21% Feb 2024 PMT 328: Research Methods ‘The Introduction Section Inductive Reasoning Inductive reasoning involves making generalizations or drawing conclusions based on specific observations or evidence. In this approach, the reasoning starts with specific instances or examples and then progresses to form a general principle or theory. Inductive reasoning does not guarantee the certainty of its conclusions; instead, it suggests probabilities. The strength of an inductive argument depends on the quality and quantity of the observations supporting the generalization, An example of inductive reasoning would be observing multiple instances of a phenomenon and then forming a general rule or hypothesis based on those observations. Deductive Reasoning Deductive reasoning is a form of logical reasoning that starts with a general premise or statement (a theory or hypothesis) and derives specific conclusions from that generalization, In deductive reasoning, if the general premise is true and the logic is sound, the conclusions are considered necessarily true. This form of reasoning follows a top-down approach, moving from the general to the specific. Deductive reasoning is common in mathematics, formal logic, and. structured arguments Inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to generalizations, suggesting probable conclusions, while deductive reasoning starts with general premises and derives specific conclusions that are considered necessarily true if the premises are true. Both forms of reasoning play essential roles in scientific inquiry, problem-solving, and logical thinking. A title and a Topic A title and a topic serve distinct purposes in the context of research and academic writing. Here are the key differences between a title and a topic: Title ‘This refers to a concise and specific label given to a research project, academic paper, or creative work. It serves the purpose of providing a quick and clear overview of the main theme or focus of the work. A well-crafted title is attention-grabbing, informative, and indicative of the content it represents. In the context of research, a title should convey the essence of the study and spark interest, encouraging readers to explore further. Titles are typically short, often consisting of a few words or a brief phrase. Purpose - The title serves as a concise and specific label for a research project or academic work. It is designed to provide a quick overview and encapsulate the essence of the study. Length ~ Titles are typically short and to the point, usually consisting of a few words or a brief phrase They aim to capture the main theme of the research without going into detailed explanations. Clarity and Focus - Titles should be clear, focused, and attention-grabbing. They should convey the main idea of the research and entice readers to explore the content further. Examples:- Examplel: "The Impact of Climate Change on Agricultural Productivity: A Global ‘Exploring the Relationship Between Exercise and Cognitive Function in Older Examples of titles related to various aspects of biotechnology RISPR-Cas9 Gene Editing: Revolutionizing Precision Medicine in Biotechnology” 2. "Applications of Synthetic Biology in Biotechnology: Designing Living Systems for Industrial Purposes . "Bioprocessing Strategies for the Production of Recombinant Proteins in Microbial Systems” "Harnessing the Power of Nanotechnology in Biomedical Applications” ."Metagenomics: Unraveling Microbial Diversity for Biotechnological Advances” "Biopharmaceuticals: Current Trends and Future Perspectives in Drug Development” "Engineering Microorganisms for Sustainable Biofuel Production" "Advances in CRISPR Technology: From Genome Editing to Epigenome Modulation” "Biotechnology Approaches for Crop Improvement: Genetic Engineering and Beyon 10. "Diagnostic Applications of Next-Generation Sequencing in Clinical Biotechnology” 11. "Bioinformatics Tools for Systems Biology: Integrating Data in Biotechnological Research” 12, "Microbial Bioremediation: Harnessing Nature's Clean-Up Crew for Environmental Sustainability” 13. "Stem Cell Therapy in Regenerative Medicine: Current Challenges and Future Directions" 14, "Pharmacogenomics: Tailoring Drug Therapies to Individual Genetic Variations" 15. "Bio-printing: Advancements and Applications in Tissue Engineering” eerauew These titles cover a range of topics within the field of biotechnology, including genetic engineering, synthetic biology, bioinformatics, bioprocessing, nanotechnology, and various applications in medicine, agriculture, and the environment. Depending on the specific focus of your research or interest, you can tailor titles to reflect the particular area within biotechnology that you want to explore Topi Definition A topic, on the other hand, is a broader subject or area of interest that serves as the starting point for exploration and research. It represents a general theme that may encompass various aspects, questions, or subtopics. Topics are not as specific as titles and require further refinement to become researchable subjects. The process of developing a research project involves taking a general topic and narrowing it down to a more focused and specific research question or objective. Topics provide the context for research but need to be explored, defined, and refined to become the subjects of well-defined research studies. Scope: ~ A topic can be expansive and may cover a wide range of issues, questions, or subtopics. It is the starting point for research but requires further refinement to become a focused and researchable subject. Exploration and Development:- Before it becomes a research project, a topic needs to be explored, refined, and developed into ‘a more specific and research-worthy form. This process involves narrowing down the focus and identifying key research questions. Examples: - Example 1: "Climate Change” - Example 2: "Physical Activity and Aging" Relationship 1. Evolatior - The topic typically evolves into a title as the research process progresses. Researchers start with a general area of interest (topic) and gradually refine it into a specific, focused label (title) that encapsulates the research study. 2. Refinement: - The process of refining a topic into a title involves defining specific research questions, objectives, and methodologies. It requires careful consideration of the scope and purpose of the study. 3. Specificity: - While a topic is broad and general, a title is specific and should convey the unique focus or contribution of the particular research project. A topic is a broader area of interest, while a title is a concise and specific label that encapsulates the essence of a research project. The topic evolves into a title as researchers refine and narrow down their focus during the research planning and design process. Formulating a good research topic in Biomedical Sciences is a crucial step in the research proces as it sets the foundation for the entire study. A well-defined research topic ensures that your study is focused, relevant, and contributes meaningfully to the existing knowledge in the field. Considerations for how to formulate a good research topic in Biomedical Sciences: 1 dentify Your Interest and Passion ~ Choose a topic that genuinely interests you and aligns with your passion. This enthusiasm will sustain you through the challenges of the research process. 2. Review the Literature - Conduct a thorough literature review to understand the current state of knowledge in the field. Identify gaps, controversies, and areas where further research is needed. 3. Narrow Down Your Focus ~ Biomedical Sciences cover a vast range of topics. Narrow down your focus to a specific area or problem within the field. This ensures that your research question is manageable and specific. 4. Define the Purpose of Your Study - Clearly articulate the purpose of your research. Are you seeking to explore a new phenomenon, validate existing findings, develop a new method, or address a clinical problem? This helps in framing your research question appropriately. 5. Consider Feasibility- Assess the feasibility of your research topic. Consider the availability of resources, equipment, expertise, and ethical considerations. A good research topic should be realistic given your constraints. 6. Formulate a Clear Research Question - A well-defined research question is the cornerstone of your study. It should be clear, concise, and specific. Use the PICO(T) framework if applicable (Patient/Population, Intervention, ‘Comparison, Outcome, Time). 7. Ensure Relevance and Significance - Your research topic should address a relevant issue in Biomedical Sciences. Consider it potential impact on the field, patient outcomes, or healthcare practices. Demonstrate the significance of your research. 8. Consider Interdisciplinary Approaches ~ Biomedical Sciences often benefit from interdisciplinary approaches. Explore how your research topic might intersect with other fields such as bioinformatics, engineering, or public health. 9. Avoid Overly Broad or Narrow Topics - Strive for balance. An overly broad topic may lack focus, while an excessively narrow one may limit the scope of your research. Find a middle ground that allows for depth and breadth. 10. Check for Novelty - Ensure that your research topic adds something new to the existing body of knowledge. Avoid duplicating previous studies unless you are providing a unique perspective or confirming/rejecting previous findings. 11, Consult with Experts - Seek advice from mentors, advisors, or experts in the field. Their insights can help refine and improve your research topic. 12. Refine and Restate - Formulating a research topic is repetitive/iterative process. Refine and revise your topic based on feedback, literature review findings, and your evolving understanding of the subject. 