‘From the Patusormoss. Macaninn for November 1918. On the Consitution of Atoms and Molecule By N. Boux, Dr. phil, Copenhagen. Parr I1—Svscems oowrarsma Szvmrat Nvout t- G1. Preliminary. CCORDING to Rutherford’s theory of the structure of atoms, the difference between an atom of an element and a molecule of a chomieal combination is that the first ‘consists of a cluster of elostrons surrounding single ‘positive nucleus of exceedingly small dimensions and of mass great in comparison with that of the electrons, while the latter contains ai loast two nuclei at distances from exch other comparable with the distances apart of the electrons in the surrounding cluster. "The leading idea used in the former papers vas that the atoms wore formed thrangh the successive binding by the nucleus of a number of electrons initially nearly ut rest + Communicated by Prof. B. Rutherford, ERS. [SSDS Sig ae ep to ads}858 Dr. N, Bohr on the Constitution Such a conception, however, cannot bo utilized in con~ sidering the formation of a system containing more than a single nucleus ; for in the latter case there will be nothing to Keep the nuclei together during the binding of the electrons, In this connexion it may be uotieed that while a single nucleus carrying a large positive charge is able to Lind 2 small number of electrons, on the eontrary, two nuclet highly charged obviously cannot be kopt together by the help of a few electrons. We must therefore assume that configurations containing several nuclet are formed by the interaction of systems—each containing a single mucleus— which slready have tound a auuber of electrons. $2 deals with the configuration and stability of a system already formed. We shall consider ony the simple ease of a system consisting of two nuclei and of a ring of electrons rotating round the line conne 3 the result of the caleulation, however, gives indication of what configurations are to be expected in more complicated eases. As in the former papers, we shall assume that the conditions of ‘equilibritan ean be deduced by help of the ordinary mechanics. In determining the absolute dimensions and the stability of ihe systems, however, we shall use the main hypothesis of Part L. According to this, the angular momentuin of every clectron round the centre of ils orbit is equal to a universal value jh whero fis Planck's constant; further, the slability is determined by the condition that the total energ of the aysten fs Tes ha in. any neighbouring configoraticn satisfying the sume condition of the ungular momentum of the electrons. ‘In §3 the configuration to be expected for a hydrogen molecule is discussed in some detail. § 4 deals with the mode of formation of the systems. A simple wvethod of procedure is indicated, by which it is possible to follow, step by step, the combination of two atoms to form a molecule, ‘Tho cenfiguration obtained will be shoven to satisfy the conditions used in § 2. The part played jin the considerations by the angular momentum of ‘the clectrons strongly supports the validity of the main bypo- thesis, $5 contains u few indications of the configurations to be expected for systems containing u greater number of slectrons. of Atoms and Molecules. 859 § 2. Configurations and Stability of the Systoms, Tot as considera sysiem consisting of tv, psiive mle of equal charges and a ring of eloctrons rotating round the Tine onneeting them, Let the number of electrons in the ring he n, the charge of an electron —e, and the charge on each nuclons Ne. As ean be simply shown, the system will Vo in equilibrium if the mucled are the distance apart from the plane of the ring and if the ratio between the dinmotor of the ring 24 and the sistance apart of the nuclei Db given by ' tae((HFay © provided that the frequeney of revolation w isof a magnitude such that for each of the electrons the centrifugal force halances the radial foree due to the attraction of the nuclei and the repulsion of the other electrons. Denoting this force by SF, we got from the condition of tho universal constancy ‘of the angular momentum of the electrons, as shown in Part IL. p. 478, on Are 9 Tam Pond o= FBP. . (2) The total energy necessary to remove all the charged partic to infinite distances from each other is equal to the total i) For the systom in question wo have Patil)’ © where a table of sis given in Part TI, on p. 482. ‘To test the stability of the system we have to consider displacements of the orbits of the electrons relative to the nuclei, and also displacements of the latter relative to each other. ‘A calculation based on the oréinary mechanics gives that.860 Dr. N, Bohr on the Constitution the systoms are unstable for displacements of the electrons in the plane of the ring. As for the systems considered in Part Hy wo: shal, however, assume that the ordinary rineiples of mechanies cannot be used in discussing the Problem in question, and thatthe stlility ofthe