agriculture
Article
Combination of Sentinel-2 Satellite Images and Meteorological
Data for Crop Water Requirements Estimation in
Intensive Agriculture
Jaouad El Hachimi 1, * , Abderrazak El Harti 1 , Rachid Lhissou 2 , Jamal-Eddine Ouzemou 1 , Mohcine Chakouri 1
and Amine Jellouli 1
Citation: El Hachimi, J.; El Harti, A.;
Lhissou, R.; Ouzemou, J.-E.;
Chakouri, M.; Jellouli, A.
Combination of Sentinel-2 Satellite
Images and Meteorological Data for
Crop Water Requirements Estimation
in Intensive Agriculture. Agriculture
2022, 12, 1168. https://doi.org/
10.3390/agriculture12081168
Academic Editor: Ritaban Dutta
Received: 29 June 2022
Accepted: 3 August 2022
Published: 5 August 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
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This article is an open access article
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Agriculture 2022, 12, 1168. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12081168
1 Team of Remote Sensing and GIS Applied to the Geosciences and the Environment,
Faculty of Sciences and Techniques, Beni Mellal 23000, Morocco
2 INRS—Centre Eau Terre Environnement, 490, de la Couronne, Québec City, QC G1K 9A9, Canada
* Correspondence: j.elhachimi@usms.ma
Abstract: In arid and semi-arid regions, agriculture is an important element of the national economy,
but this sector is a large consumer of water. In a context of high pressure on water resources, appropri-
ate management is required. In semi-arid, intensive agricultural systems, such as the Tadla irrigated
perimeter in central Morocco, a large amount of water is lost by evapotranspiration (ET), and farmers
need an effective decision support system for good irrigation management. The main objective of
this study was to combine a high spatial resolution Sentinel-2 satellite and meteorological data for
estimating crop water requirements in the irrigated perimeter of Tadla and qualifying its irrigation
strategy. The dual approach of the FAO-56 (Food and Agriculture Organization) model, based on
the modulation of evaporative demand, was used for the estimation of crop water requirements.
Sentinel-2A temporal images were used for crop type mapping and deriving the basal crop coefficient
(Kcb) based on NDVI data. Meteorological data were also used in crop water requirement simulation,
using SAMIR (satellite monitoring of irrigation) software. The results allowed for the spatialization of
crop water requirements on a large area of irrigated crops during the 2016–2017 agricultural season.
In general, the crops’ requirement for water is at its maximum during the months of March and
April, and the critical period starts from February for most crops. Maps of water requirements
were developed. They showed the variability over time of crop development and their estimated
water requirements. The results obtained constitute an important indicator of how water should be
distributed over the area in order to improve the efficiency of the irrigation scheduling strategy.
Keywords: water management; remote sensing; evapotranspiration; Sentinel-2A; FAO-56
1. Introduction
The problem of the development and management of sustainable water resources
affects most countries of the world, especially those located in arid and semi-arid regions.
These countries have to face limited water resources and a constantly increasing demand
due to various factors: a high population growth, the expansion of irrigated agriculture,
and urban, industrial, and tourism development. Irrigation is the major water consumer in
the Mediterranean region (around 81% of mobilized water is used in agriculture), although
it concerns only 20% of the useful agricultural area [1]. With the aim of reducing water
consumption through rational management and ensuring the sustainability of agriculture,
precision agriculture has been a major focus of scientific research over the past decade,
using new technologies, such as satellite data, as well as new drone technologies [2].
Moroccan agriculture is characterized by equivalent statistics, with around 83% of
the water used for irrigation, while it only covers 13% of arable land. In addition, almost
half of the arable land is located in semi-arid areas (with precipitation between 200 and
400 mm/year), while in these areas, the evaporative demand is about 1500 mm/year. A
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/agriculture
Agriculture 2022, 12, 1168 2 of 17

rational and rigorous water management system in this area is essential. In this context,
studies on the rationing of water use for the agricultural sector, through irrigation manage-
ment, occupy an important place among scientific communities and basin agencies. After
water is supplied to the plant (by irrigation or precipitation), only a small amount is used
by the plant for its organic matter composition. The major part is evacuated by the stomata
in the form of water vapor. On a field scale, evaporation from the soil also contributes to
water loss.
Research carried out for several decades up to the present day on the determination of
crop water requirements has mainly focused on experimental approaches, in particular:
lysimetric methods [3], the sap flow technique [4–8], micrometeorological methods [9,10],
and scintillometry [11]. These methods require very sophisticated and expensive equipment.
This research has also focused on approaches based on models called indirect methods [12].
Among indirect methods, FAO-56 is the most frequently used approach for estimating
crop water requirements [13]. This simple and robust approach can be used to quantify
water requirements and assist decision makers in managing and planning irrigation at
the field scale [14–16]. However, one of the major problems encountered when managing
irrigation on a regional scale is the spatial variability of the parameters of the model.
Hence the interest of spatial remote sensing, which makes it possible to extrapolate local
information to a spatial scale [17–22]. The development of remote sensing capabilities
(temporal, spatial, and spectral resolution) offers a better opportunity for hydro-agricultural
management [17,23,24].
Several works have used space-based remote sensing, such as Sentinel-2 [20,25,26],
for irrigation water planning and management [15,27–32]. These works are based on
the relationship between surface temperature and transpiration; a plant under water
stress limits its transpiration by closing its stomata, which leads to high leaf temperatures.
Spatial remote sensing also provides continuous information on the state of vegetation
through vegetation indices [33–35]. The most commonly used vegetation index is the
NDVI (normalized difference vegetation index). It is defined as the difference between the
surface reflectance in the near-infrared range and the red on the sum of the plants [36,37].
The similarity between the evolution of the vegetation index (NDVI) during the crop
development cycle and that of the crop coefficient has encouraged scientists to study the
relationship between these two parameters in order to estimate crop water requirements on
a regional scale [17,32]. In this context, this work was a new application of SAMIR software
(satellite monitoring of irrigation), employing 10 m high-resolution NDVI time series data
for estimating the actual basal crop coefficient and vegetation fraction for running the
FAO56 dual crop coefficient water balance model in a highly fragmented and intensive
agricultural system. In fact, this work combined a 10 m Sentinel-2 based crop type map and
NDVI time series with meteorological data in order to estimate crop water requirements in
the Tadla irrigated perimeter and qualify the irrigation strategy in this highly fragmented
and intensive agricultural system. The maps produced make it possible to determine the
water needs of each crop in the irrigated perimeter at a daily, monthly, or seasonal time
step and with a resolution of 10 m2 .

