Pivot point & Stopping distance and

Turning circle
 The ship’s pivot point
• The turning effect of a vessel will take effect about the ship’s ‘pivot point’ and
this position, with the average design vessel, lies at about the ship’s Centre of
Gravity, which is generally nearly amidships (assuming the vessel is on even
keel in calm water conditions).
• As the ship moves forward under engine power, the pivot point will be caused
to move forward with the momentum on the vessel. If the water does not
exert resistance on the hull the pivot point would assume a position in the
bow region. However, practically the pivot point moves to a position
approximately 0.25 of the ships length (L) from the forward position.
• Similarly, if the vessel is moved astern, the stern motion would cause the Pivot
Point to move aft and adopt a new position approximately 0.25 of the ship’s
length from the right aft position. If the turning motion of the vessel is
considered, with use of the rudder, while the vessel is moved ahead by
engines, it can be seen that the pivot point will follow the arc of the turn.
• If the turning motion of the vessel is considered, with use of the rudder, while
the vessel is moved ahead by engines, it can be seen that the pivot point will
follow the arc of the turn.
• The combined forces of water resistance, forward of the pivot point and the
opposing turning forces from the rudder, aft of the pivot point, cause a ‘couple
effect’ to take place. The resultant turning motion on the vessel sees the pivot
point following the arc of the turn.
Pivot point means the center of any rotational system. It is very vital to know the location of
the pivot point as the ship handling depends greatly on knowing the location of the same.
The pivot point is not a fixed point. It changes the location depending on the below factors;-

▪ When the vessel is at rest or static, the pivot point is almost the same as that of the center
of Gravity, which is denoted by G.

▪ When the vessel moves forward, the position of pivot point shifts forward. The new pivot
point will be about 1/4th of the Length of the vessel from the forward.
▪ When the vessel moves astern, the position of the pivot point shifts towards the stern. The
new pivot point will be about 1/4th of the Length of the vessel from the stern.

• while the vessel moves astern, the pivot point moves towards the stern. This shift of the
pivot point can be made to advantage. Let's assume that both the tugs are pulling with the
same force. Since the pivot point has shifted more towards the stern, the effect of the
Forward tug will be increased automatically. The reason being that the turning lever for
the Forward tug has been increased, because of the shift of the pivot point. Therefore the
action of the forward tug will be dominant over the stern tug. Therefore the bow will move
to PORT.
 The pivot point at anchor

• It should be noted that when the vessel goes to anchor the pivot
point moves right forward and effectively holds the bow in one
position.
• Any forces acting on the hull, such as from wind or currents, would
cause the vessel to move about the hawse pipe position.
• Use of the rudder can however, be employed when at anchor, to
provide a ‘sheer’ to the vessel, which could be a useful action to
angle the length of the vessel away from localized dangers.
 Stopping distance – Stopping time
▪ The stopping distance is the distance that a vessel with her rudder amidships
and her engine full ahead, will run from the moment her engine are put
astern until she comes to a complete rest ( stop) over the ground.
▪ The time taken to complete this is call stopping time.
▪ Stopping distance and stopping time must :-
• Be expressed in ship’s lengths (L) or m. and the stopping time in minute and
second.
• Be clearly expressed on the bridge.
▪ The water resistance, at a constant speed is equal to the power of the engine
and, as a rough estimate, that water resistance is proportional to the square of
the speed ( V²).
 Stopping distance – Stopping time
General remarks
▪ Suppose a vessel with a speed of 16 knots with her engines at the average power of 100%.
The water resistance in that case is also equal to 100%. The engines are stopped and the
vessel is continuing to move on her own inertia with her helm at midships.
▪ When the vessel has slow down to 8 knots the water resistance will be equal to 25% of the
inertia water resistance.
▪ The stopping distance depends for a great deal on the proportion between the propeller
power Ahead and Astern.
▪ The power of a turbine steam engine, working astern is about 70% of its power working
ahead.
▪ When applying astern propulsion to stop a ship, the ship may by considered as being
stopped when the wake reaches the middle of the ship.
▪ When the stopping time and the speed of a vessel are known, it is quit easy to
determine the stopping distance.
▪ When considering the stopping distance, take into account the distance ran from
the time the speed Telegraph is put on full astern and that the propeller actually
start to turn astern. The engineer is not always close to the manoeuvring board and
whale minute can elapse before the propeller actually turns in reverse direction.
▪ Elements such as the wind, the state of the sea, the depth of water should be taken
into account when considering the stopping distance and the stopping time.
▪ Keep in mind that when astern power is applied, the vessel will not stay on her
original course but the bow will turn either to starboard or to port depending on
the type of propeller used.
▪ For instance, with a right hand fixed propeller, the astern will move to port and the
bow to starboard. When the vessel has come to complete rest, the vessel may well
have turned over 90°.
 Stopping distance of ships
As we all know, ship like any other transport utility does not have brakes to
make them stop immediately. When the engine is given stop order, the ship will
continue moving in the same direction due to inertia and will come to stop
after moving for some distance.