aystens for tho displacementa considered is secured through the in- troduction of the hypothesis of the universal constancy of the angular momientam of the electrons. ‘This assumption is included in the condition of stability stated in § 1. Itshould be noticed that in Part IL. the quantity F was taken as a coustant, while for the systems considored here, F, for fixed positions of the nuelef, varies with the radius of the ring. A simple ealeulation, however, similar to that given in Part IT. 41 p. 480, shows that the increase in the total energy of the system for a vaviation of the radius of the ring from @ to e+64, neglecting powers of Ba groater than the second, is given by a seam =m(4 FOE) (4) where T is the total kinetic energy and P the potential energy Ci he system, Since for fixed positions ofthe nuclei F increases for increasing (Fed for 20; P=2N ew for cia), the term depeadent on tho variation of F will bo ritive, and the system will eonsequently be stable Yor the Ligplacement in question. ‘From considertions exactly corresponding to those given in Part Il. on p. 481, wo get Tor the eonilion of stability for lisplicements of the electrons perpendicular to the ylane o€ the cing @>PmemPrm oe es “where pae—Pam has the samo signification as in Part TI, and G8: denotes the component, perpendicular to tho lane of the ring, of the foree due to the nuclei, which acts ‘pon one of thecleetvons inthe riog when it has suffered small displacement 82 perpendicular to the plane of the ring. As for the systems considered in Part IL, the dine placements eon be imagined to be produced by the effect of extraneous forees acting upon the elections in direction parallel to the axis of the system. For a system of two nuclei exch of charge Ne and with a ring of n electrons, we find =F)! AQ). of Atoms and Molecules. 861 By help of this expression and using the table for Pae~Pam given on p. 452 in Part TL, it can he simply shown tha ie system in question will not be stable unless N=1 and » equal to 2or3. In considering the stability of tho systems for a displace mont of the nuclei relative ‘to each other, we shall assume that the motions of the nuclei are so slow that the state of notion of the eleetrons at-any moment will not differ sensibly From that calcolated on the assumption that the nue Ab test, This assumption is peru great mass of the nuclei compared with that of the electrons, which involves that the ns resulting From x displ nent of the nuclet arv very slow eampared with those due to a displacement of the elecirons. Por a system consisting of 4 ring of electrons and two nucle of equil charge, we shall tins assume that the electrons at any moment daring. the displacement of the nuclei mova in circular orbits in the plano of symmetry of the latter. Tat us now iniagine that, hy help of extraneous forces acting on the nuclei, wo slowly vary the distance between thon. Daring the displacenient the radins of tho ring of ill’ vary in consequence of tho alteration of rulial force duo to the attraction of the nuclei. Daring this. variation the angular momentum of each of the olveteone road. the Tine connecting. the, nucld wil remain constant, IE the disiance apart of the nuclei inerenées, tho radius of the ring will obvionsly alsy ineruase: the radius, however, will increase at a sloscor rate than the distance between the nuclei. For example, imagine a dis placement in which the distance as well as the tadins are both increased to « times their original value. In the now configuration the radial foreo acting on an electron from the le on acount of the nuclei and the other electrons is 5 times that in the original configuration. From the vonstaney of the angular mo- mentnin of the electrons during the displacement, it further follows that tho velocity of the elvetrons in the new co figuration is * times, and the contifugal fore E timosthat in the original. Consequently, the radial force is greater than the eontrifugal fore. On account of the distance between the nuclel iucrensing faster than the radius of the ving, the attraction om ome ofthe anced duo to the ring willbe greater than the repulsion from the other nuclons, ‘he work done daring the displacement by the extraneous frees acting on the nucle! will therefore862 Dr. N. Bole on the Constitution te prstiv, and. tho aystom will be stable for the daylace- then Obviously the game result yl hold in the ote of the latancobetwoun the ouelet diminishing, It muy bo noticed that in the above considerations we have not made tne of any new unouapiin on tho dyzauie of the electrons, Dat have only used the principle of the invariance of the ‘epulsr meas, whl ay mechanics and for the main hypothesis of § 1. For a system consisting of a ting of electrons and two null of Seogual cara, tho aveatguian of di stably te Toor coupletol. "Ad talure, we fia thes the systems are Away sable for diplacentais of tho electrons jn tha plane of the