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area and Data Used
The study area was located in Morocco (32◦ 000 N and 5◦ 000 W), a country bordered to
the west by the Atlantic Ocean, to the east by Algeria, to the south by Mauritania, and to
the north by the Mediterranean. Morocco is therefore located in the extreme northwest of
Africa, just across from Europe, from which it is separated only by the 17 km of the Strait
of Gibraltar. Morocco is one of the Maghreb states and is the westernmost country. The
variety of Moroccan landscapes is rich. It changes from summits to plains, and from the
greenest vegetation to the most complete aridity.
The agricultural plain of Tadla is located in the Oum Er Rbia basin in central Morocco,
on an area of 320,000 ha. The study area was located in the irrigated perimeter of Tadla,
 Agriculture 2022, 12, 1168 3 of 17

Agriculture 2022, 12, 1168 Strait of Gibraltar. Morocco is one of the Maghreb states and is the westernmost country. 3 of 17
The variety of Moroccan landscapes is rich. It changes from summits to plains, and from
the greenest vegetation to the most complete aridity.
The agricultural plain of Tadla is located in the Oum Er Rbia basin in central Morocco,
which is part of the agricultural plain (Figure 1). With an average altitude of 400 m, the
on an area of 320,000 ha. The study area was located in the irrigated perimeter of Tadla,◦
perimeter hasofan
which is part thearid to semi-arid
agricultural plainclimate, with
(Figure 1). With temperatures ranging
an average altitude 400 m,−the
of from
◦ C in August [38] and an average annual rainfall of 280 mm [39]. The perimeter
6 C in Jan-
uary to 46
perimeter has an arid to semi-arid climate, with temperatures ranging from −6 °C in January
is
to supplied with [38]
46 °C in August irrigation water by
and an average the Bin
annual El Ouidane
rainfall of 280 mmand [39].Ahmed El Hansali
The perimeter is sup- dams; it
is also characterized by a diversity of crops, including citrus fruits, olives,
plied with irrigation water by the Bin El Ouidane and Ahmed El Hansali dams; it is also char- pomegranates,
cereals
acterized(wheat and barley),
by a diversity of crops,alfalfa, andcitrus
including sugar beets,
fruits, duepomegranates,
olives, to the availability of ground and
cereals (wheat
and barley), alfalfa,
surface waters [33]. and sugar beets, due to the availability of ground and surface waters [33].

Figure 1.
Figure 1.Location
Locationofof
thethe
study areaarea
study withwith
Sentinel-2A images
Sentinel-2A as a basemap.
images as a basemap.

2.1.1. Meteorological
2.1.1. Meteorological Data
Data
The
The meteorological
meteorologicaldata
data used
used were
were recorded
recorded by
by the
the meteorological
meteorological station
station Oulad
Oulad Slimane,
Slimane, in
located located in proximity
proximity to thetostudy
the study
areaarea (Figure
(Figure 1).1). Thisstation
This station measures
measures solar
solarra-radiation,
diation, wind speed, temperature, air humidity, and precipitation. Following the stand-
wind speed, temperature, air humidity, and precipitation. Following the standards of
ards of the FAO-56 Penman–Monteith model [12], daily averages of climate data were
the FAO-56 Penman–Monteith model [12], daily averages of climate data were calculated
calculated to determine the reference evapotranspiration (ET0) in mm/day. The variation
to determine the reference evapotranspiration (ET0) in mm/day. The variation of ET0
of ET0 and average daily temperature measured during the 2016/2017 agricultural season
and averageindaily
is presented Figuretemperature
2. The referencemeasured during the
evapotranspiration 2016/2017
records agricultural
show moderate valuesseason is
presented
in autumn (1 to 2 mm/day) and high values in summer (2 to 6 mm/day), which character-values in
in Figure 2. The reference evapotranspiration records show moderate
Agriculture 2022, 12, 1168 autumn (1 to 2 climate.
izes a semi-arid mm/day) and high values in summer (2 to 6 mm/day), 4 of which
17 characterizes
a semi-arid climate.

Figure 2. Variation of ET0 and average daily temperature (Tavg) during the 2016/2017 agricultural
Figure 2. Variation of ET0 and average daily temperature (Tavg) during the 2016/2017 agricul-
season.
tural season.
2.1.2. Satellite Data and Pre-Processing
In order to estimate evapotranspiration and determine crop water requirements in
the study area, a time series of NDVI vegetation indices was used from Sentinel-2A mul-
tispectral satellite images (Table 1). Ten images covering the study area were acquired
during the 2016/2017 agricultural season. This allowed us to have at least one image per
month over the study area. The images were radiometrically and atmospherically cor-
Agriculture 2022, 12, 1168 4 of 17

Agriculture 2022, 12, 1168 4 of 17

2.1.2. Satellite Data and Pre-Processing

In order to estimate evapotranspiration and determine crop water requirements in the
study area, a time series of NDVI vegetation indices was used from Sentinel-2A multispec-
tral satellite images (Table 1). Ten images covering the study area were acquired during the
2016/2017 agricultural season. This allowed us to have at least one image per month over
the study area. The images were radiometrically and atmospherically corrected using the
sen2cor algorithm at 10 m spatial resolution (Figure 3).