13. Consider Ethical Implications - Assess the ethical implications of your research topic. Ensure that your study adheres to ethical standards and guidelines in Biomedical Sciences. Remember that a good research topic is the foundation for a successful research project. Take the time to carefully formulate and refine your topic before diving into the research process. Characteristics of a Good Research Topic ‘A good research topic possesses several key characteristics that contribute to its quality and effectiveness. These include but are not restricted to the following: 1. Relevance - The topic should address a current issue, problem, or question that is relevant to the field of study. It should contribute to existing knowledge and have practical significant implications. 2. Clarity ~ A well-defined and clear research topic is essential. It should be easy to understand, with a concise and specific focus that allows for a clear direction in the research process. 3. Specificity- A good research topic is specific rather than overly broad. It should be narrow enough to allow for in-depth exploration and analysis while avoiding being too limited in scope. 4. Novelty and Originality - The research topic should offer something new to the field. It could involve a novel approach, methodology, or addressing an unexplored aspect of the subject. Avoid topics that are already extensively covered unless providing a unique perspective. 5. Feasibility ~ Consider the practical aspects of your research topic, including available resources, time, and expertise. Ensure that the research can be realistically conducted within the given constraints. 6. Significance - A good research topic should have significance and potential impact. It should contribute to the advancement of knowledge, address a gap in the literature, or have implications for real-world applications. 7. Measurability: - If applicable, the research topic should be measurable and allow for data collection and analysis. ‘This is crucial for empirical studies where quantifiable outcomes can be observed and analyzed. 8, Ethical Considerations - Ensure that your research topic adheres to ethical standards and guidelines in the field. Consider the potential impact on participants, patient confidentiality, and other ethical considerations. 9. Interest and Motivation: ~ Choose a topic that genuinely interests you and aligns with your motivation for conducting research. Passion for the subject can enhance your commitment and perseverance throughout the research process, 10. Interdisciplinary Potential - Consider whether the research topic allows for interdisciplinary approaches. Collaboration between different fields can lead to a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the subject. 11. Accessibility of Data ~ Assess the availability of data relevant to your research topic. Ensure that necessary information or datasets are accessible or can be reasonably obtained. 12, Practical Applicability: - Consider how the findings of your research can be applied in practice. Whether it’s in healthcare, industry, or policy, having practical implications enhances the overall value of your research, 13, Manageability ~ The research topic should be manageable within the constraints of your resources, time, and expertise. Avoid overly ambitious projects that may lead to incomplete or compromised research. 14, Openness to Modification - A good research topic allows for flexibility and adaptation as the research progresses. It should be open to refinement based on preliminary findings, unexpected challenges, or evolving perspectives.Sources of a Good Research Topic Finding a good research topic involves exploring various sources to identify gaps, trends, and areas that need further investigation. Some key sources to consider when searching for a good research topic in biomedical sciences include: 1. Sciemtific Journals ~ Regularly read articles in reputable scientific journals related to your field of interest. Identify gaps in existing research, controversial findings, or emerging trends that could serve as potential research topics. 2. Review Articles ~ Review articles summarize the current state of knowledge on a specific topic. Reading these can help you identify areas where further research is needed or areas that have not been adequately explored. 3. Conferences and Symposia ~ Attend conferences, seminars, and symposia in your field. Engage with presentations, discussions, and posters to identify recent developments and potential research gaps. Networking with other researchers can also provide valuable insights. 4, Research Databases - Utilize databases like PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar to search for recent publications and studies. Use keywords related to your interests to discover relevant research and potential gaps in the literature 5. Government Health Agencies - Explore reports and publications from government health agencies (e.g., NIH, CDC). These sources ofien highlight priority areas, public health concerns, and research gaps that can inspire relevant research topii 6. Professional Organizations ~ Check the websites and publications of professional organizations related to your field. These organizations ofien highlight current issues, research priorities, and areas where additional studies are needed. 7. Clinical Guidelines - Review clinical guidelines from healthcare organizations. These guidelines may identify areas where evidence is lacking or areas where research can improve patient outcomes. 8. Books and Book Chapters - Read books and book chapters written by experts in the field. These comprehensive resources may offer in-depth insights into specific topics and help you identify areas that warrant further investigation. 9. Research Funding Agencies - Explore research funding agency websites to understand the priorities and areas they are currently funding. This can give you an idea of research gaps that are considered important by the funding community. 10. Online Forums and Discussions ~ Participate in online forums, discussion groups, or social media communities related to biomedical sciences. Engaging with peers and professionals can provide insights into current challenges and areas that need attention. 11, Collaborations and Consultations - Consult with colleagues, mentors, or experts in the field. Discussing your interests and ideas with others can lead to valuable insights and potential research topics.12, News and Media - Stay informed about current events, breakthroughs, and controversies in biomedical sciences through news articles and media coverage. These sources can highlight emerging issues that may be worth investigating. 13, Patient Perspectives = Consider the perspectives of patients and advocacy groups. Understanding their needs and concerns may lead to research questions that directly impact healthcare outcomes. 14. Educational Institutions - Explore the research agendas of educational institutions, particularly those with strong biomedical sciences departments. These institutions often highlight key areas of focus and expertise. Research Background A research background, is a section of a research proposal or thes justification for the study. The research background aims to: 1. Situate/position/locate the Study - Provide an overview of the existing knowledge in the field and contextualize the study within the broader academic or scientific landscape. 2. Idemtify Gaps in Knowledge - Highlight areas where current understanding is limited, controversies exist, or unanswered questions persist. This sets the stage for the specific problem or question addressed by the research, 3. Establish Significance - Emphasize the importance and relevance of the research topic, outlining how it contributes to existing knowledge, addresses a gap, or has practical implications, 4. Introduce Theoretical Framework ~ Introduce any theoretical frameworks or concepts that will guide the study and explain their relevance to the research problem. 5. Review Previous Research ~ Summarize relevant studies, theories, and methodologies related to the research topic. This review provides the basis for understanding the current state of knowledge. that provides the context and Research Background Formulation: Formulating a clear and concise research background is essential for providing context and justification for your study. It helps readers understand the rationale behind your research, the gaps in existing knowledge, and the significance of your investigation. Here's a step-by-step guide on how to formulate a clear research background: 1. Start with a General Introduction - Begin your background by providing a brief introduction to the general topic or field of study. This sets the stage for readers who may not be familiar with the specific subject. 2. Provide Context and Scope ~ Clearly define the scope of your research. Explain the boundaries and limitations of your study, specifying the particular aspect of the topic you are focusing on. This helps in setting clear expectations for the readers. 3. Review Existing Literature~ Summarize the key findings from relevant literature. Highlight the most important studies, theories, and methodologies related to your research topic. This review establishes the foundation for your study by demonstrating your understanding of the current state of knowledge. 4. Identify Gaps in the Literature - Point out the gaps, controversi , or unanswered questions in the existing literature, Emphasize why these gaps are significant and how your research will contribute to filling them. This is a cucial step in justifying the need for your study. 5. Explain the Research Problem ~ Clearly articulate the specific problem or question your research aims to address. Define the problem in a way that is understandable to a broad audience, emph: importance. sizing its relevance and - Explicitly state the significance of your research. Explain why it matters, not just to your field of study but also in broader terms. Discuss potential contributions to scientific knowledge, practical applications, or policy implications. 