• Every ship has three different stopping distances depending on:

a. Inertia Stop.
b. Crash stop.
c. Rudder cycle stop.
 Inertia Stop
• When the engine of the ship is stopped, the ship will continue moving in the
same direction for some more distance due to inertia. Here no astern
command is given (used to produce “braking effect” for ships), and hence ship
will travel more distance in the inertia stop method.
• The distance in miles may only be tenth of the initial speed for light ships, but
more than half the speed for deeply loaded ships.
• I.e. if ship speed 10 kts for laden ship the inertia stop will be about 5 N.M. if
ship speed 10 kts for light loaded ship the inertia stop may 1/10 of initial
speed which is one N.M.
• Stopping ability
• The track reach in the full astern stopping test should not exceed 15 ship
lengths.
• However, this value may be modified by the Administration where ships of
large.
• Displacement make this criterion impracticable, but should in no case exceed
20 ship lengths.
 Crash stop
• Crash stop is usually the term used when the ship has to sudden stop in
emergency situation. Here the engine, which is moving in an ahead direction
is given an order for full astern, leaving the rudder in the mid ship position to
stop the ship within minimum distance and shortest possible time. This stops
or reduces the speed of the vessel heading towards the collision course.
• Crash maneuvering is turning the engine in opposite direction to reduce the
heading speed of the ship. After certain time, the ship stops and starts
streaming in astern direction. This is done by supplying starting air at about
30 bars from the air receiver to the engine. The stopping air is known as the
brake air .
• The brake air when sudden injected inside the engine cylinder, will try to
resist the motion of the piston and the rotation of the crankshaft and
propeller.
 Crash stop procedure
• When there is an emergency like collision, grounding etc. the controls are
transferred immediately in to the Engine room controls.
• The bridge will give astern direction in the telegraph, acknowledge the same.
• When the telegraph is acknowledged only the starting air cam will reverse its
direction but the fuel cam will remain in its running position due to running
direction interlock since engine is still running in the ahead direction
• The fuel lever in the engine control room is brought to ‘0’
• As soon as the RPM of the engine drops below 40 % of the Maximum Continuous
Rating of the engine, give break air few times in short time frame.
• The break air will inject with astern timing setting inside the ahead moving piston
which will resist the piston motion .Since fuel will not inject until running direction
interlock opens, as soon as the rpm drops near to Zero, give fuel and air kick by
bringing fuel lever to minimum start setting.
• When carrying out Crash Maneuvering, some safeties need to be bypassed to avoid
tripping of engine in mid of emergency.
• When the ship stops and situation is under control, a detailed Main engine
inspection is to be carried out when there is a chance.
 Rudder cycle

• A well tried method of using the engine to brake the forward progress of
the vessel is to initially keep the propeller going ahead but reducing the
revolutions and turning the helm from one side to the other to create a
rudder drag.
• When headway has been reduced the propeller can be reversed and
astern revolutions built up as the speed through the water declines.
• A typical Rudder Cycling maneuver for a ship
proceeding with 16 knots was carried out as
follows:
1. Initial speed 16 knots. (Full ahead)
2. Hard over to port 20° and, reducing speed to
(Half ahead)
3. After turning 40° to port, hard over the
wheel to starboard side and reduce to (Slow
ahead)
4. When the ship have passed the original
course hard over to port
5. Reduce to (Dead Slow ahead)
6. Finally when coming back to the original
course hard over to starboard and engines
(Full astern).
7. STOP ENGINE .

• The track reach of this maneuver is reduced

to less than half the crash stop.
 Anchoring in emergency.
A vessel is approaching a channel in reduced
visibility, speed 5 knots. The officer of the
watch receives a VHF communication that the
channel has become blocked by a collision at
the main entrance. What would be a
recommended course of action when the
vessel was 1 mile from the obstructed
channel, with a flood tide of approximately 4
knots running astern?

