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Hydrogen bond
Electrostatic attraction between the oxygen atom of one water molecule and the hydrogen of another water
molecule
Hydrophobic interaction: the tendency of nonpolar groups or molecules to aggregate in water solution.

Amphipathic: Both hydrophilic and hydrophobic

 Forms micelles (Hydrophobic tail inside, hydrophilic head outside)

 Many biomolecules are amphipathic; e.g Proteins, pigments, certain vitamins, and the sterols and
phospholipids of membranes all have polar and nonpolar surface regions

Osmosis is the passage of water from a region of high water concentration through a semi-permeable
membrane to a region of low water concentration.

The minimum pressure necessary to stop solvent transfer is called the osmotic pressure.

Biological Importance of Osmosis

1. Osmosis and dialysis are of prime importance in living organisms, where they influence the distribution of
nutrients and the release of metabolic waste products.
2. The process of osmosis and the factors that influence it are important clinically in the maintenance of
adequate body fluids and in the proper balance between volumes of extracellular and intracellular fluids.

3. Living cells of both plants and animals are enclosed by a semi permeable membrane called the cell
membrane, which regulates the flow of liquids and of dissolved solids and gases into and out of the cell.

4. If blood cells (or other cells) are placed in contact with an isotonic solution, they will neither shrink nor swell.
If the solution is hypertonic, the cells will lose water and shrink.

This spontaneous migration of a material from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration is called diffusion.

 Diffusion refers to the movement of a SOLUTE across a plasma membrane..

 Osmosis refers to the movement of WATER across a plasma membrane

 Water does the opposite of what a solute does in diffusion.

Biological Importance of Diffusion

Getting raw materials for respiration (gases: O2, CO2)

Absorption of nutrients (small molecules: glucose, amino acid, fatty acids) in the gut

Placenta : nutrients and O2, waste products

Nerve impulse: neurotransmitter

-Main transport

pH values in the cell and in the extracellular fluid are kept constant within narrow limits.

  In the blood, the pH value normally ranges only between 7.35 and 7.45.

  The pH value of cytoplasm is slightly lower than that of blood at 7.0–7.3.

  In lysosomes pH 4.5–5.5
 Extreme values are found in the stomach pH=2 and

 in the small bowel > 8.

  Since the kidney can excrete either acids or bases, depending on the state of the metabolism, the pH
of urine has a particularly wide range of variation 4.8– 7.5.
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pKa helps to understand the nature of acid and base like pH:

  pKa <2 --strong acid

 pKa >2 but <7 -- weak acid

 pKa >7 but < 10 -- weak base

  pKa >10 --strong base

5. Most drugs are either weak acids or weak bases. At the stomach pH (2), aspirin, a weak acid which has got a
pKa of 3.5 will be protonated (COOH) and uncharged. Uncharged drugs easily cross the membranes.
Three Major Buffer Systems

  Bicarbonate buffer : most important in blood.

  Cellular respiration produces CO2 as a waste product. This is

immediately converted to HCO3- in the blood.

  On reaching the lungs it is again converted to and released as CO2.

  While in the blood , it neutralizes acids released due to other metabolic processes.
  In the stomach and duodenum it also neutralizes gastric acids and stabilizes the intracellular pH of
epithelial cells by the secretions of HCO3- into the gastric mucosa.
Phosphate buffer system

 It operates in the internal fluids of all cells.

+
 It consists of dihydrogen phosphate ions as the H donor ( acid ) and hydrogen phosphate ion as the ion
acceptor ( base ) .

+
 If additional OH- enter the cellular fluid, they are neutralized by the dihydrogen phosphate ion. If extra H
enter the cellular fluid then they are neutralized by the hydrogen phosphate ion.
Protein buffer system

  Proteins are much more effective buffers in

intracellular medium.

  Helps to maintain acidity in and around the cells.

  Hemoglobin makes an excellent buffer by binding to small amounts of acids in the blood,
before they can alter the pH of the blood.

  Other proteins containing amino acid histidine are also good at buffering.

Importance of Buffers

 Buffers usually maintain the pH of the extracellular fluid between 7.35-7.45.

 The main purpose of all these buffers is to maintain proper pH within the body system so that all
biochemical process can take place.