7. Link to Theoretical Framework (if applicable): - If your research is guided by a specific theoretical framework, briefly introduce it and explain s relevance to your study. This helps in providing a theoretical lens through which your research can be understood. 8. Highlight Methodological Approach - Briefly outline the methodology you plan to employ in your research. Discuss why this approach is suitable for addressing the research question and how it will contribute to the overall understanding of the problem. 9. Consider the Broader Context - Discuss how your research fits into the broader context of your field, and if applicable, within interdisciplinary’ perspectives. Show awareness of the larger scientific community and its implications, 10. Connect to Practical Applications - If your research has potential practical applications, discuss them in the background. Explain how your findings might be applied in real-world scenarios, emphasizing the translational aspects of your work. 11, End with a Clear Research Objective or Hypothesis, - Conclude the background section by explicitly stating your research objective or hypothesis. This helps in summarizing the purpose of your study and providing a clear direction for the reader. 12, Maintain Clarity and Conciseness - Keep the background section clear, concise, and focused. Avoid unnecessary jargon or technical details that might overwhelm readers. Use clear and straightforward language to enhance understanding. 13, Seek Feedback - Before finalizing your research background, seek feedback from peers, mentors, or colleagues. Their perspectives can help you refine your explanation and ensure clarity. Characteristics of an Effective Research Background 1. Relevance - The background should be directly related to the research topic, providing essential context that supports the need for the study.2. Clarity - The writing should be clear, concise, and organized, Readers should easily follow the logical flow of information. 3. Depth of Exploration - A thorough review of existing literature demonstrates a deep understanding of the subject and helps identify gaps in knowledge. 4. Critical Evaluation ~ Evaluate and critique the existing literature, discussing strengths, weaknesses, and potential biases in previous research. 5. Logical Structure - Organize information in a logical sequence, moving from general to specific and leading naturally to the research questions or hypotheses. 6. Synthesis of Ideas - Synthesize information from various sources to create a coherent narrative that supports the research problem and justifies the study. 7. Awareness of Controversies - Acknowledge any controversies or debates in the field and explain how the research contributes to resolving or advancing these issues. Significance of an Effective Research Background: 1. Guides the Study Design - The background informs the study design by identifying gaps, establishing the need for research, and influencing the formulation of research questions or hypotheses. 2. Demonstrates Scholarly Rigor - A well-researched background showcases the researcher's commitment to scholarly rigor and a comprehensive understanding of the subject. 3. Builds Credibility Establishes the researcher's credibility by demonstrating a thorough understanding of relevant, literature and previous research. 4, Enhances Communication ~ Facilitates communication with the audience by providing a clear and concise overview of the current state of knowledge in the field. 5. Supports Funding Applications - When seeking funding, an effective research background strengthens the proposal by highlighting the significance and potential impact of the research, 6. Facilitates Reproducibility - Allows other researchers to understand the context of the study, fostering reproducibility and building upon existing knowledge. An effective research background is foundational to the overall success of a research project, guiding the researcher and ensuring the study is grounded in a robust understanding of the existing literature and the significance of the research problem. Research Problem Statement A research problem statement is a concise and clear description of the issues, challenges, or gaps in knowledge that a researcher aims to address through their research. It serves as the foundationfor the entire research project, guiding the researcher in formulating research questions, objectives, and hypotheses. A well-crafted research problem statement typically includes the following components: 1. Context and Background: - Provides background information to help readers understand the broader context of the research problem. - Describes the current state of knowledge in the field. 2. Identification of the Problem ~ Clearly states the specific problem or issue that the research aims to investigate. - Specifies the scope and boundaries of the research problem. 3. Significance of the Study - Explains why the research problem is important or relevant. ~ Highlights the potential contributions of the study to the existing body of knowledge. 4, Purpose and Objectives - Outlines the purpose of the research. - Lists specific objectives or goals that the researcher intends to achieve 5. Research Questions or Hypotheses - If applicable, includes the main research questions or hypotheses that will guide the investigation. 6. Justification ~ Provides a rationale for the chosen research problem. - Explains why addressing the identified problem is necessary. 7. Scope and Li ms - Defines the boundaries of the study, including what is included and excluded. - Acknowledges any constraints or limitations that may impact the research. A well-defined research problem statement helps researchers focus their efforts, communicate the purpose of their study, and establish a clear direction for their research. It is a crucial step in the research process and is often included in the introduction section of a research paper or proposal. Formulating an effective Research Problem Statement Formulating an effective research problem statement is a critical step in the research process. Use these guidelines to help you create a strong and well-crafted problem statement: 1. Select a Specific Topic - Choose a focused and specific topic for your research. Avoid overly broad or general areas that may be too complex to address in a single study. 2. Conduct a Literature Review ~ Review existing literature in your chosen field to understand the current state of knowledge. - Identify gaps, controversies, or unanswered questions in the literature that could serve as the basis for your research problem. 3. Clearly Define the Problem ~ Clearly articulate the research problem in a concise and straightforward manner. - Specify the key components and variables involved in the problem. 4. Provide Context and Background - Give a brief overview of the background and context of the research problem. 10- Explain why the problem is important and what makes it relevant in the current research landscape. 5. Establish the Significance ~ Clearly state the significance of addressing the research problem. - Highlight the potential contributions your study could make to the field. 6. Set Clear Objectives - Define the specific objectives or goals of your research. What do you intend to accomplish through your study? - Objectives should be measurable, achievable, and aligned with the research problem. 7. Formulate Research Questions or Hypotheses - If appropriate for your research design, formulate clear and specific research questions or hypotheses. ~ These should directly address the research problem and guide your investigation. 8. Justify the Study - Provide a rationale for why the research problem needs to be addressed. - Explain the potential impact and relevance of your study within the broader academic or practical context. 9. Consider Scope and Limitations: - Clearly define the scope of your study, specifying what is included and excluded. - Acknowledge any constraints or limitations that may affect the research. 10. Review and Refine ~ Review your problem statement and seek feedback from peers, mentors, or advisors. - Refine your statement based on the feedback received to ensure clarity and precision. Remember that a well-formulated research problem statement serves as the foundation for the entire research project. It not only guides your research but also communicates the purpose and significance of your study to others in the academic community. Research Objectives Research objectives are specific, measurable, and achievable goals or targets that a researcher aims to accomplish within a study. These objectives provide a clear roadmap for the research, guiding the researcher in the collection and analysis of data to address the research problem. Research objectives are typically derived from the broader goals of the study and are designed to be specific and attainable within the scope of the research. Key characteristics of research objectives include; 1. Specificity: Objectives should be clearly defined and specific, outlining exactly what the researcher intends to achieve. They should avoid vague language and ambiguity. 2. Measurability: Objectives should be framed in a way that allows for measurement or assessment, ‘This helps in evaluating the success or achievement of the objectives through quantitative or qualitative means. 3. Achievability: Objectives should be realistic and attainable within the resources, time, and scope of the research. Setting objectives that are too ambitious may lead to challenges in implementation. 4. Relevance: Objectives should be directly related to the research problem and aligned with the overall goals of the study. Each objective should contribute to addressing the research problem. a5. Time-bound: Objectives should have a timeframe or deadline for completion. This helps in managing the research process efficiently and ensures that the study progresses within a defined timeline. Examples to illustrate the concept Research Problem 1: “There is limited information about the impact of a new teaching method on student performance in mathematics.” Research Objectives: 1. To assess the academic performance of students who were exposed to the new teaching method. 