significantly higher than sampling, (2) it is imperative to have knowledge of every constituent within
the population, and (3) there is a substantial risk of making incorrect generalizations.

In the majority of cases, conducting a census is unnecessary. Indeed, sampling often proves more
advantageous for researchers. Sampling necessitates less time and financial resources for data collection
and reduces the risk of divulging novel ideas to competitors by surveying fewer individuals. Additionally,
sampling can diminish overall errors.

Total error comprises sampling error and nonsampling error. Sampling error stems from sample size and
design. For instance, bias may arise from a sample size that is too small or a sample design that leads to
certain population segments being chosen with different probabilities compared to others. For example,
a household sample drawn from a telephone directory may exhibit bias as it excludes segments of the
population with unlisted phone numbers and segments lacking telephones in the sampling process.
Consequently, a sample derived from a telephone directory does not represent the complete population
of households.

Nonsampling errors arise from issues in project design and data collection, including misleading
questions, inappropriate or confusing wording, interviewer bias, and errors in recording, storing, and
manipulating data. With a census, there are no sampling errors, but there may be significant
nonsampling errors due to interview control issues, interviewer bias, data handling, non-response bias,
and confusing questions. Well-designed samples will minimize both sampling and nonsampling errors,
resulting in total errors potentially being smaller than nonsampling errors in a census.