MAHARASHTRA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD

Modern World History- Research Project

on

“The Causes and Consequences of French Revolution in Modern World

History”

Submitted by

MEHEK WADHWANI

B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Semester- VIII

Roll No. 2019/BALLB/62

Under the guidance of

Ms. DEEKSHA INGLE

Associate Professor of History

MNLU, Aurangabad

March 2023
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the project entitled is an outcome of my efforts under the guidance of Ms.
Deeksha Ingle. The project is submitted to Maharashtra National Law University, Aurangabad
for the partial fulfilment of the B.A. LL.B.(Hons.) Semester VIII for the year 2022-2023. I also
declare that this project is original work done by me and it has not been previously submitted
to any other university.

Date: 10-03-2023
Place: MNLU, Aurangabad

MEHEK WADHWANI
(2019/BALLB/62)

2|Page
 INDEX

Sr. TITLE Pg.

No. No.
1. DECLARATION 2

2. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 4

3. INTRODUCTION 5-6

4. CAUSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 7-15

5. NATIONALISM vis-à-vis FRENCH REVOLUTION 16-19

6. CONSEQUENCES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (Impact on 20-23

India)
7. CONCLUSION 24

8. BIBLIOGRAPHY 25

3|Page
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Ms. Deeksha Ingle under whose guidance I
have completed this research project on the topic “The Causes and Consequences of French
Revolution in Modern World History” for the partial fulfilment of the B.A.LL.B.(Hons.)
(Semester VIII) for the year 2022-2023.

4|Page
 INTRODUCTION

The French Revolution (1789 –1799) was an epoch-making event in Europe, having an
extensive historical background. This period was marked by the social, political, and economic
upheaval that transformed France, influenced Europe, and eventually affected the world order.
The Age of the Enlightenment, marked by intellectual and philosophical movements in the 17th
and 18th centuries Europe played a significant role in the French Revolution. The Revolution
mounted the first effective challenge to monarchical absolutism in favour of the prevalence of the
general will of the people, i.e., popular sovereignty. The key outcome was the creation of a
republican government in France and the dissemination of republican ideals in other European
countries.

The causes and the subsequent phases of the Revolution have been studied systematically by
several scholars, with a common methodology of dividing the Revolution into phases.1
Accordingly, Chapter 1 of the present study succinctly details the six phases of the revolution,
from the Old Regime (1789) up until the Napoleonic Era (1799-1815). The Chapter gives a
detailed overview of the entirety of the Revolution in France, with emphasis on the key events
and actors of the revolution.

The main themes and the prevailing issues that dominated the political agenda during the
revolutionary decade were the (a) issues of the rights of the people; (b) the role of the state in
society; (c) the values of a democratic society; (d) notions of "left" and "right" in political life; (e)
the concept of the "nation at arms"; (f) the place of religion in modern society and politics; and (g)
question of economic freedom and the sanctity of property. Chapter 2 encompasses an overview
of the French revolution from the perspective of the development of Modern Nationalism. The
Chapter substantiates the argument that Nationalism was both a cause and consequence of the
Revolution. For the sake of brevity, the Chapter identifies only the key events and actors of the
revolution and their reaction to and contribution towards Nationalism.

The French Revolution had a long-lasting impact on the social, political, cultural, and economic
background of Europe. There have been extensive studies delineating the impact of the
revolution on European nations. This study, under Chapter 3 describes the direct and indirect
impact of the revolution on India. The impact of the revolutionary ideals on the Grundnorm of

1
The French Revolution: Phases and Dates, (Link)

5|Page
India, i.e., the Indian Constitution exemplifies the invaluable contribution of the Revolution
across the Globe.

The research methodology used is Doctrinal research. The secondary sources of data collection
including books, journals, and various internet articles have been referred to. The extensive
literature existing on the ‘Causes and Consequences of the Revolution’, has been referred to and
referenced in the present study.

6|Page
 CHAPTER 1: Causes of the French Revolution

The present study delineates the phases of the Revolution and describes the significant events
and changes in the political and social landscape of France in the relevant phase. The causes of
the Revolution, the key events, and their impact have been identified in this Chapter.

1.1.Phase 1 – The Old Regime (1789)

The Old Regime refers to the political and social system that existed in France before the
French Revolution of 1789. Louis XVI was the monarch during the French Revolution. The
daughter of the Austrian queen, Marie-Antoinette married Louis XVI to strengthen dynastic
ties between Austria and France. The social, political, and economic conditions that marked
this period of the ‘Old Regime’ (Ancien Régime ) are reflective of the long-term and short-term
causes of the Revolution.