2. To compare the performance of students exposed to the new teaching method with those taught using traditional methods. 3. To identify any significant differences in the understanding and retention of mathematical concepts between the two groups. 4. To analyze student feedback on the new teaching method to understand their perceptions and experiences 5. To provide recommendations for the potential implementation or improvement of the new teaching method based on the findings. These objectives guide the researcher in conducting the study, collecting relevant data, and ultimately addressing the research problem. Each objective contributes to a specific aspect of the overall investigation, facilitating a comprehensive and focused research effort. Research Problem 2. "There are existing challenges associated with current cancer treatment modalities, hence, the need for improved therapeutic efficacy through the development of targeted drug delivery systems for treatment of specific types of cancer.” Research Objectives: 1. To review existing literature on current drug delivery systems in cancer treatment. Specific Objectives; ~ Identify strengths and limitations of current drug delivery methods. - Analyze recent advancements in medical biotechnology for targeted drug delivery. 2. To design and optimize a targeted drug delivery system. Specific Objectives; ~ Develop a novel drug delivery system that specifically targets cancer cells - Optimize the formulation for enhanced drug delivery efficiency 3. To assess the cytotoxicity and biocompatibility of the developed drug delivery system. Specific Objectives; ~ Evaluate the safety and compatibility of the new drug delivery system with healthy cells. ~ Investigate the cytotoxic effects on cancer cells compared to traditional treatment methods. 24, To evaluate the therapeutic efficacy in preclinical models Specific Objectives; ~ Conduct in vitro experiments using cell lines to assess the effectiveness of the developed drug delivery system. - Utilize animal models to evaluate the system's therapeutic potential in vivo. 5. To investigate the mechanism of action of the targeted drug delivery system. Specific Objectives; ~ Elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying the targeted drug delivery system's efficacy. ~ Understand how the system interacts with cancer cells at the cellular and molecular levels. 6. To compare the developed system with existing treatment modalities. Specific Objectives; ~ Conduct comparative studies with standard chemotherapy or other existing treatments. - Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of the developed system in comparison to current practices. 7. To analyze the potential for clinical translation: Specific Objectives; ~ Assess the scalability and manufacturability of the developed drug delivery system. - Investigate regulatory considerations and potential hurdles for clinical trials. 8. To provide recommendations for future research and clinical applications: Specific Objectives; ~ Summarize the key findings and implications of the study. ~ Propose recommendations for further research and potential applications in clinical settings. These research objectives guide the medical biotechnology researcher through a comprehensive investigation aimed at addressing the specific problem of enhancing targeted drug delivery for cancer treatment using advanced biotechnological approaches. In research, both general and specific objectives are essential components that help define the purpose, scope, and focus of the study. They serve to guide the researcher in conducting the research and achieving the desired outcomes. ‘The differences between general and specific objectives; 1. General Objectives: General objectives provide an overall statement of the broad goal or purpose of the research. They express the main aim of the study in a broad and inclusive manner. -Scope: General objectives set the stage for the entire research project, outlining the overarching goal without going into specific details. - Applicability: General objectives are typically research. more abstract and are related to the title of the Po investigate the impact of climate change on agricultural productivity in a specific region." B2. Specific Objectives: - Definition: Specific objectives break down the general goal into detailed and focused targets. ‘They articulate the specific steps or aspects that the researcher intends to address within the broader context of the study. - Scope: Specific objectives provide clear and measurable outcomes that contribute to achieving the general objectives. They specify the research questions or tasks that need to be addressed. ~ Applicability: Specific objectives are concrete, actionable, and help guide the research process by providing a clear roadmap. Exampl 1. "To analyze historical climate data for the selected region.” 2. "To assess the current state of agricultural practices in the context of climate change.” 3. "To model the potential impact of climate change on crop yields using computer simulations. 4. "To propose adaptive strategies for farmers based on the study findings.” General objectives provide a high-level overview of the research’s primary aim, while specific objectives break down this aim into detailed, actionable steps that guide the researcher throughout the study. Both types of objectives are crucial for framing the research project, ensuring clarity, and facilitating the achievement of the overall research goal. Formulating Research Objectives Formulating research objectives for biomedical research involves defining specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART) goals that address the research problem, for example; Research Problem "Considering the existing limitations of current therapeutic options and the need for innovative interventions through exploring the potential of a novel stem cell therapy for the treatment of a specific neurodegenerative disorder.” Research Objectives: General Objective 1. To review the current state of knowledge on neurodegenerative disorders and existing treatment approaches. Specific Objectives; - To identify the key characteristics, mechanisms, and challenges associated with the specific neurodegenerative disorder. ~ To evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of current therapeutic interventions. General Objective 2. To isolate and characterize stem cells suitable for therapy. Specific Objectives; ~ To isolate and characterize stem cells from relevant sources (e.g., bone marrow, adipose tissue, \duced pluripotent stem cells) for their potential therapeutic application. ’o determine the optimal conditions for the expansion and maintenance of these stem cells in culture, or 14General Objective 3. To as models, Specific Objectives; ~ To conduct preclinical studies to evaluate the safety and feasibility of transplanting stem cells in relevant animal models of the neurodegenerative disorder. - To monitor for potential adverse effects and assess the survival and integration of transplanted cells. the safety and feasibility of stem cell transplantation in animal General Objective 4. To investigate the therapeutic efficacy of stem cell therapy in animal models. Specific Objectives, ~ To evaluate the impact of stem cell transplantation on disease progression and functional outcomes in animal models. - To assess improvements in neurological function, tissue regeneration, and other relevant parameters. 5. To elucidate the mechanisms of action of stem cell therapy at the molecular and cellular levels, Specific Objectives; - To investigate how transplanted stem cells interact with the host tissue and influence cellular processes. - To elucidate the underlying mechani \s responsible for any observed therapeutic effects, 6. To optimize the stem cell therapy protocol for potential clinical translation. Specific Objectives; ~ To refine the stem cell transplantation protocol based on preclinical findings. - To identify optimal dosages, administration routes, and timing for potential clinical applications. 7. To assess the long-term safety and efficacy of stem cell therapy in a clinical trial setting, Specific Objectives; - To design and conduct a phase 1/M clinical trial to evaluate the safety and preliminary efficacy of the stem cell therapy in human patients. - To monitor long-term outcomes and assess the therapy's impact on disease progression. 8. To disseminate findings and contribute to the scientific knowledge base. Specific Objectives; - To publish research findings in peer-reviewed journals and present results at scientific conferences. - To contribute valuable insights to the broader biomedical research community. ‘These research objectives guide the biomedical researcher through a comprehensive investigation, covering various aspects from literature review to potential clinical translation, with the ultimate goal of addressing the neurodegenerative disorder through innovative stem cell therapy 15Research Questions and Hypothesis Research questions and research hypotheses are two fundamental components of a research study, and they play distinct roles in guiding the research process. Research Questions Research questions are open-ended inquiries that a researcher poses to guide the investigation ‘These questions express the key aspects the researcher wants to explore, understand, or analyze within the study. Research questions typically begin with words like “what,” "why," "how," or "who" and are often used in exploratory or descriptive research. They help shape the focus of the study and guide the collection and analysis of data. Example Research Questions; 1, What is the impact of climate change on biodiversity in a specific ecosystem? 2. How does socioeconomic status influence academic achievement in primary school children? 