ring ; ulso an expression corresponding to (5) will hold for Un etiition of stability for diplgeonents perpendicular tarde ple of the ring iy eagle, however, will not Bresutctent to secure to stability af the syst, Rar ae plcoinent ofthe clecose perpeiicular & te plano af the ing, the variation of the radial forew due to the nuclei will hw ef thy same order of magnitade as the displacement ; Ueetare, inte sew coulgurdtin the radial (toe will wot he in equilibrinur with the coutsifugal force, and, if the raslius of the orbits is varied until the radial equilibrium is Teatoredy the ‘energy of tho rystom will deetease, This CGroumslance muutéve tukew into uecount in applying. the camditon ot ality of §1., Sinilur complica ae the calculation vf stability for displwcements of the nucl fora variation of te disiance wjart af the nisl ot 6 will ie a of the ving vary but also ihe lig in whi Me tlline of the ring divties de lie sauneeting the nocd ha conoyienes te Cll lincusion OE tho. genset area i Fatlet lig fag pprotinnie’‘mumerfel.ealeuation, However, slows Gat dj tytons, ae fa the forwer ew, will he unstuble unless the charges on the nuclei areswall and the Hig coafalin any or ato "Tae alovaconshlrations anggert configuration of systems, consisting of two positive nueiel and a number of electrons, which are consistent with the arrangement of the electrons io bo veposiod In anadjlovot chewtalconiiutions, IF me thas covsidur a, uoutral ayatom confuning two nuclel with pret charger, i allows tha. ina. slable configuration the reat put of th elctrons ust be arranged aroun each cleus approsinuiely api the other nuclena were tent and that only a tew of the outer electrons will be a ierenly rating ina ting round tho Hing connect nasleh, ‘The latter ring, which keeps tho system together, represuts th ebonieal bond,” is common both for the ord of Atoms and Molecules, 883. AA first rongh approximation of the possible configuration of such a ring ean be obtained by considering simple systems consisting of a single ring rotating round the ling connecting: two nuclet of minute dimensions, A detailed discussion, howover, of the configuration of systems containing a grester number of electrons, taking the effect of inncr rings ‘nto account, involves elaborate numerical ealealations. Apart. from a few indications given in § 5, wo shall in this paper confine ourselves to system con'aining very fow electrons, §.3. Systems containing few Electrons, Phe Hydrogen “iolecle ‘Among the systoms considered in §2 ani found to be stable the, system formed of a ring of two electrons and of two nuclei of charge e is of spevial interest, as it, according: to the theory, may be expected to representa neutral hydrogen molecule. ‘Denoting the radius of the cing hy a and the distances apart of the nuclei from the plare of the ring by & we get from (1), putting N=I and n=2, 1 b= yas vs 1-039. From (2) and (3) we get, denoting as in Part IT. the values of «, a, and W for a system eorsisting of a single electron rotating round a nucleus of charge e (a hydrogen atom) by 4, and Woy ay OATH, = W= 220 Woe Since W>2Wo, it folloms that two hydrogen atoms couiline into a molecule with emission of energy. Pattinge W,=20. 10-! erg (comp. PartII. p, 488) and N=6-2.. 10 where N is the number of molecnles in.a gram-mnolecale, we gol for the energy emitted daring the formation ofa gram mnolecula of hydrogen from hydrogen atoms (W—2W,)N S08, bichSccresponds to €0. 408 ea, This ee is of the right order of magnitude; it is, however, con- siderably loss than the valve 13 -10* cal. found by Langmuir * by measuring the heat conduction through the gas from an incandescent wire in hydrogen. On account of tho indirect ‘#1, Langmuis, Jourp, Amer. Chem. Soo, xzxiv.p. 800 (1812).864 Dr. N. Bobr on the Constitution method employed it seems difficult to estimate the accuracy to be ascribed to tho latter value. In order to bring the theoretical value in agreement with Langmuir’s value, the magnitude of the angular momentum of the electrons stionld ‘be only 2/3 of that adopted ; this seems, however, dificald to reconcile with che agecement ublained ou other points. From (6) we got G vibration of the axis of the syst 125. For the frequency of fhole ring in the direction parallel to the n we get 610,=3'8. 10" 1/sc0. Wa haveassuuad in Part I.and Part TT. that the froqneney ‘and corresponding 1 vibrati vf the ring cannot be calculated from the ordinary mechunies, but is determined by the relation kv=E, where h is Plancl’s constant, and E the difference in energy between two different stationary states of the system, Siuco we have secn in § 2 that a con figuration consisting of two nuclei and a single electron relating round the line between them is unstable, we may assume that the removing of one of the elvetcons will Tead fo the breaking up of the molecule into a single nucleus and a hydrogen atom, Tf we consider the latter state as one of the stationary states in question we get B=W-W=120W,, and 9 3:7. 