Professional Documents
Culture Documents
COST AND
MANAGEMENT
ACCOUNTING
www.icai.org | www.boslive.icai.org
Saransh - Last Mile Referencer for Cost and Management
Accounting
While due care has been taken in preparing this booklet, if any errors or omissions are noticed, the
same may be brought to the notice of the Director, BoS. The Council of the Institute is not
responsible in any way for the correctness or otherwise of the matter published herein.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form, or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
otherwise, without prior permission, in writing, from the publisher.
Answers containing the ideal manner of answering questions set at examination also
helps students revise for the forthcoming examination. Mock Test Papers help
students assess their level of preparedness before each examination. BoS (Academic)
also conducts live virtual classes through eminent faculty for its students across the
length and breadth of the country.
To reach out to its students, the BoS (Academic) has also been publishing
subject-specific capsules in its monthly Students’ Journal “The Chartered
Accountant Student” since the year 2017 for facilitating effective revision of concepts
dealt with in different topics of each subject at the Foundation, Intermediate and
Final levels of the chartered accountancy course. Each issue of the journal includes a
capsule relating to specific topic(s) in one subject at each of the three levels. In these
capsules, the concepts and provisions are presented in attractive colours in the form
of tables, diagrams and flow charts for facilitating easy retention and quick revision
of topics.
In today’s business world, Chartered Accountants are very much part of the
decision-making team of any Organisation. They are rigorously involved in decision
making process with the help of Cost and Management Accounting tools. The
capsule on ‘Cost and Management Accounting’ covers diagrams, flow charts tables
and formulas. In addition, it encompasses case studies and skill assessment-based
questions so that students can critically analyse business problems and strengthen
their analytical skills through interpreting and evaluating.” This capsule, though,
facilitates the students in undergoing quick revision, under no circumstances, such
revisions can substitute the detailed study of the materials provided by BoS such as
Study Material and Practice Manual.
Happy Reading!
© ICAI BOS(A)
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
The Board of Studies (Academic) of ICAI has always been at the forefront of providing
quality education to aspiring CA students and handholding them in preparing for their
exams. Saransh — Last Mile Referencer is a step in that direction. This pack of 3 booklets
on Accounting, Auditing & Cost Management and Strategic Decision Making covers
˦˜˚ˡ˜Ѓ˖˔ˡ˧˖ˢˡ˖˘ˣ˧˦ˢ˙˘˔˖˛˖˛˔ˣ˧˘˥˜ˡˣ˥˘˖˜˦˘˙ˢ˥ˠʡˇ˛˜˦˪˜˟˟ˡˢ˧ˢˡ˟ˬ˛˘˟ˣ˦˧˨˗˘ˡ˧˦˙ˢ˥
their reference for examinations but also Members can use it for their practice reference.
It has always been the endeavour of ICAI to provide updated information to its student to
˞˘˘ˣ˧˛˘ˠ˔˕˥˘˔˦˧˔˕ˢ˨˧˧˛˘˟˔˧˘˦˧˛˔ˣˣ˘ˡ˜ˡ˚˦˜ˡ˧˛˘˔˖˖ˢ˨ˡ˧˜ˡ˚˔ˡ˗˥˘˟˔˧˘˗Ѓ˘˟˗˦ʡˇ˛˘
Board of Studies (Academic), the academic wing of ICAI, has come up with a series of
booklets ‘Saransh – Last Mile Referencer’ with key points of different subjects. This will help
facilitate effective revision of concepts in each subject.
Among the many best-in-class services that the Board of Studies (Academic) provides to
its students, Saransh — Last Mile Referencer is another initiative in that direction. These
booklets on different subjects have been provided in a concise and precise form. It will
facilitate understanding of the concepts better to students and grasp the essence of the
subject. These capsules will enhance of level of preparedness before the examinations.
© ICAI BOS(A)
SARANSH
INDEX
Topic Pg No.
Material Cost 6
Overheads 9
Standard Costing 13
Marginal Costing 16
Cost Sheet 25
Service Costing 42
© ICAI BOS(A)
SARANSH
© ICAI BOS(A)
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Cost It is an
The amount Costing is Accountancy has Management application of
of expenditure defined as the been defined as accounting is management
It is the the application accounting
incurred on or technique and the application
process of of costing and concepts,
attributable to a process of of the principles
accounting for cost accounting methods of
specified article, ascertaining of accounting
cost. principles, collections,
product or costs. and financial
activity. methods and management. analysis and
techniques. presentation of
data.
© ICAI BOS(A) 1
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
There are many objectives of cost accounting. The main objectives are explained as below. We also need to keep
our focus on understanding the difference between Cost Control and Cost Reduction.
Ascertainment of Cost: The main objective of cost and management accounting is accumulation
and ascertainment of cost. Costs are accumulated, assigned and ascertained for each cost object.
Objectives of Cost Accounting
Determination of Selling Price and Profitability: The cost and management accounting system
helps in determination of selling price and thus profitability of a cost object.
Cost Control: Maintaining discipline in expenditure is one of the main objectives of a good cost and
management accounting system. It ensures that expenditures are in consonance with predetermined
set standard and any variation from these set standards is noted and reported on continuous basis.
Cost Reduction: It may be defined “as the achievement of real and permanent reduction in the
unit cost of goods manufactured or services rendered without impairing their suitability for the use
intended or diminution in the quality of the product.”
