THE CONTROL OF

BLOOD GLUCOSE
By: Michelle Ben
-If the concentration of glucose in the blood decreases below a certain level, cells
may not have enough glucose for respiration and may not be able to function
normally
-If the concentration of glucose in the blood increases above a certain level, this
can also disrupt the normal function of cells, potentially causing major problems
-The control of blood glucose concentration is a key part of homeostasis
-Blood glucose concentration is controlled by two hormones secreted by endocrine
tissue in the pancreas
-This tissue is made up of groups of cells known as the islets of Langerhans
-The islets of Langerhans contain two cell types:
👉alpha cells that secrete the hormone glucagon
👉beta cells that secrete the hormone insulin
-These a and ß cells act as the receptors and initiate the response for controlling
blood glucose concentration
-The control of blood glucose concentration by glucagon can be used to
demonstrate the principles of cell signaling
 DECREASE IN BLOOD GLUCOSE CONCENTRATION
- If a decrease in blood glucose concentration occurs, it is detected by the a and cells in the
pancreas:
👉The a cells respond by secreting glucagon
👉The ß cells respond by stopping the secretion of insulin
- The decrease in blood insulin concentration reduces the use of glucose by liver and muscle cells
- Glucagon binds to receptors in the cell surface membranes of liver cells
- This binding causes a conformational change in the receptor protein that activates a G protein
- This activated G protein activates the enzyme adenylyl cyclase
- Active adenylyl cyclase catalyses the conversion of ATP to the second messenger, cyclic AMP
(cAMP)
cAMP binds to protein kinase A enzymes, activating them
- Active protein kinase A enzymes activate phosphorylase kinase enzymes by adding phosphate
groups to them
- Active phosphorylase kinase enzymes activate glycogen phosphorylase enzymes
- Active glycogen phosphorylase enzymes catalyse the breakdown of glycogen to glucose
- This process is known as glycogenolysis
- The enzyme cascade described above amplifies the original signal from glycogen and results in the
releasing of extra glucose by the liver to increase the blood glucose concentration back to a normal
level.
INCREASE IN BLOOD GLUCOSE CONCENTRATION
- When the blood glucose concentration increases to above the normalrange it
is detected by the & cells in the pancreas
- When the concentration of glucose is high glucose molecules enter the ß cells
by facilitated diffusion
- The cells respire this glucose and produce ATP
- High concentrations of ATP causes the potassium channels in the & cells to
close, producing a change in the membrane potential
- This change in the membrane potential causes the voltage-gated calcium
channels to open
- In response to the influx of calcium ions, the ® cells secrete the hormone
insulin
- Insulin-containing vesicles move towards the cell-surface membrane where
they release insulin into the capillaries
- Once in the bloodstream, insulin circulates around the body
- It stimulates the uptake of glucose by muscles cells, fat cells and the liver
ACTION OF INSULIN
👉Insulin increase the uptake of glucose into target cells
➖The target cells of insulin include muscle cells, fat storage cells, adipose tissue and liver
cells; all of these cells have specific insulin receptors on their cell surface membranes
➖Insulin binds to specific receptors on the membranes of these target cells
➖The binding of insulin to receptors on target cells stimulates the cells to add more
glucose transporter proteins to their cell surface membranes, increasing the permeability
of the cells to glucose
👉These glucose transporter proteins are known as GLUT proteins
👉When blood glucose levels are low GLUT proteins are stored inside the cellin the
membranes of vesicles, but when insulin binds to the surface receptors the vesicles move
to the cell surface membrane and fuse with it, adding GLUT proteins to the membrane
➖The rate of facilitated diffusion of glucose into the target cells increases as a result of
the increase in GLUT proteins
👉Insulin causes activation of an enzyme known as glucokinase
➖Glucokinase phosphorylates glucose, trapping it inside cells
👉Insulin causes activation of another enzyme; glycogen synthase
➖Glycogen synthase converts glucose into glycogen in a process known as
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK CONTROL OF BLOOD GLUCOSE
➖Blood glucose concentration is regulated by negative feedback control
mechanisms
👉In negative feedback systems:
✅Receptors detect whether a specific level is too low or too high
✅This information is communicated through the hormonal or nervous
system to effectors
✅Effectors react to counteract the change by bringing the level back to
normall
👉In the control of blood glucose concentration:
✅alpha and beta cells in the pancreas act as the receptors
✅They release the hormones glucagon (secreted by a cells) and insulin
(secreted by B cells)
✅Liver cells act as the effectors in response to glucagon and liver, muscle
and fat cells act as the effectors in response to insulin