10! Ico. ‘The value for the frequency of the ultra-violet absorption Tine in hydrogen caleulited from experiments on dispersion isy=3%5,10 Ljsee.* Further, a calculation from such expe= ments based on Drude’s theory givesa value near two for the numbor of electrons in a hydrogen molecule. |The latter result, might have connexion with the fact that the Frequencies calculated above for the radiation absorbed corresponding to vibrations parallel and perpendicular to the plane of the ring are nearly equal. As mentioned in Part IL, the number of electrons in a helium atom ealculated from’ experiments on dispersion is only about 2/3 of the nuruber of electrons to be expected in the atom, vig. two. Fora helium atom, as for a hydrogen molecal, the feguency determined by the rslaton JE agrees lossy. with the troqueney observed from dispersion ; in the helium system, however, the frequency + ©, and M, Cuthbertson, Proe, Roy. Soc. lnxxii. p. 151 (1910). of Atoms and Molecules 885 corresponding to vibrations perpendienlar to the plane of the ring is more than threo times as great as the frequency in question, and consequently of negligible influence on the dispersion. ‘In order to determine tho frequency of vibration of the system corresponding to displacement of the nuclei relative to each other, let us consider a configurction in whieh the radius of the ting is equal to y, and the distance apart of tho nuclei 22, The radial force acting on one of the electrons and due to the attraction from tie nuclei and the repulsion from the other elect Lot_ns now consider a slow displacement of the system daring which the radial forces balances the centritugal Fores ne to the rotation of the electrons, and tho angular momen= tum of the latter remains constant, Putting R= or, we have seen on p.-859 that the railins of the ring. is inversely proportional to F. ‘Thersfore, during the displacement. con- fered, Ry! remains constant. This gives by differentiation (By! + 32y¢a? (2? + y?)8)dy —B4ry'de = 0. Introducing «= and y=a, we got ‘The force acting on one of the clei ue to the attraction from the ting and the repulsion from the other nucleus is Bee a OF For 2=), y=a this Force is equal to 0. Corresponding toa small displacement of the system for which w=abde wo got, using the above value for 4 and a le potting Q= 4 H8e, nen (-i) For the frequency of vibration corresponding to the dis placement: in question we get, denoting the mass of one of “515.866 Dr. N. Bobe on the Constitution the nuclei by Mt, roe wz = 2885 and «, HS, = L320y 52.10", we get 91.10%, Putting ‘This frequency is of tho sume onler of magnitude as that calculated by Biustein’s theory trom the variation of the specific head of hydrogen gus with temperature*. On the other hand, no absorption of radiation ir, hydrogen ts corresponding to this frequeney is observed. This is, Frowever, just whit we should expect on cov of t ayinmutrical structure of tho system and the great rati etwas the frequencies corresponding to displacements af the electrons and of the nuclei. ‘The vomplete absence of fracred absorption in hydrogen gus inight be considered as fa strong argument in support of a constitution of a hydrogen molecule like that adopted here, compared with’ mode folevules in which the chemical Lond is assumed to have origin in an opposite charge of the entering atoms, ‘As will be shown in §-5, the frequency calculated above ‘can bo used to estimate the frequency of vibration of more Songlicated systems for which ay hired absorption is observed. The conliguration of two nuclei of charge ¢ an a ring of threo electrons rotating between them will, as mentioned’ in § 2, also be stable for displacements of the electrons perpen Gieular to the plane of the ring, A calculation gives # oss, G= 06%, und F= 0879; and Farther, a= Hay, = 0TIn, W =252Wo Sinco W is greater than for the system consisting of two nucle’ and two electrons, the systein in question may be eon= Sidered as ropresenting a negatively charged hydrogen mclecule. Proof of the existence of such a system bs been obtained by Sir J.J. Thomson in his experiments on positive rays t. NK fystem consisting of two nuclei of ege eand a single © Seo N, Bjerrum, Zitsohr. f- Blekirockem, xvii, p. 781 (1911); xviii p. 101 (1919) SET. Tuowson, Phil, Meg. xxiv p. 253 (1912). of Atoms and Molecules. 