Cost Cost
Control To gather data like time
Reports taken, wastages, process
idleness etc., analyse the
data, prepare reports and
take necessary actions
© ICAI BOS(A) 2
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Managers Regulatory
Management Cost
Authorities
Accounting Accounting
Operational Auditors
level staffs
Financial
Accounting
Employees Shareholders
Informative and Accurate and Uniformity and Integrated and Flexible and Trust on the
simple authentic consistency inclusive adaptive system
Cost Accounting
using IT Cost Units: It is a unit of Cost Drivers: A Cost driver
product, service or time (or is a factor or variable which
combination of these) in effect level of cost. Example
relation to which costs may for a purchase department is
Paperless Environment Just-in-Time (JIT)
be ascertained or expressed. number of purchase orders.
Example for power industry is
kilo Watt hour (kWh).
© ICAI BOS(A) 3
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Responsibility Centres
To have a better control over the organisation, management delegates its responsibilities and authorities to various
departments or persons, which are known as responsibility centres. There are four types of responsibility centres
as discussed below:
Responsibility Centres
&ODVVLÀFDWLRQRI&RVW
Classification of cost basically means grouping of cost according to their common features. The important ways of
classification of cost are illustrated as below:
Classification of Cost
Overheads
© ICAI BOS(A) 4
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
© ICAI BOS(A) 5
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Material Cost
Chapter Overview How Material is Procured?
.BUFSJBM SFRVJSFNFOU QSPDFEVSF DBO CF VOEFSTUPPE
Material Procurement: 7BMVBUJPOPG.BUFSJBMT XJUI UIF IFMQ PG UIF GPMMPXJOH EJBHSBN 8F TIPVME
t#JMMPG.BUFSJBMT 3FDFJWFE GPDVT PO WBSJPVT EPDVNFOUT JO HFOFSBM SFRVJSFE BOE
t.BUFSJBM3FRVJTJUJPO/PUF BMTPTIPVMELFFQJONJOEUIFEFQBSUNFOUTXIPJOJUJBUF
t1VSDIBTF3FRVJTJUJPO UIFTFEPDVNFOUT
t(PPET3FDFJWFE/PUF Material Storage & Records:
t.BUFSJBM3FUVSOFE/PUFFUD t#JO$BSET Bill of Materials- *UJTUIF Material Requisition
t4UPSFT-FEHFS CBTJDEPDVNFOUXIJDI Note-*UJTQSFQBSFECZ
JTQSFQBSFECZFYQFSUT UIFEFQBSUNFOUXIJDI
t4UPDL$POUSPM$BSETFUD TQFDJGZJOHUIFRVBMJUZBOE SFRVJSFNBUFSJBMTGPS
RVBOUJUZPGNBUFSJBMTSFRVJSFE QSPDFTTJOH
Inventory Control: UPNBLFmOBMHPPET
t4FUUJOHPGWBSJPVTTUPDL
MFWFMT
Valuation of Material
t&DPOPNJD0SEFS2VBOUJUZ Issues:
&02
t$PTU1SJDFNFUIPET '*'0
t5FDIOJRVFTPG*OWFOUPSZ -*'0FUD
$POUSPMFUD Purchase Order"GUFS Purchase Requisition
t"WFSBHF1SJDFNFUIPET TFMFDUJPOPGWFOEPS Note*UJTUIFEPDVNFOU
t.BSLFU1SJDFNFUIPET GPSUIFNBUFSJBMT UIF XIJDIBVUIPSJTFQVSDIBTF
t/PUJPOBM1SJDFNFUIPET QVSDIBTFEFQBSUNFOU EFQBSUNFOUUPQVSDIBTF
JOJUJBUFTQVSDIBTFPSEFS UIFSFRVJTJUJPOFENBUFSJBMT
Accounting & Control of: GPSUIFSFRVJSFERVBMJUZ #BTFEPOUIJTEPDVNFOUUIF
t8BTUF 4DSBQ 4QPJMBHF BOERVBOUJUZ QVSDIBTFEFQBSUNFOUJOWJUFT
%FGFDUJWFTFUD QSPQPTBMTPSRVPUBUJPOT
Consumption of GSPNUIFWFOEPST
Materials
© ICAI BOS(A) 6
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Maximum Stock Level Upto How much to stock Maximum Stock Level + Minimum Stock Level
2
Minimum Stock Level Atleast How much to keep (b) On the basis of Relative Classification
Average Stock Level Stock normally kept ABC Analysis On the basis of value and
frequency of inventory
© ICAI BOS(A) 7
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Cost Price Methods Average Price Methods Market Price Methods Notional Price Methods
t 4QFDJmD1SJDF.FUIPE t 4JNQMF"WFSBHF1SJDF t 3FQMBDFNFOU1SJDF t 4UBOEBSE1SJDF.FUIPE
t 'JSTUJO'JSTUPVU '*'0 .FUIPE .FUIPE t *OnBUFE1SJDF.FUIPE
NFUIPE t 8FJHIUFE"WFSBHF1SJDF t 3FBMJTBCMF1SJDF.FUIPE t 3FVTF1SJDF.FUIPE
t -BTUJO'JSTUPVU -*'0 .FUIPE
NFUIPE
t #BTF4UPDL.FUIPE
Spoilage: (PPET EBNBHFE CFZPOE Abnormal- ͳF NBUFSJBM DPTU PG BCOPSNBM MPTT JT
SFDUJmDBUJPO UP CF TPME XJUIPVU GVSUIFS USBOTGFSSFEUPDPTUJOHQSPmUBOEMPTTBDDPVOU
QSPDFTTJOH
© ICAI BOS(A) 8
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Overheads
Chapter Overview Steps for Distribution of Overheads
OVERHEADS Estimation of Overheads
Concepts
Distribution of Overhead related with
Overheads Rates Capacity Re-apportionment of Overheads: The process of assigning
service department overheads to production departments
is called reassignment or re-apportionment. Methods of re-
apportionment are:
&ODVVLÀFDWLRQRI2YHUKHDGV (i) Direct re-distribution method
Overheads are the expenditure which can not be (ii) Step method of secondary distribution or non-reciprocal
identified with a particular cost unit. Overheads can be method
classified as under. (iii) Reciprocal Service method.
