REVIEW OF THEORIES

RELATED TO THE
LEARNERS'
DEVELOPMENT

START
FREUD’S PYCHO -
SEXUAL OF
DEVELOPMENT
 ORAL STAGE
Description:
The oral stage is the first of Freud's psychosexual development stages, occurring from birth to around 18 months of age. During this
stage, the infant's primary focus of pleasure and gratification is centered on the mouth, which serves as the primary means of
interaction with the world. This stage is crucial in shaping the infant's early experiences and forming the foundation for future
psychological development.

Erogenous Zone:
In the oral stage, the mouth serves as the primary erogenous zone. Infants derive pleasure and satisfaction from activities such as
sucking, biting, and tasting. These oral activities are not only essential for fulfilling the infant's physiological needs, such as feeding
and nourishment, but they also play a significant role in providing comfort and emotional satisfaction.

Fixation:
Fixation in the oral stage can occur if the infant's needs are not adequately met or if there is trauma or disruption during this
developmental period. Overindulgence or deprivation in oral gratification can lead to fixation, where the individual may develop
certain personality traits or behaviors associated with this stage. For example, individuals who experience oral fixation may exhibit
behaviors such as overeating, smoking, nail-biting, or a dependence on oral stimulation in adulthood. These behaviors may serve as
a means of seeking gratification or comfort to compensate for unmet needs or unresolved conflicts from the oral stage. Freud
believed that fixation in the oral stage could influence personality development and behavior patterns in later stages of life.
 ANAL STAGE
Description:
The anal stage is the second phase in Sigmund Freud's theory of psychosexual development, typically occurring between the ages
of 18 months to 3 years. During this stage, the child's focus of pleasure and gratification shifts to the anal region. The child
becomes increasingly aware of bodily functions associated with bowel movements and begins to gain control over these functions
through toilet training. This stage represents a critical period in the child's development of autonomy and self-control.

Erogenous Zone:
In the anal stage, the erogenous zone is centered around the anal region. Pleasure and satisfaction are derived from sensations
related to bowel movements and the act of elimination. As children gain control over their bowel movements through toilet
training, they become more attuned to sensations in this area and may experience pleasure or discomfort depending on their
experiences with toilet training and the reactions of caregivers.

Fixation:
Fixation in the anal stage can occur if there are challenges or conflicts related to toilet training. Freud proposed that excessive
strictness or harshness during toilet training could lead to anal fixation, characterized by personality traits and behaviors
associated with control, orderliness, and perfectionism. Individuals who experience anal fixation may exhibit tendencies towards
being overly organized, neat, or controlling in adulthood. On the other hand, if toilet training is too lenient or inconsistent, it may
result in anal expulsive fixation, where individuals may display messy or disorganized behaviors and struggle with issues related
to impulsivity or lack of self-control. Freud believed that fixation in the anal stage could influence personality development and
behavior patterns in later stages of life.
 PHALLIC STAGE
Description:
The phallic stage is the third phase in Sigmund Freud's theory of psychosexual development, typically occurring between the ages of 3 to 6
years. During this stage, the child's focus of pleasure and exploration shifts to the genitals, particularly those of their own gender. The term
"phallic" refers to the penis, symbolizing the primary source of pleasure and curiosity for boys during this stage, while girls may develop
feelings of envy or desire towards the male genitalia. The phallic stage is marked by increased awareness of gender differences and a
growing interest in sexual anatomy and reproductive processes.

Erogenous Zone:
In the phallic stage, the erogenous zone is centered around the genitals. Children become increasingly curious about their own genitalia and
may engage in self-exploration or exhibit behaviors such as genital touching or masturbation. These activities serve as sources of pleasure
and gratification as children navigate their emerging sexuality and develop a deeper understanding of their bodies.