The Social Causes of the Revolution were social inequality, unemployment, poverty, and their
eventual criticism under the ideas of Enlightenment. The Old Regime was characterized by a
rigid social hierarchy that divided society into three estates. This division determined an
individual's access to rights and privileges. Since these privileges were primarily passed down
through inheritance, they tended to restrict social mobility, though they could also be purchased
or sold. As a result, individuals and groups were constantly negotiating for more and better
privileges with the crown. Traditionalists believed that to keep society cohesive, there needed
to be a hierarchy of social classes.2 The First Estate, the clergy, owned about 10% of the land
in France and paid no taxes. The Second Estate, the nobility, owned about 25-30% of the land
in France and was also exempt from paying taxes. The burden of taxes fell on the Third Estate,
who made up the vast majority of the population and were responsible for paying all of the
taxes that funded the government and the lifestyle of the nobility. This social system was deeply
unequal and led to widespread discontent among the population. The peasants, who made up
the largest group within the Third Estate, were particularly unhappy with their treatment. They
were required to pay feudal dues to their lords, which included labour on the lord's land and a
portion of their harvest, in addition to paying taxes to the government. Numerous grievances
were made about royal officials who were corrupt and about the privileges enjoyed by nobility

2
Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media, Social Causes of the Revolution, (Link)

7|Page
and guilds. Thus, the socio-economic conditions and the system of privileges prevalent during
the pre-revolutionary period gave impetus to the revolution.

The Economic Causes included the period of economic depression in the years preceding the
revolution as well as during the key phases of the revolution. Further, the trade deficit and the
emptying of the treasuries induced by the costly wards were the economic causes of the
revolution. The maintenance of the army and navy, as well as clearing up debts from the
American War of Independence, the Seven Years' War, and the War of the Austrian Succession
(1740–1748) accounted for nearly three-fourths of state expenditures. Thus, France was heavily
in debt, and the government was spending more than it was earning.

The widespread distribution of credit lines and the significant rise in the amount of metallic
money in circulation during the century were the main causes of the high rate of inflation. It
has been demonstrated that the general average price of consumer goods in France increased
by 45 and 65 percent, respectively, between 1785 and 1789 compared to 1726 to 1741.3
According to some, the climatic variations in the summer of 1788 and the winter of 1788/89,
as well as the ensuing economic downturn on the eve of the French Revolution, were the
catalysts for the political unrest.4 France experienced a severe crop failure due to a drought in
1788, just before the French Revolution. When compared to 50 percent in normal times, the
average person spent 88 percent of their income on bread by 1789 due to sharply rising grain
prices. Peasants who were starving resorted to protest and violence. Their ire was particularly
directed at the feudal system, which placed onerous financial and labor obligations on the
general populace and drastically reduced their incomes.5

The French economy was also struggling due to the decline of traditional industries such as
textiles and agriculture. This led to high unemployment and poverty, which further exacerbated
the economic crisis. The monarchy's attempts to advance new agricultural techniques met
resistance from peasants who wanted to maintain traditional methods of cultivation, which led
to a total failure of modernization.6

3
Goodwin, A. (1953). The French Revolution (1st ed.). Routledge. (Link)
4
Maria Waldinge. Drought and the French Revolution: The effects of adverse weather conditions on peasant
revolts in 1789. London School of Economics, (Link)
5
Ibid.
6
Supra note 3.

8|Page
Thus, the economic situation in France was precarious, with widespread poverty and food
shortages. Crop failures and rising food prices led to starvation among the poor, while the
nobility continued to live lavish lifestyles.

The Political Causes of the Revolution were Absolutism, the Balance of Power, and the
financial crises induced by the inefficient monarchy. The political system of France in the 18th
century was an absolute monarchy. The idea of monarchical absolutism was contested by the
growing use of Enlightenment language that emphasized equality before the law and
distinguished between absolute and despotic rule.

Even though it was an absolute monarchy, the power of the monarch was greatly limited by
the political influence of others and by the lingering effects of feudalism. The Church was able
to maintain its position of authority because Catholicism was widely practiced and because
people trusted its teachings more than they did the authorities who taxed them into poverty.
The Church maintained records of all marriages, births, and deaths. Additionally, there were
powerful clergymen at all levels of the government. The parlements, having the authority to
record royal edicts and ordinances, served as a further source of power within the government.
The parlement of Paris began to claim in the fifteenth century the authority to scrutinize and
object to royal laws that it deemed to conflict with earlier legislation or with certain
"fundamental laws". Such "remonstrances" served to delay the registration of royal edicts and
prevent the recognition of their full legality until the king either revised them following the
parlement's wishes or overcame opposition to them by enforcing a registration (lit de justice).7
Louis XV decided that this level of authority was excessive in 1771 and abolished the
Parliament of Paris, establishing a new court system for that city as well as five additional
courts that encroached on the authority of seven provincial parlements. Since the parliaments
had acted as their voices, opposing attempts at higher taxation, this caused resentment and
anger among many people. In 1774, Louis XVI swiftly overturned this decree in response to
public pressure and the advice of his advisors.