t'BDUPSZPS t'JYFE t*OEJSFDU t$POUSPMMBCMF Total Overheads: The sum of allocated, apportioned and re-
Manufacturing Overhead materials costs apportioned overhead is called total overheads for a cost object.
or Production t7BSJBCMF t*OEJSFDU t6ODPOUSPMMBCMF
Overhead Overhead employee cost costs
t0ĊDFBOE t4FNJ7BSJBCMF t*OEJSFDU Absorption of Overheads: Total overheads calculated as above
Administrative Overheads expenses is distributed over the actual quantity of goods produced. The
Overheads distribution of total estimated overheads to units of production
t4FMMJOHBOE is called absorption of overheads.
Distribution
Overheads
Methods for Re-apportionment of
Overheads
)XQFWLRQDO&ODVVLÀFDWLRQRI2YHUKHDGV
One of the most important ways of classifying overheads The re-apportionment of service department expenses
is as per their function. As per this classification over the production departments may be carried out by
overheads are classified as under. using any one of the following methods:
Indirect cost incurred for manufacturing or Methods for
Factory or production activity in a factory. Manufacturing
Manufacturing Re-apportionment
overhead includes all expenditures incurred
or Production from the procurement of materials to the
Overhead completion of finished product.
© ICAI BOS(A) 9
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of direct Labour hour Machine hour Rate per unit of
direct materials prime cost labour cost rate rate Output
No
The resultant figure is machine hour rate
Calculate Supplementary Rate and Charge to Cost of Sales
A/c, Finished Goods A/c and W-I-P A/c
© ICAI BOS(A) 10
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Interest and financing It includes any payment in nature of interest for use of non- equity funds and incidental cost that an entity
charges incurs in arranging those funds. Interest and financing charges shall be presented in the cost statement as a
separate item of cost of sales.
Cost of primary packing necessary for protecting the product or for convenient handling, should become a
Packing expenses part of cost of production. The cost of packing to facilitate the transportation of the product from the factory
to the customer should become a part of the distribution cost.
These indirect benefits stand to improve the morale, loyalty and stability of employees towards the
Fringe benefits organisation. If the amount of fringe benefit is considerably large, it may be recovered as direct charge by
means of a supplementary wage or labour rate; otherwise these may be collected as part of production
overheads.
If research is conducted in the methods of production, the research expenses should be charged to the
production overhead; while the expenditure becomes a part of the administration overhead if research relates
Research and to administration. Similarly, market research expenses are charged to the selling and distribution overhead.
Development
Expenses Development costs incurred in connection with a particular product should be charged directly to that
product. Such expenses are usually treated as “deferred revenue expenses,” and recovered as a cost per unit of
the product when production is fully established.
Treatment of
Process loss/ gain Raw Process Process Process Finished
Abnormal Material -I -II -III Goods
© ICAI BOS(A) 11
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Step-2: Calculate Equivalent Units for each Cost Elements t ͳF DPTU PG tͳF DPTU PG tͳFQSPDFTTBDDPVOU
normal process an abnormal under which
loss in practice process loss unit
is equal to the abnormal gain
is absorbed
cost of a good arises is debited
Step-3: Determine Total Cost for each Cost Element by good units VOJU ͳF UPUBM
produced under with the abnormal
cost of abnormal
UIFQSPDFTTͳF process loss is gain and credited
amount realised credited to the to abnormal gain
Step-4: Compute Cost Per Equivalent Unit for each Cost Element by the sale of process account
from which it account which
normal process
loss units should arises. will be closed by
be credited to t5PUBM DPTU transferring to the
of abnormal
Step-5: Assign Total Costs to Units Completed and Ending WIP the process Costing Profit and
process loss
account. is debited to Loss account.
costing profit
and loss account.
Valuation of Work-in-process
ͳFWBMVBUJPOPGXPSLJOQSPDFTTQSFTFOUTBHPPEEFBMPGEJĊDVMUZCFDBVTFJUIBTVOJUTVOEFSEJĉFSFOUTUBHFTPG
completion from those in which work has just begun to those which are only a step short of completion.
(i) Equivalent Units
Equivalent units or equivalent production units, means converting the incomplete production units into
their equivalent completed units. Under each process, an estimate is made of the percentage completion of
XPSLJOQSPDFTTXJUISFHBSEUPEJĉFSFOUFMFNFOUTPGDPTUT WJ[ NBUFSJBM MBCPVSBOEPWFSIFBET
ͳFGPSNVMBGPSDPNQVUJOHFRVJWBMFOUDPNQMFUFEVOJUTJT
Opening xxx Opening W-I-P* xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
W-I-P
Unit xxx Finished xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
Introduced output**
Total Closing W-I-P xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
* Equivalent units for Opening W-I-P is calculated only under FIFO method. Under the Average method, it is not shown separately.