Fixation:
Fixation in the phallic stage can occur if there are unresolved conflicts or challenges related to the development of gender identity and
sexuality. Freud proposed that experiences during this stage could influence the formation of the Oedipus complex in boys and the Electra
complex in girls. In the Oedipus complex, boys experience unconscious desires for their mothers and perceive their fathers as rivals for
maternal affection. If these desires are not successfully resolved, boys may experience castration anxiety and develop feelings of guilt or
fear, leading to potential fixation on unresolved Oedipal conflicts. Similarly, girls may experience feelings of penis envy and develop
unresolved Electra complex conflicts, potentially leading to fixation on issues related to femininity, masculinity, and gender identity. Freud
believed that fixation in the phallic stage could impact personality development and influence attitudes and behaviors related to sexuality,
gender roles, and relationships in later stages of life.
 LATENCY STAGE
Description:
The latency stage is the fourth phase in Sigmund Freud's theory of psychosexual development, typically occurring between the ages of 6 to 12 years.
This stage follows the phallic stage and precedes the genital stage. During the latency stage, the focus of psychosexual development is not on the
emergence of new erogenous zones or sexual desires, but rather on the consolidation and sublimation of earlier experiences. Children during this
stage are primarily occupied with developing social skills, acquiring knowledge, and engaging in activities such as school, hobbies, and friendships.
Sexual impulses are largely dormant or repressed during this period as children channel their energy into other areas of development.

Erogenous Zone:
Unlike the previous stages, the latency stage is not associated with a specific erogenous zone. Instead, the libido, or sexual energy, is temporarily
redirected away from the genitals and towards more socially acceptable activities and interests. Children's focus shifts from physical sensations and
sexual exploration to cognitive, emotional, and social development. While sexual impulses may still exist at a subconscious level, they are not the
primary driving force of behavior during this stage.

Fixation:
Fixation in the latency stage is less common compared to earlier stages of psychosexual development. However, unresolved conflicts or experiences
from earlier stages, particularly the phallic stage, may continue to influence personality development during latency. For example, if a child
experienced significant anxiety or guilt related to unresolved Oedipal or Electra complex conflicts during the phallic stage, these feelings may
manifest in behaviors such as anxiety around relationships, difficulty forming intimate connections, or challenges with self-esteem during the
latency stage. Additionally, experiences of trauma or disruptions in social and familial relationships during this period may contribute to fixation on
issues related to trust, autonomy, and competence. Freud believed that successful navigation of the latency stage lays the groundwork for healthy
psychosexual development and the eventual transition to the genital stage.
 GENITAL STAGE
Description:
The genital stage is the fifth and final phase in Sigmund Freud's theory of psychosexual development, typically occurring during adolescence
and continuing into adulthood. This stage represents the culmination of the individual's psychosexual development, marked by the
reawakening of sexual desires and the emergence of mature sexual interests. Unlike earlier stages, where the focus was primarily on
specific erogenous zones and the resolution of conflicts, the genital stage is characterized by the integration of sexual energy and the
pursuit of intimate relationships based on mutual respect and love.

Erogenous Zone:
In the genital stage, the erogenous zone encompasses the genitals once again, as individuals experience a resurgence of sexual desires and
exploration. However, unlike in earlier stages where the focus was on self-gratification or the fulfillment of instinctual urges, sexual activity
in the genital stage is driven by a desire for intimacy, connection, and mutual pleasure. Individuals seek to establish meaningful
relationships with others and engage in sexual activities that promote emotional closeness and satisfaction.

Fixation:
Fixation in the genital stage is less common compared to earlier stages, as successful resolution of conflicts and developmental tasks during
earlier stages lays the foundation for healthy sexual development and mature relationships. However, unresolved conflicts or traumas from
earlier stages may continue to influence individuals' attitudes and behaviors in adulthood. For example, individuals who experienced
difficulties in forming secure attachments during the oral stage may struggle with trust issues or fear of intimacy in romantic relationships.
Similarly, unresolved Oedipal or Electra complex conflicts from the phallic stage may manifest in challenges with gender identity, jealousy,
or commitment in adulthood. Freud believed that successful resolution of conflicts and healthy development during the genital stage leads
to the capacity for mature, mutually satisfying relationships and the ability to express sexuality in a socially acceptable and fulfilling
manner.
 FREUD’S
COMPONENTS OF THE
PERSONALITY
 ID
The id is the primitive and instinctual part of the personality that operates on the pleasure principle. It seeks
immediate gratification of basic needs and desires, such as hunger, thirst, and sexual urges, without
consideration for consequences or moral constraints.