3. What are the factors contributing to the prevalence of a specific disease in a particular population? Research Hypotheses A research hypothesis, on the other hand, is a testable and specific statement predicting the outcome of the research. It establishes a clear relationship between variables and is often used in experimental or quantitative research. Hypotheses are formulated based on existing knowledge and are meant to be empirically tested through data collection and statistical analysis. They are expressed as statements that suggest a cause-and-effect relationship or a significant association between variables Example Research Hypotheses: 1. HO (Null Hypothesis): There is no significant difference in academic achievement between students from different socioeconomic statuses. HI (Alternative Hypothesis): There is a significant difference in academic achievement between students from different socioeconomic statuses. 2. HO: There is no association between smoking and the incidence of a specific health condition. HI: Smoking is associated with an increased incidence of a specific health condition. 3. HO: The introduction of a new teaching method has no effect on students’ test scores. Hi: The introduction of a new teaching method positively influences students’ test scores. Research questions guide the overall direction of the study, while research hypotheses provide specific predictions that can be tested through empirical research. Both components are crucial for rch study that is clear, focused, and capable of contributing valuable insights to the field. Depending on the research design and goals, a study may have research questions, hypotheses, or a combination of both. 16Examples of research questions and hypothesis in Biomedical Research Research Questions 1, What is the relationship between genetic markers and the susceptibility to a specific type of cancer? 2, How does a particular drug regimen impact the progression of Alzheimer’s disease in elderly patients? 3. What are the environmental factors contributing to the prevalence of a certain infectious disease in a specific population? 4, How do lifestyle factors, such as diet and exercise, influence the development and progression of metabolic syndrome? ‘5. What is the role of specific microbial communities in the gut microbiota in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseas Research Hypotheses 1. HO (Null Hypothesis): There is no association between the presence of a specific genetic marker and the risk of developing cancer. Hi (Alternative Hypothesis): The presence of a specific genetic marker is associated with an increased risk of developing cancer. 2. HO: The drug regimen has no significant effect on the progression of Alzheimer's disease. HI: The drug regimen slows down the progression of Alzheimer's disease in elderly patients. 3. HO: Environmental factors have no significant impact on the prevalence of the infectious disease. Hl: Specific environmental factors contribute to an increased prevalence of the infectious disease in the population, 4, HO: Lifestyle factors, including diet and exercise, do not significantly influence the development and progression of metabolic syndrome. HL: Specific lifestyle factors, such as a healthy diet and regular exercise, are associated with a reduced risk of metabolic syndrome. 5. HO: The composition of gut microbiota has no role in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases. Hi: Specific microbial communities in the gut microbiota play a significant role in the development and exacerbation of autoimmune diseases. ‘These examples illustrate how research questions and hypotheses can be formulated in biomedical research to explore relationships, effects, and associations in various areas of study, such as genetics, drug efficacy, environmental factors, lifestyle influences, and microbial contributions to disease. 7LECTURE #5: TITLE PAGE AND INTRODUCTION SECTION RESEARCH TOPIC A topic is the subject to be researched, analysed and interpreted. It isa thematic statement of what the research is all about. It may arise as a problem to be solved or as an issue to be better understood. It may involve the conditions that the researcher wants to improve, difficulties to be eliminated or questions for which immediate answers are needed. Typically, a researcher will select a research topic by identifying a wide area of interest or concem (research area) and then narrow that area to a manageable set of research questions. A good research topic will focus the direction of the research and position the central concept for the researcher at an early stage. A research topic should have a subject and an object, and should define the variables and the population of the study in a brief statement or a phrase of about 12 words, without detailed wording and unnecessary explanations or ‘addendum’. It is a concise and specific statement that encompasses succinctly all the essential elements of the study. ‘The first step in identifying a research topic is to identify a broad problem area that is closely related to one's interest or professional goals such as the area of in-depth specialization for example: Understanding disease patterns in a population, v v Research Area: Malaria Problem in Kenya. Research Topic: - Prevalence of malaria in western part of Kenya, A research topic should clearly indicate what to be investigated (ie. the subject & the object) as well as where the study will be conducted (ie. the target population). It is these 'what' and ‘where’ that distinguishes a research topic from research area. Sources of Research Topics One major problem for beginning researchers is where to look for a research topic. Students spend a lot of time looking for research topics because they imagine that a topic is such a special ‘sue - that can only come through divine intervention. They forget that topics exist around them: in their families, classes, places of work and everywhere in the general environment. The most common sources of research topics include: 1. Personal Experiences: A research topic can be suggested by one’s experiences and personal, observation of certain relationships for which no satisfactory explanation exists. These may include routine ways of doing things which are simply based on tradition or authority but which no scientific explanation exists. For example, why should school shoes be black? 2. Deduction from Existing Theories: Theories are general principles whose applicability to specific problems or situations are not known until empirically tested. It is therefore only through research that one can determine whether the generalizations embodied in the theory can be translated into specific recommendations for practice. For example, it may be an established theory that students learn better through induction than through. But for a teacher to know for certain that his or her students will learn better by induction, the teacher has to try the method with the class. ‘This is research.Formal Needs Assessment: A careful assessment of needs may reveal problems that may require research to solve. A research topic may result from such problems. 4, Literature Sources: Nearly every research that has been reported concludes with some recommendations for future research. A research topic may result from such recommendations, On the other hand, a researcher may wish to replicate a study that has been reported. Before selecting a research topic, itis important that one consider the following issues: v i, Personal interest in the topic: A researcher should not choose a topic in which he or she has no interest. Such a study is likely to fail or to be conducted haphazardly. A topic of one's interest provides the researcher with an opportunity to do significant independent work on a problem area that will better prepare him or her for professional work. Importance of the research: A topic that is insignificant may not attract funding or readership. iii, ‘Time available: A good topic should be able to be accomplished within the given time, iv. Researchers skills: The researcher should consider whether he or she has the neces required for the study. i. The cost: It is necessary to consider the cost of conducting and reporting a study and be sure that it can be accommodated. Ethical issues: Some topics raise ethical issues which the researcher may not easily overcome. Such topics should be avoided. ry skills Once the title has been identified, the next task it to write it succinctly. A research title is written on the first page, which is usually not paged. Though the title is written on the first page, it is frequently formulated well after planning has begun and the dimensions of the study determined. > The title page should have: i. The title of the research which is written at the top of the page. The full names of the researcher including qualifications, is written immediately below the title. ‘The award for which the proposal intended. “This should be stated as: A Proposal Submitted In Partial Fulfillment for the Requirement of the Degree/Diploma of (-—- name of the Degree/Diploma--) of Name of awarding institution, college, university, school—-). ‘This should appear at the middle of the page. iv. The Date (month and year) of submission should appear at the bottom of the title page. Note-. All information on the title page should be bold, upper case and centre aligned as demonstrated below. See the examples below.A good title must summarize the main idea of the research simply and with style. It is a concise statement of the main topic and should identify the actual variables or theoretical issues under investigation and the relationship between them. > A good title must be fully explanatory when standing alone. It must compress easily. > A good title must avoid words that serve no purpose; which increase length and can be misleading. Words such as - method, results, a study of, an investigation, a survey, views, perceptions - are unnecessary. They compound the title without adding any value to it. > Avoid using abbreviations in the title. They reduce accuracy. A