**Under the FIFO method, Finished Output = Units completed and transferred to next process less Opening WIP. Under Average
method, Finished Output = Units completed and transferred.
***For normal loss, no equivalent unit is calculated.
****Abnormal Gain/ Yield is treated as 100% complete in respect of all cost elements irrespective of percentage of completion.
© ICAI BOS(A) 12
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Standard Costing
Chapter Overview Types of standards
There are various types of standard which are illustrated
Meaning of below:
Advantages Standard cost
and Standard
and Criticism
Costing Types of Ideal Standards: The
of Standard Standards level of performance
Costing
attainable when
prices for material
and labour are most
favourable, when Normal Standards:
Computation Standard
The Process the highest output These are standards
of Standard is achieved with the that may be achieved
of Variance Costing Costing
best equipment and under normal
layout and when the operating conditions.
maximum efficiency
in utilisation of
Setting-up of resources results in
Classification of
Standard Cost maximum output
Variances
Types of with minimum cost.
Standards
© ICAI BOS(A) 13
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Variances at a Glance
Total Cost Variance
Expenditure
Mix Variance Mix Variance Expenditure Volume
Variance Variance Variance
Efficiency Efficiency
Yield Variance Yield Variance Variance Variance
Capacity
Variance
Calendar
Variance
Variance Analysis
(i) Material Cost Variance
Material Cost Variance
[Standard Cost – Actual Cost]
(The difference between the Standard Material Cost of the actual production volume and the Actual Cost of Material)
[(SQ × SP) – (AQ × AP)]
© ICAI BOS(A) 14
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Labour Rate Variance Labour Idle Time Variance Labour Efficiency Variance
[Standard Cost of Actual Time – Actual Cost] [Standard Rate per Hour x Actual Idle Hours] [Standard Cost of Standard Time for Actual
(The difference between the Standard Rate (The difference between the Actual Production – Standard Cost of Actual Time]
per hour and Actual Rate per hour for the Hours paid and Actual Hours worked at (The difference between the Standard Hours
Actual Hours paid) Standard Rate) specified for actual production and Actual
Hours worked at Standard Rate)
[(SR – AR) × AH*] Or [(AH* – AH#) × SR] Or [(SH – AH#) × SR] Or
[(SR × AH*) – (AR × AH*)] [(AH* × SR) – (AH# × SR)] [(SH × SR) – (AH# × SR)]
Labour Mix Variance Or Gang Variance Labour Yield Variance Or Sub-Efficiency Variance
[Standard Cost of Actual Time Worked in Standard [Standard Cost of Standard Time for Actual Production
Proportion – Standard Cost of Actual Time Worked] – Standard Cost of Actual Time Worked in Standard
(The difference between the Actual Hours worked in Proportion]
standard proportion and Actual Hours worked in actual (The difference between the Standard Hours specified
proportion, at Standard Rate) for actual production and Actual Hours worked in
standard proportion, at Standard Rate)
[(RSH – AH#) × SR] Or (SH – RSH) × SR Or
[(RSH × SR) – (AH# × SR)] (SH × SR) – (RSH × SR)
Fixed Overhead Capacity Variance Fixed Overhead Calendar Variance Fixed Overhead Efficiency Variance
SR (AH – BH) Std. Fixed Overhead rate per day (Actual no. SR (AH – SH)
Or of Working days – Budgeted Working days) Or
(AH × SR) – (BH × SR) (AH × SR) – (SH × SR)
AH* - Actual Hours paid
AH# - Actual Hours worked
© ICAI BOS(A) 15
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Marginal Costing
Chapter Overview Characteristics of Marginal Costing
Meaning of All elements of cost are classified into fixed and variable
Marginal Cost components. Semi-variable costs are also analyzed into fixed
and Marginal and variable elements.
Costing
© ICAI BOS(A) 16
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Break even
Cash Break-even = Cash Fixed Cost /
point Contribution per unit
More How
control over much to
expenditure produce
The contribution is
Multi-Product calculated by taking
Break-even Analysis weights (sales quantity/
value) for the products
© ICAI BOS(A) 17
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
viii. xiv.
Contribution Contribution
P/V Ratio = X 100
Sale Profitability =
Key factor
ix. (BES + MS) × P/V Ratio = Contribution (Total sales = BES + MS)
xv. Profit
Margin of Safety = Total Sales – BES or
x. (BES × P/V Ratio) + (MS × P/V Ratio) = F + P P/V Ratio
By deducting (BES × P/V Ratio) from L.H.S. and F from R.H.S. xvi. BES = Total Sales – MS
in (x) above, we get:
xvii.
xi. M.S. × P/V Ratio = P Margin of Safety Ratio = Total sales – BES
Total Sales
xii.
Change in profit
P/V Ratio = X 100
Change in sales
xiii.
Change in contribution
P/V Ratio = X 100
Change in sales
Essentials of Budget
Essential elements of budget are illustrated below:
Essential elements of a budget
Organisational Setting of clear Budgets are Budgets are Budgets should be Budgetary
structure must objectives and prepared for updated for the quantifiable and master performance
be clearly reasonable the future events that were budget should be broken needs to be linked
defined targets periods based on not kept into down into various effectively to the
expected course the mind while functional budgets. reward system
of actions establishing Budgets should be
budgets monitored periodically
© ICAI BOS(A) 18
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Budget is usually
prepared in the light It is a written Planning
of past experiences document
Characteristics
of Budget
Budget helps
in planning, It is a detailed
plan of all Dir
coordination and
the economic Co ectin
control ord g a
activities of a ing ina nd
Budget is a business troll tin
g
means to achieve C on
business and it
is not an end in
itself
&ODVVLÀFDWLRQRI%XGJHW
BUDGET
© ICAI BOS(A) 19
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
'HÀQLWLRQRIGLIIHUHQWW\SHVRI%XGJHW
Functional Budgets Budgets which relate to the individual functions in an organisation are known as Functional Budgets. For
example, purchase budget; sales budget; production budget; plant-utilisation budget and cash budget.