It operates at an unconscious level and is driven by biological urges and impulses. The id does not recognize
societal norms or moral standards; its sole purpose is to seek pleasure and avoid pain.

Freud likened the id to a demanding child, constantly seeking satisfaction and unwilling to tolerate delays or
frustrations. It is impulsive, irrational, and seeks immediate gratification regardless of the consequences.

The id is the primary source of psychic energy and provides the driving force behind human behavior. It
forms the foundation of the personality but operates beyond conscious awareness, influencing thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors.
 EGO
The ego is the rational and realistic part of the personality that operates on the reality principle. It
mediates between the demands of the id, the constraints of the superego, and the external world,
striving to balance conflicting desires and needs.

Unlike the id, which operates solely on instinctual impulses, the ego considers practicality,
consequences, and social norms when making decisions. It seeks to satisfy the desires of the id in
ways that are acceptable and realistic.

The ego develops as a result of interactions with the external world and gradually emerges during
infancy. It enables individuals to navigate the complexities of reality, formulating plans, making
decisions, and adapting to environmental demands.

Freud described the ego as the "executive" of the personality, responsible for managing conflicts
between the id and superego while maintaining a sense of continuity and coherence in the self.
 SUPEREGO
The superego represents the internalized moral standards and values of society, as well as the individual's
conscience and sense of right and wrong. It develops as a result of socialization and parental influence during
childhood.

The superego operates on the morality principle, striving for perfection and adherence to moral ideals. It
imposes moral standards and prohibitions on the individual's behavior, punishing deviations from societal
norms through feelings of guilt and shame.

Freud distinguished between two components of the superego: the ego-ideal, which represents the idealized
standards of behavior and aspirations, and the conscience, which comprises rules, prohibitions, and
internalized parental authority figures.

The superego serves as the internalized voice of authority, regulating and guiding the individual's behavior in
accordance with societal norms and moral principles. It acts as a counterbalance to the impulsive and selfish
tendencies of the id, promoting socially acceptable conduct and ethical behavior.
 ERIKSON’S
PYCHOSOCIAL STAGES
OF DEVELOPMENT
 TRUST VS. MISTRUST (INFANCY, 0-1
YEAR)
Crisis: Trust vs. Mistrust

Significant Person: Primary caregiver (typically the mother)

Maladaptation: Sensory Distortion - If trust is not established, the infant may

develop a distorted view of the world, leading to difficulties in forming secure
attachments and trusting relationships later in life.

Virtue: Hope - Successfully resolving the crisis results in the development of

hope, a sense of optimism, and trust in the world.
 AUTONOMY VS. SHAME AND DOUBT
(EARLY CHILDHOOD, 1-3 YEARS)
Crisis: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Significant Person: Primary caregiver (typically the parents)

Maladaptation: Impulsivity - If autonomy is not nurtured, the child may develop

impulsivity, a lack of self-control, and feelings of shame and doubt about their
abilities.

Virtue: Will - Successfully resolving the crisis results in the development of

willpower, a sense of independence, and confidence in one's abilities.
 INITIATIVE VS. GUILT (PRESCHOOL, 3-6
YEARS)
Crisis: Initiative vs. Guilt

Significant Person: Family members, especially peers and siblings

Maladaptation: Ruthlessness - If guilt prevails over initiative, the child may develop
ruthlessness, aggressiveness, and a lack of empathy towards others' feelings.