867 lactron rotating in a circular orbit round the line connecting the nucle, is unstable for a displacement of th “elvetron perpendietlar to its orbit, since in the configuration of tbrium G<0. explanation of the appearance of ely charged hydrogen molecules in experiments on positive mays may therefore at first sight be considered as serious diffiulty for the present. theor possihle ex planation, however, might be sought in i (conditions tinder which tho systems are observed. We are probably aealing in ah a so not with tho formation of xia system by a regnlar interaction of systoms containing sinyle Thole (ae the next section, ha rather with w delay in. tho Uveaking up of a configuration bronght about. by the surlden noval of one ofthe electrons by impactaf a single particle. ‘Another stable eonfigaration containing a few electrons ix ono consisting of a ring of three electrons and two nuclei uf charges ¢and 2c. A numerical calculation gives b by ous7, F= 1552 L4is, where a is the “adius of the ring and by and ty the distances apart of the nuclei from the plane of the ring. By help of (2) and (3) we Further get a= 84a, @= 24a, W=722Wo, where @ is the frexueney of revolation and W the total nergy necessary to remove the particles to infinite distances Tn spite of the faet that W ir than ‘ot W for a hydrogen atoin (W,-+6'13Wy; comp. Part LL, p,489), tho configuration in question cannot, ns will be shown in the noxt section, by goasiderol to represent posible oleate of hydrogen sud ‘The vibration of the system corresponding to a disphice- ment of the nuclei relative to each other shows features different from the system consideral above of to muelei of charge ¢ and two electrons. If, for example, the distance etsreen the muted is incrensed, the ring of electrons will approach the nucleus of charge 2e. Conseqnently, the nffraton mast beexpetel lobe connosied witha abortion of radiation. § 4. Formation of the Systems. ‘As mentioned in § 1, wo cannot assumo that systems con taining more than one nucleus are formed by successive binding of clectrons, such as we have assumed for the868 Dr. N. Bohr on the Constitution systems considered in Part 11. Wo must assure that the systems are formed by the interaction of others, containing Single nuclei, which already have bound electrons. We I now consider this problem wore eloscly, starting with the simplest possible ease, vies, the combination of wo hydrogen atoms to form a molecule, two hydrogen atoms ata distance apart great in comparison with the Linear dimeusions of the orbits of the electrons, and imagine that by belp of extrancous forces acting on the nuclei, we mtke these approach exch other ; the disphicements, however, being 0 slow that the dynamical equilibrium of the electrons for every position of the nuclei is the sume as if the latter were at rest. Suppose that the electrons originally rotate in parallel planes perpendicular to the straight. line connecting the uclei, ind that the direction of rotation is the same and the difference in phase equal to half u revolution, During the approach of the nuclei, the direction of the planes of the orbits of the electrows and the differene in phase will be unaliered, ‘The planes of the orbits, however, will at the nuing of the process ajproach each other xt a higher rate than do the nucle’. By the continued displacement of the lutter the planes of the orbits of the elesteons will fpproach evel oder more and mores util finaly for aya ofthe lel the’ planes wil oie ing aevanged in.a single ring rotaiing in the plane of symmetry of the nuclei. During the lurther ap- Jproach of the nuclei the ratio betweon tho diameter of the ing of electrons and the distinc» apart of the nuclel wil ease, and the system will pass through a configuration in which i¢ will be in equilibrium without the application af extraneous forees on the nuclei By help of eulculation similar to tut indicated in § 2, it can be simply shown that moment during this process. the tion of the electrons is stable For a displacement perpendicular to the plane of the orbits. In addition, during the whole operation the angular momentum cf each Of the electrons round the liue eounecting, the nuclei ‘will remain constant, and the configuration of equilibrium cbiained will therefore be identical with the one adopted in §3 for w hydrogen molecule, As there shown, the € I correspond to a siualler value for the total energy than the one corresponding to two isolated atoms. process, the forces between the particles of the therefore have done work against the extraneous fact may be expressed Ly of Atoms and Molecules, 869, saying that the aloms have “altriod” ach other du the combination,” A closer eafeulation shows that for any distance apart of to uncle greater than. that corresponding to the configaration of equilibrinin, tho foroas acting on the nuclide to the particles of the system, will be in such Airection as to diminish the distaneo between, the nucle while for any smaller distance the forces will have. the opposite direction, By means of thoeo considerations, posible process is indigalod forthe ‘combination of tio Hydrogen atoms to forma riolecnlo.” This opération ean be followed. step by stop withont. introducing. any new assunyption. on the dynamics “of the electrons, and. leads 10 tho. same eon figuration adopted in § 3 for'a hydrogen molecule. Ii may bo recalled that the latter configuration was deduced directly