In addition to the economic and social issues, there were also political tensions between the
king and the nobility, as well as between the king and the rising Third Estate. The king's
attempts to modernize the economy and increase revenues through taxation were met with

7
David A.Bell, The Cult of the Nation in France: Inventing Nationalism, 1680–1800. Harvard University Press,
2001. (Link)

9|Page
resistance from the nobility, who saw this as a threat to their power and privilege. There was
also a lack of political representation for the common people. The Estates-General, which was
the closest thing to a parliament in France, was made up of representatives from the three
estates: the clergy, the nobility, and the common people. However, the common people were
vastly outnumbered by the other two estates, and their voices were often ignored.

All of these factors contributed to a growing sense of dissatisfaction and unrest among the
population, which ultimately led to the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789. The
immediate cause of the French Revolution was the financial crisis that the government faced
in the late 1780s. The fiscal reforms that were sought to be introduced and the resistance from
the nobility and clergy in light of their fear of loss of privileges of tax exemptions marked the
first stages of the revolution. Three finance ministers played a key role in the mismanagement
of the state finances and subsequent efforts to introduce fiscal reforms, i.e. Jacques Necker
(1732-1804). Charles-Alexandre de Calonne (1734-1802), and Etienne-Charles de Lomertie de
Brienne (1727-1794). Brienne’s suggested reforms ultimately culminated in the Revolt of the
Nobles. King Louis XVI was forced to call a meeting of the Estates-General in 1789 to find a
solution to the crisis.

Since each Estate had one vote, the First and Second Estates were able to outnumber the Third
Estate by a margin of 2-1 during the Estates-General meeting, which left the Third Estate
without a voice. The pamphlet "What is the Thirst Estate?" by Abbé Sieyès reflected the idea
that the Third Estate was the nation's foundation. With these ideas in mind, members of the
Third Estate urged the clergy to join them. On June 17th, at Sieyès' request, the Third Estate
declared the Estates-General to be defunct and declared itself the 'National Assembly'
representing the nation.8

The National Assembly was forced to adjourn to the indoor tennis courts on June 20 after
finding its usual meeting space locked up. There, they took the Tennis Court Oath and vowed
not to allow themselves to be sent home until they had drafted a new constitution for France.
In order to disperse the National Assembly and the crowds of Parisians that had gathered in
response to military activity in Paris, Louis XVI ordered the army to be sent into the city.
Parisians stormed the Bastille on July 14, 1789, in search of weapons. This was France's first
official act of disobedience against the monarchy.

8
Bickford, Kiley, "Nationalism in the French Revolution of 1789" (2014). Honors College. (Link).

10 | P a g e
1.2.Phase 2- The National Assembly (1789-1791):

During this phase, the French Revolution moved from the initial stages of social unrest to a
more organized and institutionalized movement for political reform. The phase began with the
meeting of the Estates-General in May 1789, which had been called to deal with France's
financial crisis. In the wake of the Estates-General meeting, the Third Estate declared itself the
National Assembly.

One of the National Assembly's first acts was to adopt the “Declaration of the Rights of Man
and of the Citizen”, which established the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity that
would become the rallying cry of the Revolution. The Declaration was inspired by the
American Declaration of Independence and the ideas of the Enlightenment, and it proclaimed
that all men were born free and equal, with natural rights that could not be taken away by the
state. Further, the National Assembly also began to dismantle the old feudal system, which had
been a source of oppression and inequality for the lower classes. They abolished the special
privileges of the nobility and clergy, and they began to confiscate their lands and wealth. They
also abolished the serfdom that still existed in some parts of France, and they declared that all
citizens were equal before the law.

Another major achievement of the National Assembly was the adoption of the Constitution of
1791, which established a constitutional monarchy in France. The new constitution created a
unicameral legislature called the Legislative Assembly, which was elected by universal male
suffrage. The king, who had previously held absolute power, was now limited by the
constitution, and he was required to share power with the legislature.

The National Assembly also introduced a series of economic and social reforms designed to
modernize France and promote economic growth. They abolished the old guild system, which
had restricted economic activity, and they introduced free trade and a new system of weights
and measures. They also introduced reforms in education, healthcare, and welfare, and they
attempted to improve the lives of the poor and working class.

However, the National Assembly phase was not without its problems. The reforms introduced
by the National Assembly were often controversial and unpopular, particularly among the
nobility and the clergy, who saw their privileges and power being eroded. There were also
disagreements within the National Assembly itself, particularly over the question of how much
power the king should have. Furthermore, the economic and social reforms introduced by the
National Assembly did not always have the desired effect. The attempts to improve the lives

11 | P a g e
of the poor and working class were also limited by the fact that France was still a predominantly
rural and agricultural society.

1.3. Phase 3- The Legislative Assembly (1791-1792):

This phase began with the dissolution of the National Assembly and the formation of the
Legislative Assembly. This phase was marked by political instability and conflict between
different factions in the government. The failure of the constitutional monarchy and the
emergence of the republic were the defining characteristics of the phase.