Virtue: Purpose - Successfully resolving the crisis leads to the development of

purpose, a sense of direction, and the ability to set and pursue goals.
 INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY (SCHOOL
AGE, 6-11 YEARS)
Crisis: Industry vs. Inferiority

Significant Person: Teachers, mentors, peers

Maladaptation: Narrow Virtuosity - If feelings of inferiority dominate, the child may

develop narrow virtuosity, striving for mastery in one area while neglecting other
aspects of life.

Virtue: Competence - Successfully resolving the crisis results in the development of

competence, a sense of mastery, and confidence in one's abilities to accomplish tasks.
 IDENTITY VS. ROLE CONFUSION
(ADOLESCENCE, 12-18 YEARS)
Crisis: Identity vs. Role Confusion

Significant Person: Peer groups, role models, mentors

Maladaptation: Fanaticism - If identity is not successfully formed, the adolescent may

develop fanaticism, rigid adherence to extreme beliefs or ideologies.

Virtue: Fidelity - Successfully resolving the crisis leads to the development of fidelity, a
sense of loyalty to oneself and others, and the ability to commit to relationships and
goals.
 INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION (YOUNG
ADULTHOOD, 19-40 YEARS)

Crisis: Intimacy vs. Isolation

Significant Person: Romantic partners, close friends

Maladaptation: Promiscuity - If intimacy is not achieved, the individual may develop

promiscuity, fear of commitment, and difficulty forming close relationships.

Virtue: Love - Successfully resolving the crisis results in the development of love, the
ability to form meaningful, intimate connections with others, and a sense of
fulfillment in relationships.
 GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION
(MIDDLE ADULTHOOD, 40-65 YEARS)
Crisis: Generativity vs. Stagnation

Significant Person: Family, community, society

Maladaptation: Overextension - If generativity is not achieved, the individual may

experience overextension, focusing excessively on external validation and neglecting
personal growth and fulfillment.

Virtue: Care - Successfully resolving the crisis leads to the development of care, a sense
of concern for future generations, and the desire to contribute to the well-being of
others.
 INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR (LATE
ADULTHOOD, 65+ YEARS)
Crisis: Integrity vs. Despair

Significant Person: Self, family, community

Maladaptation: Presumption - If integrity is not achieved, the individual may develop

presumption, feeling entitled to respect and admiration without having lived a life of
integrity.

Virtue: Wisdom - Successfully resolving the crisis results in the development of wisdom, a
sense of acceptance of one's life journey, and the ability to reflect on experiences with
understanding and perspective.
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE
STAGES OF
DEVELOPMENT
 SENSORY MOTOR STAGE

Age Range: Birth to 2 years

Characteristics:
Infants explore the world through sensory experiences and motor actions.
They develop object permanence, the understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight.
They engage in repetitive behaviors, such as sucking, shaking, and grasping, to learn about their environment.

Key Teaching Strategies:

Provide sensory-rich experiences that stimulate exploration and discovery, such as toys with different textures, colors,
and sounds.
Encourage hands-on activities that allow infants to manipulate objects and engage in cause-and-effect relationships.
Create a safe and stimulating environment that encourages movement and exploration, such as a play area with age-
appropriate toys and materials.
 PRE - OPERATIONAL STAGE
Age Range: 2 to 7 years

Characteristics:
Children develop symbolic thinking and language skills, enabling them to represent objects and events through
words, images, and play.
They demonstrate egocentrism, viewing the world from their own perspective and struggling to understand the
viewpoints of others.
They engage in animistic thinking, attributing human-like qualities to inanimate objects.

Key Teaching Strategies:

Use concrete examples and visual aids to help children grasp abstract concepts.
Encourage imaginative play and storytelling to foster symbolic thinking and language development.
Provide opportunities for social interaction and perspective-taking to help children understand different
viewpoints and develop empathy.
Offer activities that promote classification, seriation, and conservation skills, such as sorting objects by size or
color and arranging objects in a series.
 CONCRETE OPERATIONS STAGE
Age Range: 7 to 11 years

Characteristics:
Children develop logical thinking and the ability to perform mental operations on concrete objects and events.
They demonstrate conservation, understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance.
They can classify objects into categories and understand concepts such as reversibility and seriation.