title should not exceed 12 words - or better still, should not exceed 50 characters - including punctuations. Background This is usually the initial section of the proposal. The background introduces the status and the theoretical framework of the study. It is the rationale of the study providing evidence and conditions of the existing situation to make the reader feel the urgency of the problem and the need to study it in order to solve the problem or contribute to its solution. It portrays the history and the character of the problem, or issues at hand, and tries to expose the facts that surround the problem that must be tackled through undertaking the study. * Aresearch background has four main dimensions: the historical, the theoretical, the conceptual and the contextual dimensions. The first to be written is the historical dimension. In this section the researcher describes in a short and precise paragraph the relationships between the variables in a historical pefspe&fiv6. Any research title is not being done for the first time. ‘The researcher should provide a brief history of the issues being investigated. Issues that have been discovered or believed to be true about the topic should be summarized in this section as suggestion that the issue at hand has developed through significant stages that bear on the present study. + The second is the theoretical basis of the background. In the theoretical background the researcher describes the theory (or theories) on which the study will be based. It describes “any” discovered relationships between the variables in the study and the theory to be used. The researcher should briefly describe the theory (or theories) and justify how it relates to the variables under investigation. It is a description of the relationships between the variables in ideal situations. + The third dimension is the conceptual basis of the background. In the conceptual background the researcher provides the definitions of terms in the topic. There are three main definitions that a researcher should provide in this section. ‘The first is the literal definition. The literal definition informs the reader of the literature meaning of the terms or variables in the study so that the reader understands their usual meanings. Such definitions should be obtained from authoritative sources, which must be properly indicated. ‘* The second is the working definition. More often than not different authors will provide differing definitions to the same terms. To ensure that the researcher keeps along with the reader, the researcher should provide a working definition. A working definition is the literal meaning of the term adopted by the researcher for the study. © Finally, the researcher should provide operational definitions. Since a concept may have more than one meaning in different contexts, it is important to clarify exactly what meaning a researcher attaches to a concept in the context of the study. An operational definition providesthe description of the variable in observable and measurable characteristics (i.e. the ‘operations! needed to measure the variables). It indicates how or by what means the researcher is going to manipulate the independent variables and by what means he or she will observe the dependent variable. A researcher should spell out precisely how the concept will be measured in the study. * The fourth dimension of a research background is the contextual basis of the background. In the contextual background, the researcher describes the problems in each operation of the variable in the context of the study. He or she describes the problem in each isolated variable, pointing out the gaps that need to be filled by the study. The contextual background is presented in several paragraphs; each paragraph describing the problems associated with each ‘operational variable’ or more specifically, each construct of the independent variable (subject). For each ‘operational variable’ or construct, the researcher should: - Provide a definition of the variable. - Provide ideal relationships between the variables. ~ Expose the gaps in the context of the study by comparing the actual to th ideal. Research Problem ‘* Research problem is a terminology for a topic that has been narrowed down and refined appropriately for research. It is the ‘heart’ of the study. Tt can be described as a hypothesis or {question of interest to a researcher which can be tested or answered through the collection and analysis of data. ‘© A research problem goes beyond surface questions which do not demand collection and interpretation of data. Research is usually conducted because a deficiency or a need has been identified. This deficiency or need should be clearly and specifically indicated since it justifies the research project. ‘© One of the most difficult tasks for beginning researchers is the identification of a research problem. Students usually have so many ‘problems’ in mind, but not all such problems are research problems. A research problem is a need or a discrepancy that can only be solved through collection and analysis of data. But how does one identify a research problem? Most ‘common pointers to research problems are issues which attract attention and may need investigations, unanswered questions, missing links, imbalances, unsatisfactory state of affairs, problems of adjustment to technological advances, etc. ‘This list is endless. ‘To identify a research problem, a researcher should answer YES to the following questions: 1. Is there a perceived inconsistency between what is then there is a problem, but it may not necess: question. 2. Isthere a question about why there is a discrepancy? If the answer to this question is no, then there is no research problem because the discrepancy has been or can be explained from the available facts and data. If yes, then a problem exists. This leads to the third question: 3. __ Are there possible and reasonable solutions or answers to the research question? Ttis these possible answers that will form the basis of investigation. and what should be? If the answer is yes, be a research problem. This leads to the second> A statement of the problem refers to what the researcher has identified as existing out there, (practical or theoretical world) - a condition which needs to be probed and solutions found. > Once a problem has been identified, the next task is to state the problem in very clear, precise and non-ambiguous terms. To do this, a researcher should proceed as follows: 1. Describe the ideal. This is a description of the expected performance, status, conditions or relationships between the variables if everything were to work according to plan. Describe the actual performance, status, conditions or relationships as they are in practice. This is referred to as defining the problem. In defining a problem, a researcher should analyze the problem in occurrence, intensity, distribution and other measures for which data is already available. IL. Describe the discrepancy between the ideal and the actual practice. It is this discrepancy that forms the basis of the investigation. This discrepancy is the problem. Ideally, steps 1, 2 and 3 should be described in separate paragraphs in that order. > Itis important to state a clear problem because a well-stated problem leads to a statement of ‘objectives and hypotheses. It also leads to operationalization of variables and selection of study designs. A well-stated problem statement should: 1. Clarify what itis exactly to be solved or to be determined. It should be written in a clear, non- technical language avoiding jargons. It should identify an area of concern. 2. Should contain the variables and the target population that is to be studied. 3. Restricts the scope of the study to a specific question or questions, hypothesis or hypotheses. It should be sufficiently limited in scope to be manageable. 4. Be feasible. It should be amenable to research. It should not be too wide and data for solving it should be available. Whether or not data is available is very important because usually a researcher may not have time to collect fresh data for the background of the study. Hence a researcher needs to be sure where exactly to get the data. 5. Ethical issues are paramount in research and a good research problem should not raise or overlook ethical concerns. 6. Originality is important in research. A good problem should be an original one: knowledge cannot be advanced by duplicating problems that have already been. 7. Significant: It should result in advancement of knowledge. There should be some pay off if the uncertainties about the problem are resolved or at least reduced. It should explore an important question, address a recognizable need and make useful contribution to knowledge. Research Objectives Research objectives, questions and hypothesis have the same characteristics but different wordings. Objectives state the intentions of the study; questions ask the intentions of the study while hypotheses suggest a relationship (or the absence of it) between the variables in the study. } Objectives are specific aims or goals arising directly from purpose of the study. They are statements of intended specific outcomes of the study and specify more directly what the researcher is going to do. They can be regarded as statements that clarify more specifically the purpose statement or as specific small units that add up to the purpose, or more specifically, as the breakdown of the purpose into small manageable units. > A good research objective has three basic characteristics. It should be: I. S.M.A.R.T (specific, measurable, attainable, realistic and time-bound;An objective is Specific if it communicates very clearly and explicitly, the intended outcome of the research project. It should be short, concise and precise, and the words used to write it should be chosen in such a way that they do not lend themselves to double interpretation. To achieve this, a researcher should be very clear on his or her intentions and avoid words that