Master Budget It is a consolidated summary of the various functional budgets. It serves as the basis upon which budgeted
P & L A/c and forecasted Balance Sheet are built up.
Long-term Budgets The budgets which are prepared for periods longer than a year are called long-term budgets. Such budgets
are helpful in business forecasting and forward planning. Capital expenditure budget and Research and
Development budget are examples of long-term budgets.
Short-term Budgets Budgets which are prepared for periods less than a year are known as short-term budgets. Cash budget is
an example of short-term budget. Such types of budgets are prepared in cases where a specific action has
to be immediately taken to bring any variation under control, as in cash budgets.
Basic Budgets A budget which remains unaltered over a long period of time is called basic budget.
Current Budgets A budget which is established for use over a short period of time and is related to the current conditions
is called current budget.
Fixed Budget According to CIMA official terminology, “a fixed budget, is a budget designed to remain unchanged
irrespective of the level of activity actually attained”.
Flexible Budget According to CIMA official terminology, “a flexible budget is defined as a budget which, by recognizing
the difference between fixed, semi-variable and variable costs is designed to change in relation to the level
of activity attained.”
'LIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQ)L[HG%XGJHWDQG)OH[LEOH%XGJHW
Sl. no. Fixed Budget Flexible Budget
1. It does not change with actual volume of activity achieved. Thus it is It can be re-casted on the basis of activity level to be
known as rigid or inflexible budget achieved. Thus it is not rigid.
2. It operates on one level of activity and under one set of conditions. It It consists of various budgets for different levels of
assumes that there will be no change in the prevailing conditions, which activity.
is unrealistic.
3. Here as all costs like - fixed, variable and semi-variable are related to only Here, analysis of variance provides useful information
one level of activity, so variance analysis does not give useful information. as each cost is analysed according to its behaviour.
4. If the budgeted and actual activity levels differ significantly, then the Flexible budgeting at different levels of activity
aspects like cost ascertainment and price fixation do not give a correct facilitates the ascertainment of cost, fixation of
picture. selling price and tendering of quotations.
5. Comparison of actual performance with budgeted targets will be It provides a meaningful basis of comparison of the
meaningless specially when there is a difference between the two actual performance with the budgeted targets.
activity levels.
© ICAI BOS(A) 20
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Efficiency
Control of
Employee Cost
Overtime Rating Direct employee cost Indirect employee cost
Procedures
1. Cost of employees, directly $PTU PG FNQMPZFFT XIP BSF
engaged in the production not directly engaged JO UIF
process. QSPEVDUJPO QSPDFTT
Attendance Employee
& Payroll Idle Time (Labour) 2. Easily identifiable and Apportioned on some
Procedures Turnover allocable to cost unit. appropriate basis
3. Varies with the volume .BZ not vary with the
of production and has volume PG QSPEVDUJPO
Meaning of Employee (Labour) Cost positive relationship with
the volume.
© ICAI BOS(A) 21
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Methods of Time-keeping
t$PNQVUBUJPOPGXBHFTBOEPUIFSJODFOUJWFT
Methods of Time-keeping Payroll department prepares pay slip and forward
Step-3 the same to the cost/ accounting department.
Mechanical/ Automated
Manual Methods Methods
t1BZNFOUUPUIFFNQMPZFFT
Attendance 1VODI $BSE After all deductions (like PF, ESI, TDS), wages/
Step-4 salary is paid to the employees.
3FHJTUFS NFUIPE Attendance
For the collection of all such data, a separate record, Normal idle
generally known as Time (or Job) card, is kept. time Abnormal
idle time
&NQMPZFF
Payroll work,
Details
© ICAI BOS(A) 22
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Urgency of work. Charged to job directly. Wages = Time taken × Time rate + 50% of time saved × Time rate
© ICAI BOS(A) 23
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Absorption of Wages
Methods to calculate Employee Turnover
ELEMENTS OF WAGES
Or
/P PG 4FQBSBUJPOT /PPG "DDFTTJPOT JF/PPG 3FQMBDFNFOUT
/PPG /FX +PJOJOHT
Time allowed as per standard × 100
Efficiency in % = × 100 "WFSBHF OPPG FNQMPZFFT EVSJOH UIF QFSJPE PO SPMM
Time Taken
Need for Efficiency rating: Newly recruited employees are also responsible for changes
in the composition or work force, some management
accountants feel to take new recruitment for calculating
employee turnover. The total number of workers joining,
Payment including replacements, is called accessions.