Key Teaching Strategies:

Provide hands-on, concrete experiences that allow children to manipulate objects and perform mental operations,
such as using manipulatives for math activities.
Encourage problem-solving and critical thinking through real-world examples and practical applications.
Foster cooperative learning and peer collaboration to help children develop and refine their reasoning skills
through discussion and debate.
Offer opportunities for exploration and experimentation to promote discovery and understanding of scientific
principles.
 FORMAL OPERATIONS STAGE
Age Range: 11 years and older

Characteristics:
Adolescents develop abstract thinking and the ability to think logically about hypothetical situations.
They can solve problems using deductive reasoning and propositional thought.
They demonstrate metacognition, reflecting on their own thinking processes and considering multiple perspectives.

Key Teaching Strategies:

Encourage inquiry-based learning and open-ended questioning to stimulate critical thinking and problem-solving
skills.
Provide opportunities for debate and discussion on complex issues to promote abstract reasoning and perspective-
taking.
Introduce hypothetical scenarios and thought experiments to challenge students' thinking and encourage them to
consider alternative viewpoints.
Support metacognitive strategies, such as goal-setting, self-monitoring, and reflection, to help students become more
aware of their own thinking processes and learning strategies.
KOHLBERG’S STAGES
OF MORAL
DEVELOPMENT
 PRE-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation

Moral Orientation: Avoiding punishment and obeying authority figures.

Description: At this stage, individuals focus on avoiding punishment and obeying rules to ensure their own safety and
security. They have a simplistic understanding of morality and perceive actions as either right or wrong based on
whether they result in punishment or reward. Moral reasoning is egocentric, with little consideration for the
perspectives or needs of others.

Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange

Moral Orientation: Pursuing self-interest and satisfying personal needs.

Description: Individuals at this stage begin to recognize that there is more than one way to view moral issues. They
understand that different people have different perspectives and may have conflicting interests. Moral decisions are
based on reciprocity and exchange, with individuals weighing the benefits and costs of actions to maximize their own
interests.
 CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
Stage 3: Interpersonal Relationships

- Moral Orientation: Conforming to social norms and seeking approval from others.
- Description: In this stage, individuals place a strong emphasis on maintaining positive relationships and
upholding social conventions. They strive to be perceived as good and caring individuals by conforming to societal
expectations and avoiding disapproval from others. Moral reasoning is based on the desire for acceptance and
approval from peers and authority figures.

Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order

Moral Orientation: Upholding laws and fulfilling duties to maintain social order.
Description: Individuals at this stage develop a respect for authority and social order. They understand the
importance of following rules and fulfilling obligations to ensure the smooth functioning of society. Moral
decisions are based on adherence to laws and rules, with a focus on maintaining stability and order in the
community.
 POST-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights

- Moral Orientation: Balancing individual rights with societal laws and agreements.
- Description: At this stage, individuals recognize that societal laws and norms are subject to change and may not always
be just or fair. They begin to consider the importance of individual rights and liberties and advocate for principles of
justice and equality. Moral reasoning is based on the idea of a social contract, where individuals willingly abide by laws
that promote the greater good while also respecting individual freedoms.

Stage 6: Universal Principles

Moral Orientation: Following self-chosen ethical principles based on universal human rights.
Description: Individuals at this highest stage of moral development adhere to universal ethical principles, such as justice,
equality, and human rights. They develop their own set of moral values based on rational analysis and empathy for
others. Moral decisions are guided by a commitment to justice and the well-being of all individuals, even if it means
disobeying unjust laws or societal conventions.
VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO -
CULTURAL THEORY
 MORE KNOWLEDGEABLE OTHER (MKO)