can have several interpretations. A specific objective should have a clear focus and should relate only one construct of the independent variable to the dependent variable. i. An objective is Measurable if it is stated in terms of an outcome that can be observed and (ox) measured. To achieve this, a researcher should always use active verbs (i.e. words that describe action such as find out, determine, describe, establish, etc.). Use of words without terminal characteristics such as know, understand, feel, enjoy, master should be avoided. An Attainable objective has two dimensions: feasibility and manageability. An objective is feasible when it can be answered through collection of data. A researcher should not state an objective for which data cannot be collected (e.g. to describe the experiences of dead teachers). An objective is manageable if it can be accomplished within the constraints of the available resources such as finance, equipment, manpower and even time. iv. An objective is Realistic if itis of reasonable level of difficulty. It should neither be too hard nor too simple. v. An objective is Time-bound when it can be accomplished within the available _ time. Usually researchers have a set time within which to submit their reports. A researcher should not set out to investigate an objective that cannot be achieved within the stipulated time frame. Longitudinal studies should be avoided unless there is enough time. 2. Clearly indicate the target population (i.e. where the study will be conducted). 3. Clearly indicate the variables to be investigated and the relationship between them. > Research objectives are derived from the research topic. Once the variables in the topic have been operationalized, the task of the researcher is to express the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable in a manner that points to the purpose of the study. The words used to write objectives should be those that ‘imply action’ and which can be observed and measured. Research Questions/ and Hypothesis ¥ Research questions and hypotheses are usually used alternately. If questions are posed, hypotheses should not be stated at the same time. A researcher uses questions when he or she is not sure of the possible solutions to the research problem. So, he or she possess questions such that if they are answered, the responses will help achieve the objectives. To write research questions, a researcher restates each objective in question form, being careful to: Y Avoid questions that require Yes/No answers, as these will limit the scope of discussion in the later chapters. Questions of ‘what’ ‘when’ ‘who’ or ‘which’ should be avoided f6r questions of ‘how’ and ‘why’. But if and when they are used, they should be framed in such a way as to necessitate collection of data. Y Ensure that questions and objectives are systematically and logically consistent. Question I must correspond to objective 1. Use the same pattern of words in the objectives and questions(and even hypothesis) to establish a kind of rhetoric style. Repeat the phrase and order of the variables by beginning with the independent variable and concluding with the dependent variable. Y Ensure that all variables in the objectives are included in the question. From the objective stated above, the following research questions may be formulated. The wordings and phraseology may differ, but the variables remain the same. ¥ Note: A research question is an objective re-stated in question form. All these questions require collection of data to answer. Itis the necessity of data collection that makes a question a research question. A hypothesis is a proposal about a solution to a problem: It is an “intelligent” or an "educated" {guess or a tentative solution to a problem. They are declarative statements on the relationships between two or more, variables on the nature of some phenomenon. ‘They form the elements for testing to enable the researcher make an opinion about certain phenomenon being investigated, They contain the variables which the researcher wishes to consider or test in order to observe their actions or reactions so that he or she can make meaningful conclusions. ¥ Hypotheses, as opposed to questions, are stated if the researcher has some idea of the possible s of the problem under investigation, and wants to find out if the ‘solutions’ hold under the stated circumstances or not. A well-stated hypothesis should: w@ Be testable. (ii) Be clear and precise. iii) Indicate both the independent and dependent variables and the relationship between them. (iv) Be based on theory. There should be valid reasons based on theory or evidence for considering the hypothesis worth testing. Y Hypothesis may be stated either in null (non-directional) form symbolized as (Ho) or i alternative (directional) form symbolized as (Hs or Hi). A Null Hypothesis states that there is no relationship between the variables being studied or no difference will be found in the dependent variable due to experimental treatments. A null hypothesis may be literary or ‘operationally stated. Research hypotheses are derived from research objectives. Hence, they should have all the features of objectives except that rather than state the intention; they express the relationship (or the absence of it) between the variables in the study. To write a research hypothesis, a researcher states the existence (or the absence) of a relationship between the variables being investigated.MASENO UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF BIOMEDICAL SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY BSc. Medical Bi P i 2023/2024 ACADEMIC YEAR January - April 2024 PMT 328: Research Methods and Technical Writing COURSE OUTLINE 1. PURPOSE To equip students with the knowledge and skills to undertake a scientific research and utilize research findings, Course Description Philosophical aspects of scientific research and innovation and the methods and nature of science, including their applications in biomedical science; Preliminary review of state of scientific knowledge and literature survey of sample topics in biomedical sciences; Different types of biomedical and medical studies: cross- sectional, vertical or prospective and follow up, retrospective cohort, time-series, case-report, case-series, case-control, controlled exposure, monitoring and surveillance, etc; Research proposal formulation including generation of hypotheses, study objectives and laying out research plans and questionnaires; Resources required: personnel, budgeting and seeking for research funds, support and collaborations; Units of measurements and scientific calculations used in biomedical research and practice. Data analysis, interpretation, reporting, and publication including bibliography and references and use of computers; Mastering of biomedical and medical terminology and vocabulary and roots of prefixes and suffixes; Documentation and reporting and maintenance of medical confidentiality and ethics; Practice in writing documents such as technical reports, proposals, documentation and papers for publication; Copy editing, substantive editing, author-editor relationship and the production process; Basics of desk-top and electronic publishing; Seminar presentation and analysis of specific publications and information in biomedical science 2.0 EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this course, the learners should be able to: i. Describe types of research, ii. Describe research designs and methods. ‘COURSE CODE: PML 311 Course Name: Medical Immunology © August 2023, Page 103tI MASENO UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF BIOMEDICAL SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY iii, Describe sampling methods. iv. _ Explain ethical principles in research. v. Write a research proposal and thesis vi. Collect data, analyze and interpret results. Discuss and disseminate research findings. 3.0LECTURE SCHEDULE (42 HRS) ‘COURSE CODE: PML 317 Course Name: Mecical Immunology © August 2023 Page 20f3MASENO UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF BIOMEDICAL SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY 4.0 COURSE EVALUATION The course will be evaluated through Continuous Assessment Tests (CATs) and final semester examinations. The CATs and practical assignments will account for 30% marks while the final examination will be worth 70marks. There will be one sit in CAT (15%), in Week 8, Practical assignments will account for 15% marks. The final Exam will account for 70% marks. The scores will be graded as follows: i, Laboratory practical assignments 15% ii, _Sit-in Continuous Assessment Test 15% iii, End of session examination 70% Total 100% ‘The pass mark is 40% 5.0MODE OF DELIVERY This course will be offered through blended learning with both face-to-face and online sessions contacted through Zoom platform. 6.0 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT The course has a lot of interactive online learning objects mostly sourced from the internet e.g, power point presentations, online videos and other Lecture notes and other resources 7.0 REFERENCES 1. Basic Immunology, Functions and Disorders of the Immune System, by Abul K. Abbas and Andrew H. Lichtman 2" Edition 2006-2007. 2. Atlas of Immunology 3** Edition by Julius M. Cruse and Robert E. Lewis, 2010 3. Introduction to Medical Immunology 4* Edition by Gabriel Virella, 1998. 4. Practical Immunology 4** Edition by Frank C. Hay and Olwyn M.R. Westwood. 2002 5, Essentials of Clinical Immunology 6" Edition by Snowen et al. 2014 8.0 LECTURER CONTACT Name: Namuyenga Toko Eunice Tel: 0715458878 E-mail: etokol@maseno.acke; eunicetoko@gmail.com. ‘COURSE CODE: PML 311 Course Name: Medical Immunology © August 2023 Page 301326" Feb 2024 The Literature Review - Alliterature review is a critical analysis and summary of existing research and literature ona specific topic. It involves identifying, evaluating, and synthesizing relevant published works, such as books, articles, and other scholarly sources, to provide an overview of the ‘current state of knowledge on the subject. The goal of a literature review is to demonstrate “familiarity with the existing literature, identify gaps or controversies in the research, and establish the need for further investigation or study. Key components of a literature review typically include: 1. Introduction: Provides an overview of the topic and the purpose of the literature review 2. Scope and Criteria: Defines the scope and criteria for including or excluding sources. 