The Legislative Assembly was formed after the adoption of the Constitution of 1791, which
established a constitutional monarchy. Under this system, the king retained significant power,
including the power to veto legislation passed by the National Assembly. However, the
National Assembly had the power to initiate legislation, and it was made up of a single
chamber, the Legislative Assembly.

The Legislative Assembly was divided into three factions: the Feuillants, the Girondins, and
the Jacobins. The Feuillants were moderate conservatives who supported the constitutional
monarchy and were opposed to any radical change. The Girondins were moderate liberals who
wanted to see more changes in the political and social system but still believed in the
constitutional monarchy. The Jacobins were radical republicans who believed in the complete
overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of a republic.

One of the main issues facing the Legislative Assembly was the question of war. The French
Revolution had created a great deal of instability, both domestically and internationally, and
the other European powers were becoming increasingly concerned about the spread of
revolutionary ideals. In April 1792, the Legislative Assembly declared war on Austria, starting
the French Revolutionary Wars. The war proved to be disastrous for the French, as they
suffered a series of defeats on the battlefield. This led to widespread discontent among the
French people, who blamed the government for the military failures. In addition, the
Legislative Assembly was facing other challenges, including economic problems and food
shortages, which further eroded its legitimacy. In August 1792, a group of radical
revolutionaries, including the Jacobins, launched a coup d'etat and overthrew the monarchy,
establishing the French Republic. The king, Louis XVI, was imprisoned and later executed.

12 | P a g e
1.4. Phase 4 - The National Convention (1792-1795):

This phase began with the fall of the monarchy and the establishment of the First French
Republic. It was the most radical and violent phase of the Revolution, marked by the
establishment of the First French Republic, the Reign of Terror, and the execution of King
Louis XVI.

The National Convention came into existence after the fall of the monarchy and the end of the
Legislative Assembly in August 1792. The newly formed Convention was initially dominated
by the Girondins, a moderate group of republicans who supported the Revolution but wanted
to avoid excessive violence and preserve some elements of the old order. The Girondins were
opposed by the more radical Jacobins, led by Maximilien Robespierre, Georges Danton, and
Jean-Paul Marat. The Jacobins advocated for the complete overthrow of the old regime, the
abolition of the monarchy, and the establishment of a democratic republic. One of the first
actions of the Convention was the abolition of the monarchy on September 21, 1792, and the
establishment of the First French Republic. The king, Louis XVI, was put on trial for treason
and executed by guillotine on January 21, 1793.

The execution of the king was followed by a period of intense political and social upheaval
known as the Reign of Terror. Under the leadership of Robespierre, the Committee of Public
Safety was established to deal with the perceived enemies of the Revolution, including counter-
revolutionaries, royalists, and moderate republicans. Thousands of people were executed
during the Reign of Terror, including many members of the Girondin faction. The terror
eventually turned on Robespierre himself, who was arrested and executed on July 28, 1794,
along with other leaders of the Committee of Public Safety.

The end of the Reign of Terror marked the beginning of the Thermidorian Reaction, a period
of political and social reaction against the excesses of the Revolution. The Thermidorians, led
by moderate republicans such as Paul Barras and Jean-Lambert Tallien, sought to restore order
and stability to France.

1.5.Phase 5- The Directory (1795-1799):

In October 1795, the Convention was dissolved and replaced by the Directory, a five-member
executive body that ruled France until the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799. This phase

13 | P a g e
marked a period of relative stability and a return to more moderate policies after the radicalism
of the National Convention.

The Directory was a bicameral legislature, with a Council of Five Hundred and a Council of
Ancients, which were responsible for making laws and overseeing the government. The
executive power was vested in a five-member Directory, which was elected by the Council of
Five Hundred and the Council of Ancients. The Directory was intended to be a more moderate
government than the previous radical governments of the Revolution.

The Directory faced numerous challenges during its brief existence. It had to deal with
economic and financial problems, including inflation and a large public debt. It also faced
opposition from both the left and the right, with radicals calling for more radical measures and
conservatives calling for a return to the monarchy. In addition, the Directory faced military
challenges, including a war with Austria and the emergence of a new military leader, Napoleon
Bonaparte. Despite these challenges, the Directory made some important reforms. It stabilized
the currency and reduced inflation, and it implemented a new constitution in 1795 that
established a more stable political system. The Directory also began to reform the education
system and made efforts to promote science and technology. It also established the Metric
System, which became the basis for the modern system of measurement used throughout the
world.

However, the Directory was ultimately unable to overcome its challenges. The government
was plagued by corruption and inefficiency, and it struggled to maintain public support. In
1799, Napoleon Bonaparte, who had risen to prominence as a military commander, staged a
coup and overthrew the Directory, establishing himself as the new leader of France. The end
of the Directory marked the end of the French Revolution and the beginning of a new era in
French history.

1.6. Phase 6- The Napoleonic Era (1799-1815):

The Napoleonic Era refers to the period of French history from 1799 to 1815, during which
Napoleon Bonaparte rose to power and transformed France into a dominant power in Europe.
This period followed the fall of the Directory and marked the end of the French Revolution.