The More Knowledgeable Other refers to someone who has a higher level of
knowledge or expertise in a particular domain compared to the learner. This
individual could be a parent, teacher, peer, or any other person who plays a role in
the learner's social environment.
The MKO serves as a guide or mentor for the learner, providing assistance,
instruction, and support to help the learner advance their understanding and
skills in a specific area.
Vygotsky emphasized the importance of interaction with the MKO in facilitating
cognitive development, as the learner benefits from the expertise and guidance
provided by someone with more knowledge and experience.
 ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT
(ZPD)
The Zone of Proximal Development refers to the difference between what a learner can
accomplish independently and what they can achieve with the assistance or guidance of a
more knowledgeable individual, such as the MKO.
It represents the "sweet spot" for learning, where tasks and activities are challenging
enough to promote growth and development but not so difficult that they are beyond the
learner's current abilities.
Vygotsky viewed the ZPD as a dynamic and flexible concept, suggesting that it can be
expanded through social interaction and scaffolding to encompass new learning
opportunities and challenges.
 SCAFFOLDING
Scaffolding is a teaching technique in which the MKO provides temporary support,
guidance, and structure to help the learner accomplish tasks or solve problems within
their ZPD.
The scaffolding process involves breaking down complex tasks into smaller, more
manageable steps, providing prompts, cues, and feedback, and gradually reducing
support as the learner gains competence and confidence.
The goal of scaffolding is to facilitate the learner's independent mastery of skills and
concepts, enabling them to eventually perform tasks autonomously without the need
for external assistance.
Scaffolding is tailored to the individual learner's needs and abilities, with the MKO
adjusting their support based on the learner's progress and readiness to advance within
their ZPD.
BRONFENBRENNER’S
BIO - ECOLOGICAL
THEORY
 MICROSYSTEM

The microsystem refers to the immediate, direct environment in which the

individual lives and interacts on a regular basis. It includes the people,
settings, and activities that have the most immediate and direct influence on
the individual's development.
Examples of microsystem elements include family, peers, school,
neighborhood, and religious institutions. These are the primary contexts in
which the individual experiences daily interactions, relationships, and
socialization processes.
The microsystem plays a crucial role in shaping the individual's beliefs, values,
behaviors, and identity, as it provides the most immediate and influential
socialization experiences.
 MESOSYSTEM

The mesosystem encompasses the connections and interactions between the

various components of the microsystem. It involves the linkages between different
settings and contexts in which the individual participates.
For example, the relationship between a child's family and school, or between their
peer group and community, represents elements of the mesosystem. Interactions
and experiences in one setting can influence or be influenced by experiences in
another setting.
The quality of interactions and communication between microsystem components
within the mesosystem can have significant implications for the individual's
development.
 EXOSYSTEM

The exosystem comprises settings or contexts that indirectly influence the

individual's development, even though the individual may not actively
participate in these settings.
Examples of exosystem influences include parental workplace conditions,
extended family dynamics, community resources and services, mass media,
and societal norms and policies.
Events and experiences in the exosystem can have an indirect impact on the
individual's well-being and development by shaping the opportunities,
resources, and support available within their immediate environments.
 MACROSYSTEM

The macrosystem represents the broader cultural, societal, and ideological

context in which the individual lives. It encompasses cultural norms, values,
beliefs, historical events, laws, and social institutions.
The macrosystem influences the individual's development by shaping the
attitudes, behaviors, opportunities, and constraints within their ecological
systems. It provides the overarching framework within which the other systems
operate.
Examples of macrosystem influences include cultural values regarding family
roles, societal attitudes towards education, political systems, economic
structures, and religious beliefs
 CHRONOSYSTEM

The chronosystem represents the dimension of time and how developmental

processes unfold over time within the individual's ecological systems.
It encompasses life transitions, historical events, sociohistorical changes, and
developmental trajectories that occur throughout the individual's lifespan.
These temporal factors can influence development by shaping experiences,
opportunities, and challenges at different stages of life.
The chronosystem recognizes that individuals and their environments are
dynamic and subject to change over time, and that these changes can have
important implications for development.
 THE INDIVIDUAL
Urie Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model is a highly influential theory of
human development. It proposes that personal, genetic factors interact
with ecology to shape the course of an individual's life.
THANK
YOU