3. Search Strategy: Describes the methods used to search for and select relevant literature. 4. Synthesis of Literature: Organizes and summarizes the key findings, themes, and debates in the literature. 5. Critical Evaluation: Evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of individual studies and the overall body of literature. 6. Identification of Gaps: Highlights areas where more research is needed and identifies any gaps or limitations in the existing literature. 7. Conclusion: Summarizes the main points and discusses the implications for future research. Literature reviews are common components in academic research papers, theses, dissertations, and grant proposals. They serve as a foundation for understanding the “current state of knowledge in a particular field and help researchers situate their work within the broader scholarly conversation. The literature review and the background serve distinct but related purposes in academic research. The literature Review; 4. Focus on Existing Research; ‘i - Purpose: The primary aim is to review and summarize existing research, theories, and scholarly works related to the research topic. - Content: It involves a critical analysis of the literature, identifying key themes, debates, and gaps in knowledge. 2. Synthesis and Evaluation; - Synthesis: It involves synthesizing information from multiple sources to provide a comprehensive understanding of the current state of knowledge on the topic. - Evaluation: The literature review includes critical evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of existing studies. 3. Organized Discussion; ‘|= Organization: The literature review is typically organized thematically or ; chronologically, presenting a structured discussion of relevant studies | 4, Identification of Gaps; , - Focus on Gaps: One of its key purposes is to identify gaps or limitations in the existing literature, indicating areas where further research is needed. The background; 1. Setting the Context; Purpose: The background provides context for the research, explaining the broader setting, circumstances, or context in which the study takes place. , ~ Content: It includes information that helps readers understand the significance and | relevance of the research topic. 2. Introduction to the Problem; ~ Problem Statement: The background often includes a statement of the problem or issue that the research aims to address. It helps establish the need for the study. J | 3. ChronologicalSequential Overview; - Chronology: While the literature review can be organized thematically or by key debates, the background may provide a chronological overview of events or developments leading to the research question 4. No Critical Evaluation; - Evaluation: Unlike the literature review, the background section does not involve a critical evaluation of existing literature. Instead, it aims to inform and orient the reader. The literature review is a comprehensive analysis of existing research, whereas the | background sets the stage by providing context and introducing the research problem "| without the in-depth critical evaluation of existing studies. Both sections are essential for a well-rounded research paper, helping readers understand the research’s significance | and the current state of knowledge in the field. | A good literature review is crucial in academic research for several reasons; il 1. Contextualization of Research; - A literature review provides the necessary context for the research, helping readers understand the historical development, current state, and key debates within the chosen topic. It sets the stage for the significance of the new study. 2. Identification of Gaps and Research Questions; - By critically examining existing literature, a literature review helps researchers identify gaps, unanswered questions, or areas where further investigation is needed. This process guides the formulation of research questions and hypotheses.ah 3. Establishing Credibility; - A thorough literature review dem f \ matter. It establishes credibility by showing that the study is built on a solid foun existing knowledge. onstrates the researcher's familiarity with the subject dation of 4, Avoiding Redundancy; . - Researchers can avoid duplicating efforts by understanding whal has already been studied and published. A literature review helps prevent redundancy and ensures that new research contributes meaningfully to the field. ; 5. Methodological Guidance; - The literature review often highlights various research methodologies used in previous | studies. Researchers can learn from these methods and make informed decisions about the most appropriate approaches for their own investigations. 16, Theoty Development - For theoretical studies, a literature review is essential for identifying and understanding existing theories and conceptual frameworks. It aids in the development of a theoretical foundation for the new research. 7. Synthesis of Information; - A literature review involves synthesizing information from diverse sources, providing a holistic view of the subject. This synthesis is valuable for creating a coherent narrative _ and contributing to the overall understanding of the topic, ' + 8. Critical Thinking Skills; »"S Engaging with existing literature requires critical thinking skills. Researchers must \ assess the quality, validity, and relevance of each source, contributing to the development , of their analytical abilities. | 9. Publication and Grant Applications; - Journals and funding agencies often require a literature review as part of research ' submissions. A well-executed literature review increases the likelihood of acceptance and approval. 10. Building a Conceptual Framework; i - For empirical studies, a literature review helps in constructing a conceptual framework by integrating existing theories and models. This framework serves as a theoretical foundation for the research design. A good literature review is fundamental to the research process. It not only provides a comprehensive overview of existing knowledge but also guides the direction of the new : study, ensuring that the research is relevant, original, and contributes meaningfully to the “academic dialog. iWhen conducting a literature review, it's important to gather information from a variety of reliable sources. Here are some common sources you can consider; 1. Academic Journals - - Peer-reviewed joumals are primary sources of academic research. They contain articles written by experts in the field and undergo a rigorous review process before Publication. 2. Books - Scholarly books provide in-depth coverage of a topic and can offer comprehensive insights. Look for books written by reputable authors or published by academic presses. 3. Conference Proceedings . - Papers presented at conferences often provide cutting-edge research and preliminary findings. Conference proceedings are a valuable source for the latest developments in a field. 4. Dissertations and Theses - Graduate-level theses and dissertations can be valuable sources of detailed research. They often contain thorough literature reviews themselves. 5. Government Publications - Government agencies often publish reports and studies on various topics. These can provide statistical data, policy insights, and research findings. 6. Grey Literature - Grey literature includes non-traditional sources such as working papers, technical reports, and other documents not published in traditional academic channels. These can provide valuable insights and perspectives. 7. News Articles - While not scholarly, news articles can be useful for understanding the broader context of a topic, especially in fields like sociology, politics, or current events, ' 8. Online Databases - Utilize academic databases like PubMed, JSTOR, IEEE Xplore, ScienceDirect, and others to search for scholarly articles and papers. 9, Citation Tracking: - Check the references in the articles and books you find. This helps you discover additional sources that are related to your topic. 10. Systematic Review Articles - Look for review articles thal summarize and analyze existing research on a specific topic. These articles can serve as a helpful starting point for your literature review.11. Websites of Professional Organizations ' - Many professional organizations publish research and reports related to their field. Explore the websites of relevant associations for valuable information. 12. Library Catalogs - Your university or local library catalog is a valuable tesource for finding books, journals, and other materials relevant to your research. 13. Online Repositories and Archives - Explore repositories and archives that store research data, preprints,’ and other scholarly materials. Examples include; a) Social Science Research Network (SSRN) - a repository for preprints devoted to the rapid dissemination of scholarly research in the social sciences, humanities, life sciences, and health sciences, among others. ; b) The Institutional repositories e.g. Maseno Institutional Repository, MMUST Institutional Repository, Kenya University Institutional Repository, UoN Institutional repository etc. c) arXiv, A : d) medRixv, e) Bio-repositories etc. 14. Experts and Practitioners - Reach out to experts in the field or practitioners who may have valuable insights or unpublished data. Critically evaluate each source for its credibility, relevance, and quality. A well-rounded literature review incorporates a variety of sources to provide a comprehensive understanding of the topic.