Table 1. Sentinel-2A image acquisition dates.

Images Acquisition Dates Sensor

Figure 2. Variation of ET0 and average daily temperature (Tavg) during the 2016/2017 agricultural
season. 1 3 November 2016 Sentinel-2A
2 13 December 2016 Sentinel-2A
2.1.2. Satellite 3Data and Pre-Processing
23 December 2016 Sentinel-2A
4 2 January 2017 Sentinel-2A
In order 5to estimate evapotranspiration
12 Januaryand
2017determine crop water requirements in
Sentinel-2A
the study area,6 a time series of NDVI1vegetation indices was used from
February 2017 Sentinel-2A mul-
Sentinel-2A
7
tispectral satellite 30 March
images (Table 1). Ten 2017
images covering the studySentinel-2A
area were acquired
8 2 May 2017 Sentinel-2A
during the 2016/2017 agricultural season. This allowed us to have at least one image per
9 1 June 2017 Sentinel-2A
month over the study area. The images were radiometrically and atmospherically cor-
10 21 June 2017 Sentinel-2A
rected using the sen2cor algorithm at 10 m spatial resolution (Figure 3).

Figure3.3.Flowchart
Figure Flowchartof
ofthe
themethodology
methodologyused.
used.

2.2.
TableDescription of theimage
1. Sentinel-2A Plantacquisition
Water Requirement
dates. Model
The FAO-56 model was used to estimate
Images
water requirements [40]. This
Acquisition Dates
model is based
Sensor
on the modulation
1
of the evaporative demand by
3 November 2016
the crop coefficient. The latter
Sentinel-2A
is deduced
from the seasonal
2
cycle of the normalized vegetation
13 December 2016
index (NDVI) by using
Sentinel-2A
the water
balance in the soil.
3 The FAO-56 method is the simplest
23 December 2016 level of description of
Sentinel-2A exchanges
between three components:
4 soil, plants, and atmosphere
2 January 2017 [12,14,40]. It is operationally used
Sentinel-2A
by most agricultural
5 water managers, and it weighs
12 January 2017 a reference evapotranspiration
Sentinel-2A (that
of a well-irrigated
6 lawn subjected to current climatic
1 February 2017 conditions) by the crop
Sentinel-2A coefficient
and that of water
7 stress. There are three30types Marchof2017
evapotranspiration (reference
Sentinel-2A evapotran-
spiration, evapotranspiration
8 under standard conditions,
2 May 2017 and evapotranspiration
Sentinel-2A under
non-standard conditions).
9 1 June 2017 Sentinel-2A
The reference
10 evapotranspiration, ET0, is defined
21 June 2017 as the total waterSentinel-2A
loss by evaporation
and transpiration from a large area of well-irrigated grass, in full growth period, completely
covering the soil, and with an assumed crop height of 0.12 m. ET0 can be calculated from
Agriculture 2022, 12, 1168 5 of 17

meteorological data using the FAO-56 Penman–Monteith method, which is considered as

the most recommended method for calculating the reference evapotranspiration [12].
The evapotranspiration under standard conditions, ETc, also called maximum evapo-
transpiration, is defined at different stages of development of a given crop under optimal
agronomic conditions, without diseases and without stress (hydric or nutritional). ETc is
related to ET0 through a coefficient called the cultural coefficient, Kc, which considers the
physical and physiological differences between the reference area and the given crop:

ETc = Kc × ET0 (1)

The evapotranspiration under non-standard conditions, also called real evapotranspi-

ration (ETr), is the quantity of water evaporated by the soil and vegetation at a given stage
of development as well as the presence of a real sanitary state (the presence of diseases and
insects, water stress, etc.). ETr is also related to ETc by a coefficient, Ks, called the water
stress coefficient:
ETr = Ks × Kc × ET0 (2)
The methods developed by FAO-56, based on the concept of reference evapotranspira-
tion and crop coefficients, have been used as an operational and standard tool for irrigation
programming. The algorithm used in this study was based on the FAO-56 model, with a
dual crop coefficient approach developed by [5,12]. It is recommended that this approach
be followed when better estimates of Kc are needed, such as for scheduling the irrigation of
individual fields on a daily scale. This approach consists of dividing the crop coefficient, Kc,
into two coefficients: the coefficient for transpiration, Kcb, called the basal crop coefficient,
and another for soil evaporation, Ke, called the evaporation coefficient:

ETc = (Kcb + Ke) × ET0 (3)

The basal crop coefficient (Kcb) is based on the development of the crop. Thus, Ke is
the coefficient that controls evaporation from the bare soil fraction as a function of surface
moisture. In this work, a linear relationship between the basal crop coefficient, Kcb, and
the normalized vegetation index, NDVI, was used for sugar beet, citrus, alfalfa, and cereal
crops. This allowed us to determine the maximum and actual evapotranspiration at the
field scale in the study area. Saadi et al. [41] used the SAMIR tool to simulate the ETc and
irrigation volumes of several irrigated perimeters in the Kairouan plain in Tunisia. This
Agriculture 2022, 12, 1168 tool is based on the FAO approach and used the NDVI from satellite images to estimate
6 of 17 the
Kcb via a linear relationship (Figure 4).

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Evolution
Evolutionofofthe cultural
the coefficient,
cultural Kc, during
coefficient, the growth
Kc, during stages stages
the growth of the crop [12].
of the crop [12].