Firm IBT B Helps
following management
system of direct
relationship for preparing
payment by manpower
results XJUI UIF requirements
output
© ICAI BOS(A) 24
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Disciplinary measures
)XQFWLRQDO&ODVVLÀFDWLRQRI(OHPHQWVRI&RVW
%JTTBUJTGBDUJPO XJUI KPC
SFNVOFSBUJPO IPVST PG XPSL
Direct Material Cost
XPSLJOH DPOEJUJPOT FUD
4USBJOFE SFMBUJPOTIJQ XJUI
management
Direct Employee (labour) Cost
Avoidable -BDL PG USBJOJOH GBDJMJUJFT BOE
Causes promotional avenues
-BDL PG SFDSFBUJPOBM BOE Direct Expenses
medical facilities
Preventive Costs
Costs incurred to prevent Replacement Costs Cost Heads in a Cost Sheet
$PTUT XIJDI BSJTF EVF UP
FNQMPZFF UVSOPWFS PS LFFQ employee turnover
it as lowest as possible Prime Cost
© ICAI BOS(A) 25
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Prime Cost:
© ICAI BOS(A) 26
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Examples:
Administrative Selling Packing Cost Distribution
Overheads (General) Overheads (secondary) Overheads
Depreciation and Salary and wages 1BDLJOH NBUFSJBM Salary and wages of
maintenance of, office SFMBUFE XJUI TBMFT UIBU FOBCMFT UP employees engaged in
CVJMEJOH GVSOJUVSF FUD department store, transport, and distribution of goods
NBLF UIF QSPEVDU
NBSLFUBCMF
Salary of administrative Rent, depreciation, Transportation and
employees, maintenance related insurance costs related
BDDPVOUBOUT FUD XJUI TBMFT EFQBSUNFOU XJUI EJTUSJCVUJPO
Indirect materials-
printing and stationery,
PĊDF TVQQMJFT FUD
© ICAI BOS(A) 27
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
© ICAI BOS(A) 28
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Meaning
It is collected Direct employee These are
Process of Cost Accumulation from Material cost: It is collected collected under
and Calculation Requisition notes. from job time suitable standing
Batch cards or sheets. orders numbers,
Costing Determination of Economic and selling and
Batch Quantity (EBQ) distribution
Accumulated overheads against
material cost is The time booked/ cost accounts
Difference between Job and then posted in cost recorded is valued
Batch Costing numbers.
accounting system. at appropriate rates
and entered in the
cost accounting
UNIT COSTING system. Total expenses
so collected are
Meaning of Unit Costing apportioned
to service and
Indirect employee production depart-
costs: These are ments on some
- where the output produced is identical collected from
and each unit of output requires identical suitable basis.
the payrolls books
cost. and posted against
UNIT - also known as single or output costing.
COSTING standing order
- applied in industries like PAPER, or expenses code The expenses
CEMENT, STEEL WORKS, MINING, numbers in the of service
BREWERIES ETC. overhead expenses departments are
ledger. finally transferred
to production
departments.
Here, costs are collected and analysed element wise and
then total cost per unit is ascertained as follows:
© ICAI BOS(A) 29
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
BATCH COSTING
ECONOMIC
Meaning of Batch Costing BATCH
It is the size of a batch where total
cost of set-up and holding costs are at
QUANTITY
(EBQ) minimum.
is a type of specific order costing
where articles are manufactured in
predetermined lots, known as batch.
BATCH the cost object for cost determination is Cost/unit
COSTING
a batch for production. Total cost
example PEN MANUFACTURING Inventory
INDUSTRY carrying
cost
Batch Size
COSTING PROCEDURE IN BATCH COSTING
© ICAI BOS(A) 30
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Methods of Costing
JOB COST CARD/ SHEET
Specific Order Costing
A cost sheet where,
quantity of materials issued,
Job Costing Contract Costing JOB COST hours spent by different class of
CARD/ employees,
SHEET amount of other expenses and share of
overheads
are recorded.
JOB COSTING
MEANING OF JOB COSTING Format of Job Cost Sheet:
Total
PRINCIPLES OF JOB COSTING Summary of costs Estimated Actual
(R) (R) For the job __________
Analysis and ascertainment of cost of each unit of Direct material cost Units produced______
production Direct wages Cost/unit __________
Production overhead Remarks ___________
PRODUCTION COST Prepared by:________
Administration and Checked by: ________
Control and regulate cost Selling & Distribution
Overheads
TOTAL COST
Determine the profitability PROFIT/LOSS
SELLING PRICE
© ICAI BOS(A) 31
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
© ICAI BOS(A) 32
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
7. For direct wages incurred on jobs DIFFERENCE BETWEEN JOB COSTING AND
PROCESS COSTING
Work-in-Process Control A/c Dr.
To Wages Control A/c Job Costing Process Costing
8. For indirect wages
A Job is carried out by Process of producing the product
Factory Overhead Control A/c Dr. specific orders. has a continuous flow and the
product produced is homogeneous.
To Wages Control A/c Costs determined for each job.
Costs are compiled on time
9. For any indirect expense paid basis i.e., for each process or
Each job is separate and department.
Factory Overhead Control A/c Dr. independent.
To Cost Ledger Control A/c Products lose their individual
Each job has a number and identity.
10. For charging overhead to jobs costs are collected against the
same job number. The unit cost of process is an
Work-in-Process Control A/c Dr. average cost for the period.
To Factory Overhead Control A/c Costs are computed when a Costs are calculated at the end
job is completed. of the cost period.
11. For the total cost of jobs completed
More managerial attention is Control here is comparatively
Cost of Sales A/c Dr. required for effective control. easier.
To Work-in-Progress Control A/c
12. The balance of Cost of Sales A/c is transferred to
Costing Profit and Loss A/c; For such transfer
CONTRACT COSTING
Costing Profit and Loss A/c Dr. MEANING OF CONTRACT COSTING
To Cost of Sales A/c
13. For the sales value of jobs completed It is a form of specific order costing
where job undertaken is relatively large
Cost Ledger Control A/c Dr. and normally takes period longer than a
CONTRACT year to complete.