Napoleon Bonaparte was a military commander who rose to prominence during the French
Revolutionary Wars. In 1799, he staged a coup d'état and established himself as the First

14 | P a g e
Consul of the French Republic. He consolidated his power and, in 1804, declared himself
Emperor of France. Napoleon implemented significant reforms in France during his reign,
which helped to modernize the country and improve its economy. He reformed the legal system
by creating the Napoleonic Code, which served as the basis for modern civil law in many
countries. He also reformed the education system and established a centralized system of
government administration.

Napoleon's military conquests also had a significant impact on Europe. He waged wars against
several European powers, including Austria, Prussia, and Russia, and was largely successful in
expanding the borders of the French Empire. However, his ambitions ultimately led to his
downfall. In 1812, he invaded Russia and suffered a catastrophic defeat, which weakened his
position in Europe. In 1814, following a series of military defeats, Napoleon was forced to
abdicate and was exiled to the island of Elba. However, he escaped and returned to France,
where he briefly regained power in 1815. He was ultimately defeated at the Battle of Waterloo
and was exiled once again, this time to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic.
He died there in 1821.

The Napoleonic Era had a lasting impact on Europe. Napoleon's reforms helped to modernize
France and influenced other European countries to implement similar changes. The Napoleonic
Code, in particular, had a significant impact on the legal systems of many countries. Napoleon's
conquests also contributed to the spread of nationalism throughout Europe, as many people
began to identify with their respective nations in opposition to French imperialism.

15 | P a g e
 Chapter 2: Nationalism vis-à-vis French Revolution

Nationalism was a major factor in the creation of many nations, and its roots can be found deep
in the annals of time. A nationalism that is solely directed at the people and nation of France is
not seen until the French Revolution of 1789. The ideals of modern nationalism emerged as a
result of the French Revolution, and simultaneously it was also an important cause of the
Revolution itself. This modern nationalism promoted the notion that a state should represent
and advance the interests of a group of people, or "nation," who are united by a shared culture
and history.9

Understanding the idea of a "nation" at that time is crucial for determining nationalism's
contribution to the French revolution. In modern history, a nation is formed when people in a
country are bound together by a common language, culture, history, economy, and geographic
location. These overarching ideals did not necessarily apply to language in the case of France.
Of France's 37,510 communes, 8,381 did not have a majority of French speakers, according to
official statistics. For many "Frenchmen," French was therefore essentially a foreign
language.10 Despite this language barrier, the people of France managed to unite spiritually
beyond governmental or organizational structures. To express these unifying qualities among
the French people, the concept of la Patrie (the fatherland) developed. The French Revolution's
concepts of la Patrie and le citoyen (the citizen) stand for the idea that every community should
have equal rights under the law, and this sparked a sense of shared identity among the French
people.11

Nationalist Sentiments in Pre-Revolutionary France

Nationalist sentiments were present in pre-Revolutionary France, but it has been opined that
they were largely limited to certain circles of the elite and were subordinated to the higher
moral standards of the Church and the monarchy. They were transformed by the Revolution
into a strong, mass movement that broke free from the dictates of the Old Regime and was
founded on fresh ideas.

The proto-nationalist ideas of Enlightenment writers like Montesquieu, Locke, Voltaire, and
Rousseau influenced the French Revolution, making the Enlightenment's role as a cause of the

9
Supra Note 8, Kiley, Nationalism in the French Revolution of 1789.
10
Eugen Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen, Part 1, Stanford University Press (1976), (Link).
11
Supra Note 7., David A.Bell, The Cult of the Nation in France: Inventing Nationalism, 1680–1800.

16 | P a g e
Revolution clear in this instance. Each advocated different ideas for a country that would serve
the interests of the people and thought about the best structures for governing society, the
economy, and religion. The Enlightenment's turn toward rationalism had the effect of
separating the Church from the nation. This influence caused people to change their allegiance
from the Church to the concept of the “fatherland.” Literate French people became aware of
the need for reform as a result of the Enlightenment writers' critiques of the existing order,
including the monarchy and the Catholic Church. Baron de Montesquieu's writings,
particularly The Spirit of the Laws, reflected the widespread Enlightenment criticisms of French
politics. In his view, the country's social, cultural, and geographic conditions should be
reflected in the system of government, rather than there being a single legitimate political
system. He also supported the idea of power divisions.12 His ideas about the need for
independent institutions capable of restricting the power of the king and ministers in France
were echoed and spread throughout the eighteenth-century absolutism critiques. Voltaire was
another author who espoused Enlightenment principles. The church's privileges and its strong
political ties to the monarchy and nobility were questioned by him.13 John Locke was an
influential pre-Enlightenment author who also had an impact on the French Revolution. Locke
proposed the idea of a right of rebellion if the populace's needs were not met by the government,
as was the case under the French Old Regime. The French Revolution was also influenced by
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, a writer who was not French by birth. His position was in favor of a
populist form of government. The Terror of 1793–1794 under Robespierre and the Jacobins
was a time when his Social Contract had a particularly large impact. The Enlightenment was
significant because it fostered a political climate conducive to revolution. The philosophes had
no overarching theory, but they did establish a "political culture" in France that was fostered
in the Paris salons, provincial academies, and Masonic order.14