by help of the principal hypothesis of the universal consiane of the angular momenta. of the electrons, ‘These com, fiderations aso offer an oxplanstion of the “affinity * of two Boms. Tt may be remarked that the assumption in regard tothe owner of the nation of the nuh relive to thowe af tho electrons is satisiod toa high degree of approxtiation in a eallision between {wo atoms of agus at ordinary fem Heras In sing all, Srangcnnt a the eclrong at Hho hoglantog of the procem tery lidle infor= aon, Kowsrer, Wobteined by thie metiod of the chanca of combination due fo an arbitrary collision between tio atoms "Another way in which a neutral hydrogen molecule may be formal is by the combination ofa positively anda negatively charged stom. According to the theory s positively shared hydrogen atom ie simply a nucleus of sanshing dimensions and of charge e, while neyatively charged atom isa systom Consisting of a nocloas surrounded by a ring of two electrons, ‘Ax shown in Part TL, the latter nytlom nay bo considered as possible, since the energy emitied by the formation of it is greater than the corresponding, energy for a neutral hydrogen atom, "Let us now imagine tat, by a slow dis- placement. of tho nucle, as before, a negatively an a Positively charged. atom combine, "We must assuie, tht, ‘when the nucle! have approached a distaneo equal to that in the contignration adopied. for a hydrogen molecule, the cleoteons will be arringed inthe ane way, sinea this isthe only stalle confgaration for this distance in which thy angolar momentum of the electrons has the value prescribed iy the theory. The slate of motion of the electrons will, however, not vary in a continuoas way with the displacement870 Dr. N. Bobr on the Constitution of the nuclei as in the combination of two neutral atoms. For a certain distance apart of the nuclei the configuration of the electrons will be unstable and suddenly change by a finite amount ; this is immediately deduced from the fact that the motion of the electrons by the combination of two ential hydrogen tous eaasideted abuve, pisses through an uninterrupted series of stable eouligurations. ‘The. work thon by the system aginst he esteimeos forees acting on the nell il user in the ease of dhe combination of « negatively and a positively charged atom, not be equal to the ATiforone in energy. bobween the oxigiutl nt the ial one figuration ; but in passing through the unstable configurations 1 tudiation of energy must be einitted, corresponding to that ceitted during the binding. uf electrous by a single nucleus and considered in Parts I. and I. ‘On the above view, it follows that in the breaking up of a hydrogen molecule by slowly increasing the distance apart Of the nuclei, we obtain two neutral bydrogen atoms and not 1 positively anda negatively charged one.” This is in agree- ‘ment with deductions drawn from experiinents on positive “Nest imagine iat instead of two hydrogen atoms we eon sider tivo helium atoms, é e, systems consisting of a nucleus Of chatye 2e surrounded by x ring of two electrans, and go througli « similar process to that cousidered on p. 868, Assume Chat the lielinm atoms at the beginning of the operation are orientated relatively to each other like the hydrogen atoms, but with the exception that the phases of tire electrons in the helium atoms differ by one quarter of revolution instead of one balf revolution ‘as in the case of hydrogen. By the displicement of the nuclei, the planes of thw rings of electrons will, as in the former ¢ase, approneh each oiler at « higher rate than the mucle, and for a certain josition of the latter the plunes will coineide, During the Eirther approach of the nuclei, the electrons will bo arranged at equal angular intervals ina Single ring. As in the fori ‘cate itcan be shown thatat any monvent during this operation the system will be stable for a displacement. of the electron perpendicular to the plane of the rings, Contrarr, however, to what took place in the ease of hydrogen, the extraneous Forees to be applied to the nuclei in order to keep the system in equilibrium will always be in a direction to diminish the distance apart of the nuclei sind the system will never pass through & configuration of equilibrium ; the helium at Comp. J. . Thomson, Phil. Mag. xxiv. p, 948 (1912), of Atoms and Molecules. sit will, daring the process, “sepel ench other. ‘The con ileraion elfers an explanation of the refusal of helium toms to combine inlo molecules by a elose approach af the atoms Thsieat of two hydrogen or two helium atoms, next cone sider a hydrogen ‘anda. helium atom, and let us slowly Approach the nuclei to cach other in a similar way, Tn this caus, contrary tothe former cases, tho electrons will uve no fondency to How together th m single ring, On account. of the great difference in the radi of tho orbtis of the electrons in hydrogen and hulium, the eletron of the hydrogen ator