To Costing Profit and Loss A/c COSTING Adopted by the contractors engaged
in contracts like CONSTRUCTION
OF BUILDING, ROAD, BRIDGE,
ERECTION OF TOWER ETC.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF JOB
COSTING FEATURES OF CONTRACT COSTING
Details of Cost of material, labour and Work in contract
Separate account Bulk of the
overhead for all job is available to control. is ordinarily
is usually expenses incurred
carried out at
maintained for are considered as
Profitability of each job can be derived. the site of the
each contract. direct.
contract.
Facilitates production planning.
Advantages
Budgetary control and Standard Costing Number of
Indirect expenses
can be applied in job costing. contracts Cost unit in
mostly consist of
undertaken by a contract costing is
Spoilage and detective can be identified office expenses,
contractor at a the contract itself.
and responsibilities can be fixed stores and works.
time is usually few.
accordingly.
© ICAI BOS(A) 33
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
(ii) Cost of Work Certified or Value of Work Certified (viii) Estimated Profit
Value Payment
Retention
of work actually
Money
certified made
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
COST PLUS CONTRACT
© ICAI BOS(A) 34
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Growing overhead
Empowers costs
the contractor
to recover the Increasing market
increased competition
prices.
Increasing product
diversity
Protect the
contractor from
Contractor may Decreasing costs
adverse financial
increase the of information
impacts. processing
contract price if the
cost of materials,
employees and other
expenses increases
beyond a certain USEFULNESS/SUITABILITY OF ABC
limit.
ABC is particularly needed in the following situations:
High amount Wide range Presence of Stiff
of overhead of products non-volume competition
related
activities
ACTIVITY BASED COSTING
POINTS OF DISCUSSION ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ABC
© ICAI BOS(A) 35
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Design of
Research and products, Customer Marketing Distribution
Development services and Service
procedures
COST ALLOCATION
Process
Assigning Cost Specification
Activity Based Traditional Absorption
Costing Costing
Requirments
© ICAI BOS(A) 36
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Overhead Costs
Product level activities Inspecting and testing Number of tests
costs
Activities which are performed - Designing the product
to support different products in - Producing parts
product line. specifications Painting costs Number of parts
© ICAI BOS(A) 37
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Activity Total Cost (R) Cost Driver Cost Driver Level Cost Driver Rate Product 1 (R) Product 2 (R)
(R)
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) = (b)/(d) (f) (g)
Ordering 64,000 No. of Purchase 80 800 24,000 40,000
Orders (30+50) (800 x 30) (800 x 50)
Delivery 1,40,000 No. of Deliveries 200 700 77,000 63,000
(110 + 90) (700 x 110) (700 x 90)
Shelf stocking 80,000 Shelf Stocking 400 200 44,000 36,000
Hours (220 +180) (200 x 220) (200 x 180)
Helps in Decision
JOINT PRODUCTS AND BY PRODUCTS
determining support
price based POINTS OF DISCUSSION
for human
on cost plus resources
markup basis
Joint Products &
By-Products
As Activity Based Management
Cost Driver
Analysis Meaning of Joint Treatment of By-
Value-Added Apportionment of Product Cost in
Products and By-
Activities (VA) Joint Costs Cost Accounting
Products
Activity Analysis
Non-Value-
Added Activities
(NVA)
Activity Based
Cost Management MEANING OF JOINT PRODUCTS AND BY-
(ABM): Using ABC PRODUCTS
to manage costs at Cost Reduction
activity level. Two or more products separated in the
Joint Products*
course of same processing operation.
Business Process
Re-engineering
Performance Products recovered from-
Analysis By-Products# t NBUFSJBM EJTDBSEFE JO NBJO QSPDFTT
t QSPEVDUJPO PG TPNF NBKPS QSPEVDUT
Benchmarking
*OIL INDUSTRY PRODUCING JOINT PRODUCTS using crude
Performance petroleum like gasoline, fuel oil, lubricants, paraffin, asphalt,
Measurement kerosene etc.
© ICAI BOS(A) 38
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
CO-PRODUCTS
CO-PRODUCTS
For instance,
© ICAI BOS(A) 39
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Fixed costs
Other Methods: Thereafter, fixed costs are apportioned over the joint
products on the basis of the contribution ratios.
(i) Market value at the point of separation
Methods for
apportioning joint cost
© ICAI BOS(A) 40
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Re-use basis:
Small total Considerable Require
value total value further
Sometimes, by-product may be of such a nature that it can processing
be reprocessed in the same process as part of the input of
the process.
In that case, value put on However, if the by-product Deducted May be
Sales value Net realisable
by-product should be same can be put into an earlier credited to from total regarded as value of the
as that of the materials process only, the value Costing costs joint products by-product at
introduced into the process. should be the same as for the P&L rather than as the split-off
materials introduced into Account by-products point may be
the process. arrived
© ICAI BOS(A) 41
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
SERVICE COSTING
POINTS OF DISCUSSION SERVICE COSTING VS. PRODUCT COSTING
© ICAI BOS(A) 42
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Hotels Guest Days or Room Days Equivalent Cost Unit/ Equivalent Service Unit
Information Technology Cost per project, per module, etc. Example: A hotel may decide tariff to their different
Enabled Services type of suites as follows-
Insurance Per policy, per claim, per TPA,
etc.