The evapotranspiration was estimated using satellite monitoring of irrigation

(SAMIR) software, which allows the spatialization of evapotranspiration (ET) and water
balance of irrigated crops over large areas [22,42]. The architecture of this program is
based on the FAO-56 model. It calculates the reference evapotranspiration, ET0, from cli-
matic data. In addition to that, the basal crop coefficient, Kcb, was determined by a time
Agriculture 2022, 12, 1168 6 of 17

The evapotranspiration was estimated using satellite monitoring of irrigation (SAMIR)

software, which allows the spatialization of evapotranspiration (ET) and water balance of
irrigated crops over large areas [22,42]. The architecture of this program is based on the
FAO-56 model. It calculates the reference evapotranspiration, ET0, from climatic data. In
addition to that, the basal crop coefficient, Kcb, was determined by a time series of daily
NDVIs after the interpolation between the dates of acquisition of the satellite images [15].
In addition to the spatialization of ET, SAMIR can be used to determine the crop water
balance, which is obtained by coupling a soil module of three compartments (surface, root,
and depth) to the FAO-56 model.
The FAO-56 tables [12] provide values of the crop coefficient according to the crops. In
parallel to this approach, many studies have highlighted the relationship between NDVI
and the crop coefficient [15,17–19,23].
The calculation of the water balance requires climatic data to estimate the reference
evapotranspiration, ET0, precipitation, soil data, and irrigation data, as well as the crop
type map and vegetation phenology (to estimate crop coefficients with the FAO-56 method).
Irrigation data can be used in two ways: if they are available, they are used directly, and
if not, they are estimated from the water balance calculation [43]. In this work, water
quantities, as well as irrigation dates, were available. Concerning the soil data, three func-
tional compartments can be configured: evaporative, root, and depth. Each compartment
is characterized by its depth, field capacity, wilting point, diffusion coefficient, and satu-
ration humidity. In addition, a soil type map can also be used. In our case, the data used
were those published by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(FAO) [12,43].

2.3. Crop Type Mapping

The methodology adopted for the realization of the crop type map is illustrated in
Figure 5. The support vector machines (SVM) method was used for the classification of the
multitemporal satellite dataset. A field survey was carried out to collect the reference data
(120 samples); fifty percent of them were used for training the classification and checking
Agriculture 2022, 12, 1168 7 of 17
the spectral profiles of the different crops in the study area, while the other fifty percent
were used for the validation of the classification results.

Figure5.5.The
Figure Theflowchart
flowchartof
ofthe
themethodology
methodologyused
usedfor
forcrop
croptype
typemapping.
mapping.

2.3.1.
2.3.1.Extraction
Extractionof ofNDVI
NDVISpectral
SpectralProfiles
Profilesfrom
fromCrops
Crops
The NDVI time series was created from the multitemporal
The NDVI time series was created from the multitemporal S2-A. According
S2-A. Accordingto the
to im-
the
ages (Figure
images 6), the
(Figure 6), study area contained
the study different
area contained types of
different crops,
types such assuch
of crops, sugarasbeets,
sugaralfalfa,
beets,
cereals
alfalfa,(wheat
cerealsand
(wheatbarley),
and citrus fruits,
barley), and
citrus oliveand
fruits, trees; each
olive typeeach
trees; of crop
typeisofcharacterized
crop is char-
by a distinct
acterized byspectral
a distinct profile.
spectral profile.
 Figure 5. The flowchart of the methodology used for crop type mapping.

2.3.1. Extraction of NDVI Spectral Profiles from Crops

The NDVI time series was created from the multitemporal S2-A. According to the
images (Figure 6), the study area contained different types of crops, such as sugar beets,
Agriculture 2022, 12, 1168 7 of 17
alfalfa, cereals (wheat and barley), citrus fruits, and olive trees; each type of crop is char-
acterized by a distinct spectral profile.

Figure6.6.Spectral
Figure Spectral profiles
profilesof
ofNDVI
NDVI time
time series
series for
for the
the main
main crop
crop types:
types: (A)
(A) cereals;
cereals; (B)
(B) sugar
sugar beets;
beets;
(C) alfalfa; (D) citrus fruits and olives.
(C) alfalfa; (D) citrus fruits and olives.

2.3.2.
2.3.2. Crop
Crop Type
TypeMap
Map
The
The NDVI
NDVI was was calculated
calculated for
for each
each image
image toto create
create aa time
timeseries
seriescovering
covering the the entire
entire
crop
cropyear.
year.The
Thespectral
spectralcurves
curvesororprofiles
profiles(endmembers)
(endmembers)of ofeach
each crop
crop were
wereextracted
extracted from
from
the
theNDVI
NDVItimetimeseries
seriesusing
usingthe
thefield
fielddatabase.
database.
The
Theresult
resultof
ofthe
theSVM
SVM classification
classificationisispresented
presentedin inFigure
Figure7.7. The
The accuracy
accuracy assessment
assessment
of the SVM classification is presented in Figure 8. The evaluation
of the SVM classification is presented in Figure 8. The evaluation of the of the classification result,
classification re-
Agriculture 2022, 12, 1168 with 8 of 17
sult, awith
time seriesseries
a time of the
ofnormalized
the normalizedNDVI, returned
NDVI, a Kappa
returned a Kappacoefficient and
coefficient andananoverall
over-
accuracy of 92.32%
all accuracy andand
of 92.32% 93.91%, respectively.
93.91%, respectively.

Figure 7.
Figure 7. Crop
Croptype
typemap
mapof of
thethe
study area.
study area.
Agriculture 2022, 12, 1168 8 of 17
Figure 7. Crop type map of the study area.

Accuracy assessment of SVM classification.