Nationalism vis-à-vis the Cahiers de doléances (Grievances) of 1789

The Cahiers de doléances (Grievances) of 1789 also demonstrated an emergence of national

consciousness as they articulated the frustrations and worries of the French provincial
populace. The majority of the complaints were about local issues, but there was also a hidden
desire for more recognition and a say in politics. Various levels of nationalism could be seen

12
Baron de Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws, vol. 1, trans. Thomas Nugent, J. Nourse, London, (Link).
13
Geoffrey Best, The Permanent Revolution: The French Revolution and Its Legacy, (Link).
14
Supra Note 8, Kiley, Nationalism in the French Revolution of 1789.

17 | P a g e
in the cahiers. It has been demonstrated that out of 232 cahiers, 75% of them projected
intermediate, progressive, or radical nationalism. This suggested a trend toward France in 1789
adopting more extreme forms of nationalism.15

Reforms and Nationalism

The National Assembly passed the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen" and
outlawed feudalism in August of 1789.16 The National Assembly's strong nationalist views
were evident in this document. The nation was exalted as the supreme being from which
privilege and power flowed. The Declaration also reflected Rousseau's theories on
the general will. A national oath was suggested in the Constitution of 1791. All legal
exemptions, including those for the clergy or nobility, were also abolished. For all Frenchmen,
it guaranteed legal equality. The French Revolution's priority for the nation over the King was
made crystal clear by the Constitution's authors. A citizen had to prioritize loyalty to the
country because, without the loyalty of all of her citizens, France would relapse into violent
chaos.17

Notions of Nationalism by Key Orators in the later stages of the Revolution

Speeches were crucial in promoting nationalist sentiment during the French Revolution of 1789
and the subsequent Republic. Men like Maximilien Marie Isidore de Robespierre, Georges
Jacques Danton, and the Compte de Mirabeau frequently praised France and the French people
in their speeches in favor of the young nation. In these speeches, the national sentiment was
frequently expressed, and as the government's radicalism increased, the national sentiment was
frequently invoked to defend the government's extreme actions. Mirabeau acted as a bridge
between the nobility and the common people. He was a royalist, but one who believed that the
authority of the Crown should rest on the sovereignty of the people. 18 In his speech “On the
Name to Be Assumed by the Assembly,” given over the course of two meetings on the 15th and
16th of June 1789, Mirabeau, like many of the Enlightenment thinkers, saw reason and rational
thinking as the basis for government.

15
Hyslop, Beatrice F. 1934, French nationalism in 1789 according to the general cahiers, Columbia
University Press New York, (Link).
16
“Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen” 1789. (Link)
17
Supra Note 8, Kiley, Nationalism in the French Revolution of 1789.
18
J. M. Thompson, Leaders of the French Revolution, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1962, (Link)

18 | P a g e
One of the most notable figures in the French Revolution was a lawyer named Georges Jacques
Danton. He was a well-known figure during the Revolution, but he did not become powerful
until the Legislative Assembly chose him to be the Minister of Justice in August of 1792.
Danton gave his "On Revolutionary Measures" speech on August 28, 1792, in which he turned
the Revolution's rebellious elements into a form of empowerment. Danton believed that the
only way to defeat the enemies of the Republic was to "overthrow" them, much like what had
been done to King Louis XVI. Danton saw the Revolution as an uprising against the monarchy,
the enemy. On September 2, 1792, Danton delivered his "Second Speech on Revolutionary
Measures," which served as a call to arms. He thought that the people should protect their
country and that the government ought to aid and abet them in doing so. Danton perished in
the Terror despite his standing and commitment to France.

Perhaps the most well-known leader of the French Revolution of 1789 is Maximilien Marie
Isidore de Robespierre, who is remembered for his significant contribution to the Reign of
Terror. Whereas Danton embodied the spirit of national defense and Mirabeau played a
significant role in the Constituent Assembly, Robespierre's life was frequently regarded as
embodying the entire Revolution. He defended the Terror by arguing that it served the interests
of the country and, by extension, the people. Some have argued that since Robespierre
personified the French Revolution, it makes sense that the Revolution died with him.

Conclusion

Overall, nationalism was significant in the 1789 French Revolution. An emerging national
consciousness was reflected in the transition from monarchy to the notion of a nation in the
interests of its citizens. National pride and a sense of patriotism played a significant role in the
1793 levy en masse. The tricolor flag and "La Marseillaise" are enduring reminders of the 1789
French Revolution. As is frequently the case, nationalism should not be seen as simply a
product of the French Revolution; rather, it was one of the factors that contributed to the French
Revolution's emergence and subsequent development. The propagation of nationalist
ideologies through social and political forums solidified the goals of the Revolution and
established a national France.