Composite unit may be computed in TWO WAYS Since, all three types of suites use same amount of overheads
but to attach qualitative weight, these rooms are required to be
converted into equivalent units.
Absolute Commercial (i) If Standard suite is taken as base:
(Weighted Average) basis (Simple Average) basis
Nature of suite Occupancy Equivalent single
(Room-days) room suites
Summation of the products Product of average qualitative (Room-days)
of qualitative and quantitative and total quantitative factors
factors Standard 36,000 36,000
(100 rooms x 360 (36,000 x 1)
days)
∑Weight Carried (W) × ∑{Distance (D)1 + D2 +
Distance (D)1 + (W × D)2 …………...…+ Dn} × Deluxe 18,000 45,000
+…. [(Weight1 + W2 + .... + Wn)/n] (50 rooms x 360 days) (18,000 x 2.5)
+(W × D)n
Luxurious 10,800 54,000
(30 rooms x 360 days) (10,800 x 5)
Example: A Lorry starts with a load of 20 Metric Ton (MT) of
Goods from Station ‘A’. It unloads 8 MT in Station ‘B’ and balance 1,35,000
goods in Station ‘C’. On return trip, it reaches Station ‘A’ with a
load of 16 MT, loaded at Station ‘C’. The distance between A to B, Or
B to C and C to A are 80 Kms, 120 Kms and 160 Kms, respectively.
(ii) If Luxurious suite is taken as base:
B 20 Mt – 8 MT = 12 MT Nature of suite Occupancy Equivalent
20 MT (120 KM) (Room-days) luxurious suites
(80 KM) (Room-days)
16 MT
A C
(160 KM) Standard 36,000 7,200
(100 rooms x 360 (36,000 x 1/5)
Weighted Average or Absolute basis – MT – Kilometer would days)
be calculated as follows:
= (20 MT × 80 Kms) + (12 MT × 120 Kms) + (16 MT × 160 Deluxe 18,000 9,000
Kms) (50 rooms x 360 days) (18,000 x ½)
= 1,600 + 1,440 + 2,560 = 5,600 MT – Kilometer Luxurious 10,800 10,800
Simple Average or Commercial basis – MT – Kilometer would (30 rooms x 360 days) (10,800 x 1)
be calculated as follows:
= [{(20+12+16) / 3} MT × (80 +120 +160) Kms]
= 16 MT × 360 Kms = 5,760 MT – Kilometer 27,000
© ICAI BOS(A) 43
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Goods Passenger
transport transport
Variable costs
or Running t 1FUSPM BOE %JFTFM
costs t -VCSJDBOU PJMT
(costs t 8BHFT UP %SJWFS $POEVDUPS $MFBOFST
associated etc. if it is related to operations
with distance t %FQSFDJBUJPO JG SFMBUFE UP BDUJWJUZ
travelled) t "OZ PUIFS WBSJBCMF DPTUT JEFOUJîFE
© ICAI BOS(A) 44
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Entry after
toll tax
tLand Acquisition,
Capital Costs
tMaterials, Labour, Overheads incurred in the course of
(incurred during
actual construction,
construction period)
tContingency allowance,
administrative expenses,
Annual
operating
cost emergency services,
Operating and
Maintenance Costs
communications and security services.
(incurred once the
road is operational)
Patching of potholes, sealing of cracks,
edge repair,
Routine
maintenance Surface renewal,
Periodic maintenance.
© ICAI BOS(A) 45
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Method
of Costing
Market research,
product Selling of Processing
Other incomes like transport, hostel, mess and canteen. development policy of claims
like specification
of coverage,
conditions, Appointment Claim
amount of of distribution inception,
EXPENDITURE of the Educational Institutions premium, etc. of sales claim
channel, estimation,
soliciting claim
Operational Cost like teachers' salary, Building maintenance, for policy, settlement
Computer maintenance and internet charges. processing of and legal
applications, actions.
etc.
© ICAI BOS(A) 46
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Reconciliation of Cost and Financial Accounts Cost of Sales Selling & Distribution
Control A/c Overhead Control A/c
Non-integrated Accounting System
SEPARATE LEDGERS are maintained for both cost and
financial accounts.
INTEGRATED ACCOUNTING SYSTEM
ADVANTAGES
This system is also known as COST LEDGER
ACCOUNTING SYSTEM.
tNo need for reconciliation
tLess efforts
This system contain limited ACCOUNTS due to the tLess time consuming
exclusion of purchases, expenses and also Balance Sheet
items like fixed assets, debtors and creditors. tEconomical process
© ICAI BOS(A) 47
SARANSH Cost and Management Accounting
Procedure for Reconciliation Now, reconciliation between Financial and Cost Accounts can be
done by preparing RECONCILIATION STATEMENT as follows:
(Rs.) (Rs.)
3. Reconciliation of
both the profits Profit as per Cost Accounts 3,00,000
2. Ascertainment Add: Factory overheads over-absorbed
of profit as per (`5,00,000 – `4,50,000) 50,000
1. Ascertainment cost accounts
of profit as per
financial accounts Selling & Dist. Overhead over-absorbed
(`2,00,000 – `1,80,000) 20,000
© ICAI BOS(A) 48
SARANSH
© ICAI BOS(A)
4b Back Cover CMAx.pdf 1 26-06-2023 5.54.57 AM
COST AND
MANAGEMENT
ACCOUNTING
C
CM
MY
CY
CMY
www.boslive.icai.org
www.icai.org