1. Assuming the vessel to have a right-hand

fixed propeller, put the rudder hard a-
starboard and stop main engines. The vessel
would respond by turning to starboard. The
anchor party should stand by forward to let go
starboard anchor.
2. Let go starboard anchor. Full astern on main
engines to reduce head reach. Letting go the
anchor would check the headway of the vessel
and act to snub the vessel round. Stop main
engines.

3.Full ahead on main engines, with rudder hard

to starboard. Ease and check the cable as
weight comes on the anchor. Once the vessel
has stopped over the ground, go half ahead on
main engines, allowing the vessel to come up
towards the anchor and so relieve the strain on
the cable. Heave away on the cable and bring
the anchor home. Clear the area and investigate
a safe anchorage or alternative port until
channel obstruction is cleared.
 Turning circle
▪ The turning circle of a vessel is the circle the vessel will describe when her helm is
put, hard over to starboard or hard over to port, usually with her engines full ahead.
▪ The determination of the turning circle of a vessel is normally carried out during
the sea trials of the vessel prior to handover from the builders to the owners.
▪ The turning circle, tighter with stopping distance, are placed on board of the vessel
in the trial papers, so that they can be consulted by the ship’s Master, the watch
officers and eventually the pilots.
▪ With regard to the turning circle the following statements are usually stated in the
trial papers:-
• The advance of the vessel.
• The transfer of the vessel.
• The tactical diameter that the vessel scribes.
• The final diameter that the vessel has scribed.
 Turning circle
• Turning circle information from trials or estimates for various loaded/ballast
conditions; Test condition results reflecting ‘advance’ and ‘transfer’ and the
stated maximum rudder angle employed in the test, together with times and
speeds at 90°, 180°, 270° and 360°; details should be in diagrammatic format
with ship’s outline.
• Turning circle maneuver is the maneuver to be performed to both starboard
and port with 35° rudder angle or the maximum rudder angle permissible at
the test speed, following a steady approach with zero yaw rate.
• A ship’s turning circle is the path followed by the ship’s pivot point when
making a 360° turn without returning to the initial course.
• If the vessel is fitted with a right-hand fixed propeller, she would benefit from
the transverse thrust effect, and her turning circle, in general, will be quicker
and tighter when turning to port than to starboard.
• A vessel listed will turn more readily towards her high side with smaller
turning circle on that side.
▪ The diameter of the turning circle is equal to about 4
ship’s lengths (4L).
▪ In position 1, the helm is put hard to starboard and
the vessel will first move to port of her initial course.
The vessel also start to turn to starboard. Due to the
position of her turning point ( pivot point) at about
¼ from the bow, the bow will hardly be moving
inside the initial course but the aft of the vessel will
swing to port. Only in position 4, after 4 ship’s
lengths on the initial course, the aft of the vessel will
start to move to the inside of the initial course. In
position 5, the ship’s course will have changed about
90° to starboard.
▪ Conclusion:
If there is an obstacle straight ahead of the vessel at
a distance of less than 4 ship’s lengths, this obstacle
can not be avoided by a helm action only. The port
quarter of the vessel will hit the obstacle.
• Advance - Advance is the distance travelled in the
direction of the original course by the midship point of
a ship from the position at which the rudder order is
given to the position at which the heading has changed
90° from the original course., measured from the point
where the rudder is first put over and should not
exceed 4.5 ship lengths
• Transfer - Transfer is the amount of distance gained
towards the new course (shown here for 90° heading
change).
• Tactical Diameter - Tactical diameter is the distance
travelled by the midship point of a ship from the
position at which the rudder order is given to the
position at which the heading has changed 180° from
the original course. It is measured in a direction
perpendicular to the original heading of the ship..
• Final Diameter - Final diameter is the distance
perpendicular to the original course measured from
the 180° point through 360° (shown here for steady
turning radius, R).
• Pivot Point - A ship’s pivot point is a point on the
centerline about which the ship turns when the rudder
is put over.
• Drift Angle - Drift angle is an angle at any point on the
turning circle between the intersection of the tangent
at that point and the ship’s keel line.
 General remarks
▪ The turning circle conducted in shallow water will be considerably increase
compared with a turning circle conducted in deep water.
▪ Turning a vessel with her helm hard over will cause the vessel’s speed to
decrease considerably.
▪ A deep laden vessel performing a turning circle (e.g. in case of man
overboard) will experience less effect from the wind or sea condition than in
light ballast condition.
▪ A vessel trimmed by the stern will generally steer more easily but the tactical
diameter of the turn will be expected to increase.
▪ A vessel trimmed by the head will decrease the size of the turn but will be
more difficult to steer.
▪ A vessel conducting a turning circle with a list could normally be delayed.
▪ Turning towards a list would normally generate a large turning circle.
▪ Turning away from a list would normally generate a smaller turning circle.
▪ A vessel tends to heel towards the direction of turn once helm is applied.
▪ A vessel turning with an existing list and not being in an upright position
could in shallow waters experience an increase in draught.
▪ The type or rudder can have influence on the turning circle of a vessel.
▪ A narrow beam vessel normally make a tighter turning circle then a wide
beam circle.
▪ A vessel equipped with a right hand fixed propeller would normally turn
tighter to port than starboard.
 Factors will affect the rate of turn and the size of turning circle