Figure 8. Accuracy

3. Results and Discussion

3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Crop Water Requirements under Optimal Agronomic Conditions
3.1. Crop Water Requirements under Optimal Agronomic Conditions
3.1.1. Seasonal Water Requirements
3.1.1. Seasonal Water Requirements
Estimating crop water requirements under optimal agronomic conditions does not
Estimating
consider crop water
water stress, requirements
diseases, or weeds. under optimal agronomic
The spatialization of crop conditions does not
water requirements
consider water stress, diseases, or weeds. The spatialization of crop water
in the study area, during the period from 3 November 2016 to 1 June 2017, using the requirements
Agriculture 2022, 12, 1168 in the study
SAMIR area, during
tool, showed that thetheestimated
period from
water3 requirements
November 2016 to 1from
varied June82
9 2017,
ofmm using
17 to the
552 mm
SAMIR
dependingtool,on
showed that
the type of the estimated
crop water requirements varied from 82 mm to 552 mm
(Figure 9).
depending on the type of crop (Figure 9).

Figure 9. Crop water requirements during the 2016–2017 agricultural season in the study area.
Figure 9. Crop water requirements during the 2016–2017 agricultural season in the study area.
Analysis of the water requirement map (Figure 9) and the crop type map (Figure 7)
Analysis
showed that of the
themost
water requirementcrops
water-consuming mapare (Figure 9) and
alfalfa and sugarthe crop
beets, type map (Figure 7)
respectively.
showedThethat the most
comparison of thewater-consuming
water requirements ofcrops
alfalfa, are
sugaralfalfa and fruits,
beets, citrus sugarolive
beets,
trees,respectively.
and cereals (wheat
The comparison of the and barley)
water during the 2016–2017
requirements agricultural
of alfalfa, sugarseason
beets,with the average
citrus fruits, olive trees,
rainfall for the same period, which was 308.1 mm, provided a first indication of the level of
and cereals (wheat and barley) during the 2016–2017 agricultural season with the average
the average deficit to be covered by irrigation. These maps were used to determine the water
rainfall for the
requirements same period,
of each crop forwhich was
each pixel at a308.1 mm,ofprovided
resolution a first
10 m throughout theindication
agricultural of the level
of theseason.
average deficit to be covered by irrigation. These maps were used to determine
the water requirements of each crop for each pixel at a resolution of 10 m throughout the
3.1.2. Monthly Water Requirements
agricultural season.
In order to understand the variation in water requirements between crops on a
monthly basis, a small site (Site1) was selected in the study area that aggregates the dif-
ferent crops studied in this work (Figure 1). The spatio-temporal distribution of the
monthly accumulated amount of water required for each pixel of each crop was computed
from 3 November 2016 to 1 June 2017 (Figure 10). It should be noted that crop water re-
quirements depend on the crop development cycle; they increase when the chlorophyll
Agriculture 2022, 12, 1168 9 of 17

3.1.2. Monthly Water Requirements

In order to understand the variation in water requirements between crops on a monthly
basis, a small site (Site1) was selected in the study area that aggregates the different
crops studied in this work (Figure 1). The spatio-temporal distribution of the monthly
accumulated amount of water required for each pixel of each crop was computed from
3 November 2016 to 1 June 2017 (Figure 10). It should be noted that crop water require-
ments depend on the crop development cycle; they increase when the chlorophyll activity
Agriculture 2022, 12, 1168 10 of 17
of the vegetation becomes important, as well as with the increase in temperature. In general,
the optimal amount of water for the crops is at its maximum during March and April.

Figure10.
Figure Monthly
10.Monthly water
water requirements
requirements during
during the the 2016/2017
2016/2017 agricultural
agricultural season.
season.

Concerning
Concerning arboriculture,
arboriculture, thethe citrus
citrus requires
requires a relatively
a relatively less amount
less amount of water
of water com- com-
paredtotoother
pared other crops
crops during
during November,
November, December,
December, January,
January, and and February.
February. Cereals
Cereals (wheat (wheat
andbarley)
and barley)need
needaasignificant
significantamount
amountofofwater
waterstarting
startingfrom
fromthe
thesowing
sowing period
period (November).
(Novem-
ThisThis
ber). needneed
becomes more
becomes important
more importantas the plant
as the develops
plant during
develops thethe
during agricultural
agricultural season,
and it reaches
season, a maximum
and it reaches duringduring
a maximum MarchMarch
and April, whichwhich
and April, is normal, because
is normal, at this
because at time,
cereals
this time,begin their
cereals maturity
begin stage, characterized
their maturity by theby
stage, characterized start
theof theofseed
start filling.
the seed Alfalfa is
filling.
Alfalfa is one of the crops with a short life cycle. After each harvest, alfalfa needs a large
amount of water, especially during May and June.

3.2. Crop Water Requirements under Real Agronomic Conditions

In order to estimate the water requirements of the crops in real conditions, five pilot
Agriculture 2022, 12, 1168 10 of 17

one of the crops with a short life cycle. After each harvest, alfalfa needs a large amount of
water, especially during May and June.