mul xed tlie alas ule the heli ring. nuit the nucle are brought very close topethor, the eon fyuration af the electrons will coincide with that adopted in Part Th for lithium alow, Farther, the exieuncony forces to be applied to the naclet during the process will be in such 2 diveation as to diminish the distanee apart. In this way, therefore, we cannot obtain a combination of the atoms. The sn cmgaron comer fn §3, rosin of ring of threo ‘lecttons and two nucle! of charge e and 2 carat ba axpoctod to be formed by sili s proves, ie HE Of eleotenigydve, Moab begially: rae aE ys hncle,” Neither hydrogen nor a helium nucleus wil, Towever, be able to bind w ring of three electrons, since such configaration wonld correspond to. greator total energy than tt-onoin which the nucleus has bound two electeons (comp, Part TI. pp. 488 and 400). As mentioned in §3, such 2 cou guration vannot therefore be conwllerd ae representing a posse combination af hydrogen ‘and heliam, in spite of the fact that the value of Wis greater than the sum of the values of Wfor a bydrogen and. heliam atom. As we shall see in the next seetion, the configuration may, however, ive indications of the possible structure of the niclecules of f certain class of chemical combinations. § 5. Systems containing a greater mmber of Electron From the considerations of the former section we are led to indications of the configuration of the electrons in systems containing a greater number of electrons, consistent with those obtained in § 2 Tet ns imagine that, in a iddered on p. 868 for two hydrogen atoms, we make to atoms eo taining a large nuinber of electrons approach each othe During the feginning of the proces the elect on tho eo figuration of the inner rings will be very small compared with tho effect on the electrons in the outer rings, and the872 Dr. N. Bohr on the Consti'ution final result will mainly depend on the number of electrons these rings. If, for example, the outer ting in both atom contains only one eleciron, we may expect that during the approach these two electrons will form i single ring asin the cease of hydrogen. By a further approach of the nucle, the system wil arriveat a state of equilibsium before the distance part of the nuclei is eomparable with the radi of the inaer Tings of electrons, IE the distance he decrease still further, the repulsion of the auclei will predominate and tend to prevent an approach of the systems. Tin this way we are led to a possible configuration of a molecule of 3 combination of two monovalent substance — suchas HICI—in which the ring of electrons representing the chemical bond is arranged in a similar way to. that tiolecule, Since, however, as lroxen, tho energy emitted by a combination of the atoms is only small part of the kinetic energy of the outer electrons, we may expect tht small differences i configuration of the ring, due to the presence of inner rings of electrons in the atoms, will be of great influence on the heat of combination aul evusequently ‘on the affinity of the sulstances. As mentioned in §2, a detailed discussion of these questions involves elaborate mimorical ealeulations. ‘We may, however, make an approsinaite comparison of the theory with sxporinent, by considering the Frequency. of vilrration of the two atoms in the molecule relative to each other. In §3, p.866, we have calculated this frequency for a hydrogen molecule. "Since now the binding of the atoms ix assumed to be similar to tut in hydrogen, ibe frequency of tmother miolecule ean be simply culeulated i we know the ratio of the mass of the nuclei to be that of a hydrogen hnucleus. Denoting the frequency of a hydrogen inolecule tiyscand the atomie weights of tho substances entering. in the combination in question by Ay and Ag respectively, we get for tho frequency If the two atoms are identical the molecule will be exactly symmetrical, and we cannot expect an absorption of radiation Corresponding to. the frequency in question (comp. p, 866). Yor HCl gas un infra-red absorption band corresponding toa Frequency of ubout 5.10" is observed *. Putting in the above formula Ay=1 and A,=35 and using the value for vy © Seo H., Kayser, Hand d, Spectr. ip. 806 (1905). of Atoms and Molecules. 