19 | P a g e
 CHAPTER 3: Consequences of the French Revolution (Impact on India)

France was the epicenter of the world’s first global revolutionary crisis. In France, it marked a
significant break from the past, although, to be sure, important continuities from the Old
Regime helped shape the modern world. In other countries, too, the Revolution affected major
changes. Radical revolution and armed counterrevolution sent shockwaves reverberating not
only through Europe but also along the Mediterranean coast, as far as South Asia, South Africa,
and the South Pacific. After 1789, there were 25 new constitutions adopted in other parts of
Europe, and 22 of them were imposed following the French invasion.19

This revolution has served as a significant catalyst for eschewing the traditional European
monarchy in favour of advancing civil rights and bolstering parliamentarism. The revolution
overthrew feudal ties and class privileges based on estates, laying the groundwork for equality
before the law and the society's emerging sense of national unity. In other nations, where it
competed with traditional authoritarian political systems, the idea of democracy as an
egalitarian people's government gradually gained ground. According to this conception of
democracy, every citizen would enjoy an equal right to protection under the law, and their
rights and obligations would not be determined by any special privileges associated with birth
or office.20 Thus, the French Revolution has several global short-term and long-term
consequences21

The French Revolution had a significant impact on India, although it occurred on a different
continent. India was then under the control of the British East India Company, which was one
of the leading colonial powers of the time. The revolution had both direct and indirect
consequences on India:-

a. Indirect impact on Indian nationalism: As evinced in Chapter 1, the French

Revolution was a crucial moment in the development of modern nationalism. Its
principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity, and the idea that people have the right to

19
Peter McPhee, Rethinking the French Revolution and the ‘Global Crisis’ of the Late-Eighteenth Century,
(Link)
20
Milan Katuninec, Two Views of the French Revolution, (2020). (Link)
21
RaphaÎl Franck, The Consequences of the French Revolution in the Short and Longue Duree, (2016). (Link)

20 | P a g e
 govern themselves, were highly influential in shaping political thought across the
world. The revolution inspired the Indian intelligentsia, who were exposed to European
political thought, and helped to create a climate of political consciousness and activism
that contributed to the Indian independence movement in the early 20th century.

b. Rise of Napoleon and its impact on India: The rise of Napoleon had a significant
impact on India. Napoleon had imperial ambitions and wanted to establish a French
empire in India, which was then a British colony. Franco-Indian Alliances were formed
between France and various Indian kingdoms, including Tipu Sultan, the ruler of
Mysore, who was at war with the British. Although the alliance was short-lived, it had
a lasting impact on Indian history. It strengthened anti-British sentiments and
contributed to the rise of Indian nationalism.

c. Spread of revolutionary ideas: The French Revolution was widely covered in the
Indian press, which was mostly in English at the time. Indian intellectuals and political
activists were exposed to revolutionary ideas, which they applied to their struggle for
independence. The ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity, which were the cornerstone
of the Revolution, were echoed in the Indian National Congress's demand for self-
government and independence.

d. Impact on the Indian economy: The French Revolution had a direct impact on the
Indian economy. During the revolution, France went through a severe economic crisis,
which led to the devaluation of the French currency. This, in turn, led to a rise in the
price of Indian cotton, which was in high demand in Europe. The British, who
controlled the Indian economy, took advantage of the situation and began to export
cotton to France, which helped to strengthen their hold on the Indian economy.

e. Impact on Indian society: The French Revolution had an impact on Indian society,
although it was indirect. The revolution challenged the established order and the
hierarchy of society, which had a resonance in India, where the caste system was the
dominant social order. The ideas of equality and democracy inspired Indian social
reformers, who advocated for the abolition of caste-based discrimination and the
empowerment of women.

21 | P a g e
f. Impact on British rule in India: The French Revolution had a significant impact on
British rule in India. The British were wary of the revolutionary ideas spreading to
India, and they took measures to suppress any potential unrest. They were particularly
concerned about the alliance between Tipu Sultan and Napoleon, which they saw as a
threat to their control over India. The British government also tightened its grip on the
Indian economy and passed laws to restrict the flow of Indian goods to France, which
further strengthened its hold on the Indian economy.

g. Impact on the Indian Independence Movement and the Constitution of India, 1950:
The ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity that emerged during the Revolution
influenced the Indian independence movement and the framing of the Constitution of
India. The concept of liberty, one of the main ideals of the French Revolution, had a
profound impact on the Indian independence movement. Indian leaders such as
Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru were influenced by the French Revolution's
emphasis on individual freedom and equality before the law. Mahatma Gandhi, in
particular, saw the French Revolution as a precursor to India's struggle for freedom,
writing in his autobiography that "The French Revolution had a great influence on me."