3.2. Crop Water Requirements under Real Agronomic Conditions

In
order to estimate the water requirements of the crops in real conditions, five pilot
Agriculture 2022, 12, 1168 11 of
parcels were chosen (Figure 1), including one citrus parcel and six mixed parcels. These
parcels were selected in consultation with the ORMVAT office (Regional Office of Agricul-
tural Development of Tadla)Development
Agricultural based on theof availability
Tadla) basedof irrigation data andofaccessibility
on the availability irrigation datato and acce
these parcels during field visits.
sibility to these parcels during field visits.
The use of real The
dailyuse
data of the
of real irrigation
daily volumes
data of the of each
irrigation parcel
volumes ofin theparcel
each waterin balance
the water balan
modeling allowed us to estimate the real water requirements of the different crops.
modeling allowed us to estimate the real water requirements of the different crops.
The period for The
the estimation of crop
period for the waterof
estimation requirements differs due to
crop water requirements the life
differs duecycle
to the life cyc
of each crop. Citrus fruits are inter-annual crops, in contrast to annual crops such
of each crop. Citrus fruits are inter-annual crops, in contrast to annual crops as sugar
such as sug
beets and cereals. The
beets andchoice of estimation
cereals. The choice of dates for sugar
estimation beets
dates for and
sugarcereals
beets depends
and cereals ondepends
the grubbing-up theperiod and theperiod
grubbing-up senescence
and the phase, respectively.
senescence Table 2 shows
phase, respectively. the2water
Table shows the wat
requirements per hectare forper
requirements the hectare
differentforcrops in the study
the different cropsarea.
in the study area.

Table 2. SeasonalTable 2. Seasonal

accumulation ofaccumulation of crop water requirements.
crop water requirements.
Water Requirement
Crop Type Estimation Area EstimationArea
Crop Type Estimation Period Water
Estimation Requirements in (m3 )
Period
in (m3)
Citrus 1 ha 3 November 2016–1 July 2017 3657
Citrus 1 ha 3 November 2016–1 July 2017 3657
Sugar beets 1 ha 3 November 2016–20 April 2017 2766
Alfalfa 1 ha Sugar beets 1 ha 3 November
3 November 2016–1 July 2017 2016 – 20 April 2017
5126 2766
Cereals 1 ha Alfalfa 1 December1 2016–20
ha November 2016–1 July 3110
May3 2017 2017 5126
Cereals 1 ha 1 December 2016–20 May 2017 3110

In order to evaluate the efficiency of the water supply in the study area, a comparison
In order to evaluate the efficiency of the water supply in the study area, a comparis
of the water requirements,
of the water estimated
requirements, with the SAMIR
estimated withtool
the for five parcels
SAMIR tool for (Figure 1), was
five parcels (Figure 1), w
made with the irrigation data provided by the ORMVAT office and the rainfall
made with the irrigation data provided by the ORMVAT office and the rainfall during the during t
first quarter of first
the year 2017
quarter of (1
theJanuary
year 20172017–31 March
(1 January 2017) March
2017–31 (Figure2017)
11). (Figure
In all cases, anall cases,
11). In
overexploitation of irrigation water
overexploitation resources
of irrigation wasresources
water noted with
wasthe traditional
noted with the method of method
traditional
irrigation management used, and that a significant amount of water could be
irrigation management used, and that a significant amount of water could be conserved if conserv
the proposed remote sensing method were to be used. This demonstrates the need
if the proposed remote sensing method were to be used. This demonstrates the needto adopt
integrated irrigation
adopt management to combat
integrated irrigation water resource
management depletion
to combat in the region.
water resource depletion in the regio

Figure 11. Comparison between water requirements and irrigation water supplies.
Figure 11. Comparison between water requirements and irrigation water supplies.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the potential of Sentinel-2 satellite data
estimating crop water requirements based on the dual approach of FAO-56. The result
this study showed the importance of new technologies in the management of irrigati
water by estimating the water requirements of crops. Farmers in the Tadla plain use tr
ditional methods of irrigation, which causes the loss of large quantities of water th
 Agriculture 2022, 12, 1168 11 of 17

riculture 2022, 12, 1168 12 of

The objective of this study was to evaluate the potential of Sentinel-2 satellite data in
estimating crop water requirements based on the dual approach of FAO-56. The result of
this study showed the importance of new technologies in the management of irrigation
Morocco needs. This study allowed us to produce maps of water requirements of differ
water by estimating the water requirements of crops. Farmers in the Tadla plain use
cropstraditional
with a daily,methodsmonthly, or seasonal
of irrigation, timethe
which causes step inofthe
loss irrigated
large perimeter
quantities of Tadla,
of water that
ing tools
Moroccothatneeds.
are free
Thisand
studyopen-source.
allowed us to produce maps of water requirements of different
Kharrou
crops with aetdaily,
al. [44] compared
monthly, thetime
or seasonal water demand
step in estimated
the irrigated perimeterby remote
of Tadla, sensing a
using
tools that are free and open-source.
irrigation water at the parcel scale in an irrigated perimeter of the Haouz plain in Moroc
Kharrou et al. [44] compared the water demand estimated by remote sensing and
The comparison showed a large spatio-temporal variability in irrigation water dema
irrigation water at the parcel scale in an irrigated perimeter of the Haouz plain in Morocco.
and supply.
The comparisontotal
The showedamount
a large of irrigation water
spatio-temporal simulated
variability by water
in irrigation the model
demand(359
and mm) w
30% less than
supply. The the observed
total amount of amount (512
irrigation mm),
water indicating
simulated by thean applied
model irrigation
(359 mm) was 30% higher th
less than the observed amount (512 mm), indicating an applied irrigation
the observed ET, revealing over-irrigation and the fact that the excess amount was pr higher than the
ably observed
lost by deepET, revealing over-irrigation and the fact that the excess amount was probably lost
percolation; this finding coincides with our results presented in Figu
by deep percolation; this finding coincides with our results presented in Figures 11 and 12,
11 and 12, we
where where
foundwe found
that thatwater
there was thereloss.
was water loss.

Figure 12. Comparison

Figure 12. Comparisonbetween ETcand
between ETc and ETr
ETr for for citrus
citrus fruits.fruits.