1. Structural design and length of the vessel.

2. Draught and trim of vessel.
3. Size and motive power of main machinery.
4. Distribution and stowage of cargo.
5. Even keel or carrying a list.
6. Position of turning in relation to the available depth of water.
7. Amount of rudder angle required to complete the turn.
8. External forces affecting the drift angle.
1. Structural design and length. The longer the ship generally, the greater
the turning circle . The type of rudder and the resulting steering effect
will decide the final diameter, with the clearance between rudder and
hull having a major influence . The smaller the clearance between
rudder and hull the more effective the turning action.

2. Draught and trim. The deeper a vessel lies in the water, the more
sluggish will be her response to the helm. On the other hand, the
superstructure of a vessel in a light condition and shallow in draught is
considerably influenced by the wind. The trim of a vessel will influence
the size of the turning circle in such a way that it will decrease if the
vessel is trimmed by the head. However, vessels normally trim by the
stern for better steerage and improved headway and it would be
unusual for a vessel to be trimmed in normal circumstances by the
head.
3. Motive power. The relation between power and displacement will
affect the turning circle performance of any vessel in the same way
that a light speedboat has greater acceleration than a heavily laden ore
carrier. It should be remembered that the rudder is only effective when
there is a flow of water past it . The turning circle will therefore not
increase by any considerable margin with an increase in speed,
because the steering effect is increased over the same period. (The
rudder steering effect will increase with the square of the flow of
water past the rudder.)
4. Distribution and stowage of cargo. Generally this will not affect the
turning circle in any way, but the vessel will respond more readily if
loads are stowed amidships instead of at the extremities. Merchant
ship design tends to distribute weight throughout the vessel’s length .
The reader may be able to imagine a vessel loaded heavily fore and aft
responding slowly and sluggishly to the helm.
5. Even keel or listed over. A new vessel when engaged on trials will be on
an even keel when carrying out turning circles for recording the ship’s
data. This condition of even keel cannot, however, always be
guaranteed once the vessel is commissioned and loaded. If a vessel is
carrying a list, it can be expected to make a larger turning circle when
turning towards the list, and vice-versa.
6. Available depth of water. The majority of vessels, depending on hull
form, will experience greater resistance when navigating in shallow
water. A form of interaction takes place between the hull and the sea
bed which may result in the vessel yawing and becoming difficult to
steer. She may take longer to respond to helm movement, probably
increasing the advance of the turning circle, as well as increasing over
the transfer. The corresponding final diameter will be increased
retrospectively.
7. Rudder angle. Probably the most significant factor affecting the turning
circle is the rudder angle . The optimum is one which will cause
maximum turning effect without causing excessive drag. If a small
rudder angle is employed, a large turning circle will result, with little
loss of speed. However, when a large rudder angle is employed, then,
although a tighter turning circle may be experienced, this will be
accompanied by a loss of speed.
8. Drift angle and influencing forces. When a vessel responds to helm
movement, it is normal for the stern of the vessel to traverse in
opposing Motion . Although the bow movement is what is desired, the
resultant motion of the vessel is one of crabbing in a sideways
direction, at an angle of drift. When completing a turning circle,
because of this angle of drift, the stern quarters are outside the turning
circle area while the bow area is inside the turning circle. Studies have
shown that the ‘pivot point’ of the vessel in most cases describes the
circumference of the turning circle.