873. on p. 866, wo got y=13°7.10, On account af the approxi- imation introaced the agreement may be considered as satisfactory. ‘The molecules in 4} y combination of a positively and a negatively charged ‘atom, ‘Ruin ho cateot hyLieogen, howevvr, weal expeet to chin two neutral ators by the breaking up of the molecule. "There nay he another typeof molevnle, for which thisdoes not hol, "molecules which urs formed in a manner analogous te 1 consisting of a ring of three wleetrons and two the necessiry conition for the formation ‘of a eonfigairation of this kind is that one of the atoms in the ioleente is able to bind three elecirons in the outer ring ‘According to the theary, this eondition is not satisfied fo liydrogenor 1 helium stom, but isforan oxygen atom, With the symbols used in Pact Th. the configcration sugested for the oxygen atom was given by 8.2.2). From acaleulation, as that indicated in Part IL, we get for this configuration 28-07 W,, while for the configuration 8 (1.2.3) we get 25-18 Wo. Since the latter value for W is greater than the frst, the configuration 8 (3.2.8) may be considered 15 possible anil as representing an oxygen atom with a single nogutive charge. IE nowa hyslragen nuctens approaches the system 8 (4.2,3) we may expect a. stable configuration to he formed in whieh the outer electrons will he arranged appre mately ax in the system mentioned above, Ina breakinge up of this contigaration the ring of three rlectrons will in with the oxygen atom. ations suggest a possille configuration for a esd oi the axis of the ring at equal distanees apart from the first nmelens and kept in equilibrium by help of two. rings of greater radius each containing three electrons; the lntter ate in parallel planes round the wxis of the system, and are sitnatod.telatively to each other so that the electrons in tho fon ting are placed just opposite the interval between the tlvetrons in the other. IF we iniagine that sich 9 system ix Token up by slowly removing the hydrogen nnclet we shonld obtain two positively charged hyilrogen atoms andan oxygen ttom with a double negative charge, in which the outermost tleetrons will be arranged in two ‘rings af thrve electr each, rotating in parallel planes. ‘The assumption of such a configuration for a water wioleenin offers a possible explanation of the great absorption of water for rays in the sion maysik Dr. N, Bohe on the Constitution infra-red and for the high value of ils specific inductive Mtn i preeeding we Inve only considered hich n the preceding we have only considered systems which possess an axis of symmetry around which the electrons are assumed to rotate in eirealar orbits, Tn systems such as the clecule CH, we eannot, however, assumie the existence of am axis of syibmeity, unl consequently we must in such cases init the assumption of exactly circular orbits, "The con- figuration. suggested by the theory for a molecuie of CH, is of the ordinary tetrahedron type} the earbon aucleus eur rowided hy « very stnall ring of vo eleetrons being situated in the contre, and a hydrogen nucleus it every eorier. The heimical bonds are represented hy 4 ringsof 2 electrons each rotating, round the lies vomuegting ‘the contre and. the comers, ‘The closer discussion uf such questions, however, is fur out of the range of the present theory Concluding remarks, inversely us the square of the distince apart, In order to th cottasous Say antrsed ithe clu lecredgrages but only during the pussing of the systems between different, of Atoms and Molecules, 815 ‘That the radiation emitted during the transition of a aystam between two stutionary states is homogencous, and that the relation between the frequency » and the’ total amount of energy emitted is given by H= fi, where ih is Plane''s constant, . 4. That the diffevent stationary sates of a simple system consisting of an electron rotating round a positive micleus are determined hy the condition that the ratio between the total energy, emitted during the formation of the configura tion, and tho frequency of revolution of the electron is an entice mnltiplo of 4, Assuming thst the orbit of the electron is cireular, this assumption is equivalent with the assumption that the angalar momentum of the electron round ‘te nucleus is equal to an entire multip.e of 3. 5, That the * parmanent ” slate of any atomiesystem—i.é the state in which the energy emitted i -maximam—is determined by the condition that the angular momentum of h every electron round the centre of its arbit is equal to. 5 i is shown that, applying these assumptions to Rutlierford’s atom miele is pore to secount Tor the laws of Balser and Itydherg connecting. the frequenicy of tho different lines in the line-spectrum of an element. Further, outlines aro given of a theory of the constitution of the atoms of the clanents and of the formation of molecules of chemical combinations, which on several points is shown to bo in approximate agreement with experiments. "he intimate connexion between the present theory and modern theories of the radiation from a hack body and of specific beat is ovident ; again, since on the ordinary electro (iynamies tho magnetic moment. due to an electron rotating, jn a circular orbit is proportional to the angular momentum, wwe shall expect a eloso relation to tho theory. of magnetons wroposed by Weiss. ‘The developmentof a detailed theory of heat radiation and of magnetism on the basis of the present theory claims, however, the introduction of adi a sumptions ahout the behaviour of hound electrons in an electromagnetic field. The writer hopes to return to these questions later.