ThisThis
couldcouldbebeattributed
attributed to
toinadequate
inadequate irrigation supply
irrigation and/orand/or
supply socio-economic con-
socio-economic co
siderations and farmer management practices. Their results also demonstrate the potential
siderations and farmer management practices. Their results also demonstrate the pot
for irrigation managers to use remote sensing-based models to monitor irrigation water
tial for
useirrigation managers
for the efficient to use remote
and sustainable sensing-based
use of water resources. models to monitor irrigation w
ter use for theetefficient
Saadi and
al. [45] also sustainable
worked use of water
on the estimation resources.
of irrigation water requirements, using
aSaadi
time series of high-resolution NDVI images from the Spot
et al. [45] also worked on the estimation of irrigation satellite in the Kairouan
water plain in
requirements, us
Tunisia. In their work, they used the dual approach of FAO-56 with the SAMIR tool. For the
a time series of high-resolution NDVI images from the Spot satellite in the Kairouan pl
whole agricultural season, they found that the modeled irrigation volumes at the perimeter
in Tunisia.
were closeIn totheir work, they
the observed volumesused the
(135 anddual approach
121 mm, of FAO-56
respectively, with the SAMIR to
with an overestimation
For the wholeThis
of 11.5%). agricultural season,
overestimation they found
of irrigation was that the modeled
observed during theirrigation volumes at the
month of November
andwere
rimeter may be due to
close to the
an error in the initialization
observed volumes (135 of the
and soil121
water
mm, content parameters.
respectively, with an overe
mation of 11.5%). This overestimation of irrigation was observed during the month of Nove
ber and may be due to an error in the initialization of the soil water content parameters.

3.3. Comparison between ETr and ETc

The comparison between ETr and ETc allows to determine the periods of water l
(excess water) and water stress. During periods of water stress, ETr values are lower th
 Agriculture 2022, 12, 1168 12 of 17

3.3. Comparison between ETr and ETc

The comparison between ETr and ETc allows to determine the periods of water loss
(excess water) and water stress. During periods of water stress, ETr values are lower
1168 than ETc values, which means that the plant needs a water supply. Figure 12 13 shows
of 17 the
comparison between ETc and ETr in the study area during the 2016–2017 agricultural season
for citrus crops. The comparison showed that during the period from 11 March 2016 to
4 February 2017, ETc was almost equal to ETr, which means that the plant had a normal
development.
Figure 13 illustrates Starting frombetween
the comparison April, the ETc
variations between
and ETr ETc and
during theETr began to increase,
2016–2017 ag-
showing a lot of periods of stress and water loss, which required an adjustment of the water
ricultural season for sugar beets. The analysis of their temporal curves showed that the
supply during this period.
period from 11 March Figure
2016 to 13 13 February
illustrates 2017 was between
the comparison less critical
ETc andforETr
theduring
plant,thewhere ETcagri-
2016–2017
was almost equal to ETr, except
cultural season for forsugar
somebeets.
shortThe periods
analysisofofvery
theirlow water
temporal stress.
curves Overall,
showed that the
during this period,period
the plant
from 11was considered
March 2016 to 13 to be in normal
February 2017 was and goodfor
less critical growth conditions.
the plant, where ETc was
almost
In contrast, the sugar beetequal to ETr, except
encountered a for
longsome short periods
period of water of very
stresslow water stress.
between Overall, during
2 November
this period, the plant was considered to be in normal and good growth conditions. In
2017 and 13 Marchcontrast,
2017. After this severe period, the plant went through fluctuating con-
the sugar beet encountered a long period of water stress between 2 November 2017
ditions, between water
and 13stress
March and2017.over
After supply.
this severeThis canthe
period, beplant
explained by anfluctuating
went through alternation of
conditions,
dry days and irrigation
between days,
waterwhich proves
stress and the need
over supply. for
This cana be
proactive
explainedirrigation scheduling
by an alternation of dry days
based on temporal monitoring in order to avoid late irrigation, where the decision to based
and irrigation days, which proves the need for a proactive irrigation scheduling irri- on
temporal monitoring in order to avoid late irrigation, where the decision to irrigate is made
gate is made after dry days or after the appearance of signs of water stress on the plant.
after dry days or after the appearance of signs of water stress on the plant. This is the case
This is the case in inmost
mostof theirrigated
of the irrigated perimeters
perimeters in Morocco,
in Morocco, where the where the agriculture
agriculture is the
is intensive, and
intensive, and the irrigation
irrigation time
time is determined
is determined in a subjective
in a subjective way. way.

Figure 13. Comparison between

Figure ETc andbetween
13. Comparison ETr forETc
sugar beet
and ETr forcrops.
sugar beet crops.

Concerning the cereals, the analysis of Figure 14 shows that the simulation of the
Concerning the cereals, the analysis of Figure 14 shows that the simulation of the ETr
ETr was well-aligned over time with the variations of the ETc, except for the period from
was well-aligned over time2017
1 February withto the variations
17 January 2017, of the showed
which ETc, except for the
significant period
water stress. from 1
By contrast,
February 2017 to 17 January
there 2017,ofwhich
was an excess showed
water for significant
almost two waterfrom
months, starting stress. By contrast,
mid-April. This may be
there was an excessdue
of to
water for almost
the senescence twoofmonths,
phase the cerealsstarting from mid-April.
and the decrease This
in chlorophyll may be
activity.
due to the senescence phase of the cereals and the decrease in chlorophyll activity.
 Concerning the cereals, the analysis of Figure 14 shows that the simulation of the ETr
was well-aligned over time with the variations of the ETc, except for the period from 1
February 2017 to 17 January 2017, which showed significant water stress. By contrast,
Agriculture 2022, 12, 1168 13 of 17
there was an excess of water for almost two months, starting from mid-April. This may be
due to the senescence phase of the cereals and the decrease in chlorophyll activity.