The French Revolution challenged the traditional hierarchies of the Old regime and
established the principle of equality before the law. This principle was essential to the
Indian independence movement, which sought to end the colonial hierarchy and create
a more egalitarian society.

Fraternity, the third ideal of the French Revolution, was also a significant influence on
the Indian independence movement. The idea of the fraternity was based on the belief
that all citizens were part of a larger community and that they had a responsibility to
each other. This idea was particularly important in India, where the caste system had
created deep divisions among different communities. The Indian independence
movement sought to unite all Indians under the banner of nationalism, and the idea of
fraternity played a crucial role in this process.

The Constitution of India, 1950, reflects the influence of the French Revolution's ideals
of liberty, equality, and fraternity. The preamble to the Constitution declares India to
22 | P a g e
be a "sovereign socialist secular democratic republic" committed to "justice, liberty,
equality, and fraternity." These ideals are also reflected in the Constitution's provisions,
which include provisions for individual freedoms, the right to equality before the law,
and the promotion of social justice and welfare. The French Revolution's influence on
the Indian Constitution is particularly evident in the Fundamental Rights and Directive
Principles of State Policy. The Fundamental Rights guarantee individual liberties such
as freedom of speech, religion, and the press, as well as the right to equality before the
law. These rights are similar to the rights enshrined in the “French Declaration of the
Rights of Man and of the Citizen”, which was adopted during the Revolution. The
Directive Principles of State Policy, on the other hand, reflect the French Revolution's
emphasis on social justice and welfare. These principles call on the state to promote the
welfare of the people by providing education, healthcare, and social security. This
emphasis on social welfare reflects the French Revolution's belief in the responsibility
of the state to ensure the welfare of its citizens.

23 | P a g e
 CHAPTER 4: Conclusion

The French Revolution was a significant event in world history that had far-reaching impacts
on the political, social, and economic landscape of Europe and beyond. It marked a period of
profound change in French society, as the old order of the Ancien Régime was dismantled and
replaced by a new democratic republic. The revolution began in 1789, driven by a combination
of factors including economic hardship, social inequality, and political unrest. The storming of
the Bastille, a symbolic act of rebellion against the monarchy, marked the beginning of the
revolution and set in motion a series of events that would transform France and the wider world.

One of the most significant achievements of the French Revolution was the establishment of a
new political system based on democratic principles. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and
the Citizen, adopted in 1789, proclaimed the fundamental rights and freedoms of all French
citizens and laid the groundwork for the development of a more egalitarian society. The
revolution also had important economic consequences. The abolition of feudalism and the
redistribution of land helped to break down the old order and promote greater social mobility.

However, the revolution was also marked by violence and instability, particularly during the
period known as the Reign of Terror. The excesses of the revolution, including the execution
of thousands of people and the destruction of property, have been widely criticized and
continue to be a subject of debate among historians. Despite its flaws, the French Revolution
had a profound impact on the world, inspiring other revolutionary movements and shaping the
course of European history in the 19th century. It paved the way for the spread of democratic
values and institutions and helped to establish the principle of popular sovereignty as a
fundamental tenet of modern political thought.

The French Revolution had a significant impact on India, both direct and indirect. It contributed
to the rise of Indian nationalism, which ultimately led to the country's independence. The
legacy of the French Revolution is still felt in India today, and its principles of liberty, equality,
and fraternity continue to inspire political and social activism. The Constitution of India also
reflects the French Revolution's emphasis on individual freedoms, equality before the law, and
social justice, and continues to guide India's democracy today.

24 | P a g e
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. The French Revolution: Phases and Dates, (Link)

2. Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media, Social Causes of the Revolution,
(Link)
3. Goodwin, A. (1953). The French Revolution (1st ed.). Routledge. (Link)
4. Maria Waldinge. Drought and the French Revolution: The effects of adverse weather
conditions on peasant revolts in 1789. London School of Economics, (Link)
5. David A.Bell, The Cult of the Nation in France: Inventing Nationalism, 1680–1800.
Harvard University Press, 2001. (Link)
6. Bickford, Kiley, "Nationalism in the French Revolution of 1789" (2014). Honors
College. (Link).
7. Eugen Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen, Part 1, Stanford University Press (1976),
(Link).
8. Baron de Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws, vol. 1, trans. Thomas Nugent, J. Nourse,
London, (Link).
9. Geoffrey Best, The Permanent Revolution: The French Revolution and Its Legacy,
(Link).
10. Hyslop, Beatrice F. 1934, French nationalism in 1789 according to the general
cahiers, Columbia University Press New York, (Link).
11. J. M. Thompson, Leaders of the French Revolution, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1962,
(Link)
12. Peter McPhee, Rethinking the French Revolution and the ‘Global Crisis’ of the Late-
Eighteenth Century, (Link)
13. Milan Katuninec, Two Views of the French Revolution, (2020). (Link)
14. RaphaÎl Franck, The Consequences of the French Revolution in the Short and Longue
Duree, (2016). (Link)

25 | P a g e