Agriculture 2022, 12, 1168 14 of 17

Figure 14. Comparison

Figurebetween ETc and
14. Comparison ETr forETc
between cereal crops
and ETr for(wheat and (wheat
cereal crops barley).and barley).
Figure 15 shows the comparison between ETc and ETr for the alfalfa crop; the analy-
Figure
sis of their 15 shows
curves showedthe comparison
that duringbetween ETc and
the period ETr for18the
between alfalfa2016
March crop;and
the 17
analysis
May 2017,
of their curves showed that during the period between 18 March 2016 and 17 May 2017,
the ETc was almost equal to the ETr, indicating a long normal period of development for
the ETc was almost equal to the ETr, indicating a long normal period of development for
thethe
alfalfa. However,
alfalfa. However,aa few
few critical periodswere
critical periods were noticed,
noticed, including
including a slight
a slight waterwater
deficitdeficit
during
during the
thefirst
firsthalf of November
half of Novemberand and a slight
a slight excess
excess of water
of water from 5from 5 September
September 2017 to
2017 to the
theend
endofofthe
theseason.
season. This water loss in the end of the season was related to
This water loss in the end of the season was related to over-irrigationover-irrigation
activity, which
activity, whichimplies
implies that aa more
moreeffective
effective irrigation
irrigation management
management is needed
is needed for alfalfa.
for alfalfa.

Figure 15.15.
Figure Comparison
Comparisonbetween ETcand
between ETc andETr
ETrforfor alfalfa
alfalfa crops.
crops.

4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
The
The FAO-56dual
FAO-56 dualapproach
approach isis commonly
commonly used
used for
for irrigation
irrigationmanagement
management and to to es-
and
estimate evapotranspiration at the parcel scale. The latter is determined by combining
timate evapotranspiration at the parcel scale. The latter is determined by combining Sen-
Sentinel-2 satellite data with meteorological data. The main crop types considered in this
tinel-2
studysatellite data with
were: cereals, sugarmeteorological data.fruits,
beets, alfalfa, citrus The main croptrees
and olive types considered
(Figure in this
16). The
study were: cereals, sugar beets, alfalfa, citrus fruits, and olive trees (Figure 16). The com-
bination of satellite and meteorological data allowed us to spatialize the evapotranspira-
tion over the study area during the 2016/2017 agricultural season, using the dual approach
of the FAO-56 model, based on the reference evapotranspiration, ET0, the basal crop co-
efficient, Kcb, and the water stress coefficient, Ks.
Agriculture 2022, 12, 1168 14 of 17

combination of satellite and meteorological data allowed us to spatialize the evapotran-

spiration over the study area during the 2016/2017 agricultural season, using the dual
Agriculture 2022, 12, 1168
approach of the FAO-56 model, based on the reference evapotranspiration, ET0, the basal
crop coefficient, Kcb, and the water stress coefficient, Ks.

Figure
Figure 16. Pictures 16. crops
of some Pictures of some
during cropssurvey.
the field during the field survey.

The estimation of water requirements

Considering wasisperformed
that Morocco among theaccording
countriesto two
that methods.
suffer from drought cau
• climateconsists
The first method change,ofitdetermining
will be essential to userequirements
the water new technologies
under for wateragro-
optimal managemen
as the estimation
nomic conditions of crop waterofneeds
(without consideration waterby satellite
stress, data or
diseases, or by drones;
weeds) for furthermore,
each
crop with up a better irrigation
a seasonal or monthly scheduling
time stepstrategy in the irrigated
and a spatial resolution perimeter
of 10 m.of The
Tadla will a
save important
maps produced quantities
by this method of water
showed and, subsequently,
that alfalfa is the most waterto protect groundwater
intensive crop, res
followed byout
sugar beets. The demands for
of concern for sustainability. alfalfa are more and more important during

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.E.H. and A.E.H.; data curation, J.E.H.; formal a
M.C.; investigation, J.E.H.; methodology, J.E.H. and J.-E.O.; project administration, A.E
sources, A.J.; software, J.E.H.; supervision, M.C.; validation, J.E.H., A.E.H., and R.L.; visual
A.E.H. and R.L.; writing—original draft, J.E.H.; writing—review and editing, R.L. All autho
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Agriculture 2022, 12, 1168 15 of 17

the months of April, May, and June because of the higher chlorophyll activity and the
increase in temperature.
• The second method consists of determining the water requirements under real agro-
nomic conditions (including water stress). A comparison was made between the water
inputs (irrigation and rain) for five parcels, with the estimated water requirements
made by the SAMIR tool. For the five plots, there was almost 10,000 m3 of difference
between the water inputs by irrigation and rain and the estimated requirements. Irri-
gation and rainwater inputs generally exceed crop water requirements, which means
that water is lost.
Considering that Morocco is among the countries that suffer from drought caused by
climate change, it will be essential to use new technologies for water management, such as
the estimation of crop water needs by satellite data or by drones; furthermore, setting up a
better irrigation scheduling strategy in the irrigated perimeter of Tadla will allow to save
important quantities of water and, subsequently, to protect groundwater resources, out of
concern for sustainability.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.E.H. and A.E.H.; data curation, J.E.H.; formal analysis,
M.C.; investigation, J.E.H.; methodology, J.E.H. and J.-E.O.; project administration, A.E.H.; resources,
A.J.; software, J.E.H.; supervision, M.C.; validation, J.E.H., A.E.H. and R.L.; visualization, A.E.H. and
R.L.; writing—original draft, J.E.H.; writing—review and editing, R.L. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors thank the Faculty of Sciences and Techniques of Béni-Mellal for its
financial and logistical support. In addition, many thanks to ESA for providing the S-2 data free
of charge. Similarly, special thanks are addressed to ORMVAT (Office Régional de Mise en Valeur
Agricole du Tadla) for its continuous assistance during the field work and for providing several data.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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