IGCSE RS

Paper 1: Beliefs and Values

Section 2: Life and Death

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In this Section, you will cover the following topics:

2.1 Death and Life after Death

• Christian beliefs / teachings about heaven and hell, judgement, resurrection and the Last
Judgement.

2.2 The Meaning and Purpose of Life

• Christian beliefs / teachings about eternal life, the kingdom of God, salvation, Jesus as lord
and saviour and how salvation may be achieved with particular reference to the grace of
God, faith, worship and love.
• Salvation through faith versus work.

2.3 Sanctity of Life, Abortion and Euthanasia

• Christian beliefs / teachings about the sanctity of life, the particular value of human life
• The importance of relieving suffering
• Euthanasia
• Abortion

2.4 Human Relationships

• Christian beliefs / teachings about the principles of relationships with particular reference to
Christian teaching about love.
• Sexual relationships – Christian teachings about the nature and importance of sexual
relationships
• Different Christian teachings and attitudes towards sexual relationships outside of marriage
and homosexuality
• Different atheist and Humanist attitudes to sexual relationships and Christian responses to
them.

2.5 Marriage and Partnership

• Christian beliefs / teachings about marriage and its purposes with particular reference to
marriage vows and the principle of monogamy.
• Attitudes to cohabitation and same-sex marriage

2.6 Divorce and Remarriage

• Christian beliefs / teachings about annulment, divorce and remarriage

2.7 Family Structures and Responsibilities

• Christian beliefs / teachings about family life and its importance.

• Ways in which Christian communities help to sustain family life, support the upbringing of
children and keep families together, particularly through local churches.

2.8 Childlessness and Celibacy

• Christian beliefs / teachings about childlessness, genetic engineering, contraception and

celibacy including reasons for and against it.

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 2.1 Death and Life after Death

In this part of the Section, you will consider the following issues:

• Religious and non-religious beliefs/ teachings and (differing) views about death and human
destiny.

• Whether or not there is an afterlife.

• Why some people believe in an afterlife, while others do not.

• Religious beliefs/ teachings about the nature of life after death.

• Linear and cyclical views of human existence.

• Immortality of the soul, resurrection, rebirth and judgement.

• The law of cause and effect in relation to life after death.

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Non-Religious Views on Death and Human Destiny

Our understanding of what happens after death is very much dependent on our conception of the
essential elements that constitute the human being. In the philosophical world there are two main
views: physicalism and dualism.

Physicalism

Physicalism regards each person only as a living, physical body. Thought,

spirituality, feelings and emotions result from the psycho-chemical reactions
in our brains. Hence, we do not have minds as such rather we are capable of
thought because of the physical functions of our brains. Consequently, when
our brains slow down, malfunction or deteriorate we lose the ability to think
or react in the normal way; we lose our ‘minds’.

Physicalism holds that there is no scientific evidence for a soul or a mind; a

person is composed of matter alone. Hence, death marks the end of the
physical body and all thoughts, spirituality, emotions and feelings which arise
from the functioning of that body. Death marks the end of an individual’s
existence; there is no afterlife!

Dualism

Dualists believe that the human being is composed of a body and a soul. These two components are
distinct entities but yet united. The soul is regarded as being of a higher level than the body. The body
will eventually decay and cease to exist (it is contingent), whilst the soul is associated with higher
spiritual and rational realities and it will survive. Hence, dualists believe in the immortality of the soul.

Plato (c.428-c.348) was a dualist. He regarded the body as in a constant state of change and
impermanence and as such it belongs to the sensible world or the realm of becoming. This realm is
fluid and dynamic and as a result, it cannot provide true or permanent knowledge. The soul, on the
other hand, is a simple entity and thus, it cannot be broken down into smaller parts or decay. It
provides permanence because of its immortality and access to the stable realm of being. Hence, it is
through the soul that a person has access to truth, beauty
and knowledge.

Indeed, Plato regarded the body as imprisoning the soul.

At death, he argued, the soul would be released from its
prison to experience the realm of being. Hence, dualists
like Plato think there is the possibility of life after death;
the immortal soul continues to exist once the body has
died.

Non-Religious Arguments Against Life After Death

Atheists and Humanists tend not to believe in life after death. Rather, they believe people, just like
plants and other animals, cease to exist when they die. The main reason why they hold this view is
because there is simply no evidence to support a belief in a post-mortem existence.

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According to atheists and Humanists, the evidence offered by Christians to support their claim of an
after-life is suspect. It is based on the teachings found in the Bible, for which there is no reliable way
to determine if it is the word of God. Similarly, the resurrection of Jesus cannot be verified and thus,
it does not prove a life after death.

They also find the evidence offered by near death experiences, spiritualism and reincarnation
unreliable. There are other plausible explanations for near death experiences, e.g. it is simply the brain
trying to deal with a traumatic situation. Mediums who claim to be able to speak with departed spirits
may be exploiting the bereaved. Indeed, many mediums have been exposed as frauds. Investigations
into the evidence offered by those who claim to have remembered lives have exposed it to have been
seriously flawed in some respect.

Hence, for many atheists and Humanists that whilst a belief in an after-life may be a source of comfort
to many people, there is no factual evidence to support it. Indeed, they
may argue that much of what we have learnt about human physiology,
particularly the brain, points to the unlikelihood of the soul or mind
being able to survive the death of the body. Even if the soul or mind
does continue to exist after death, it would not have the means by
which to recognise or even communicate with other minds/ souls.

Some atheists and Humanists have regarded the belief in life after
death to be a form of social control. Karl Marx (1818-1883), whilst
acknowledging it brought comfort to many people who had miserable
lives, regarded belief in an after-life as a kind of drug that stunted their
ability to improve their current situation.

Reasons Why Some Non-Religious People Believe in an Afterlife

Some non-religious people do not think death marks an end to our existence. These non-religious
people are more likely to be dualists and believe that the soul is naturally immortal. They may use
Platonic thought to substantiate this view and they could appeal to evidence from parapsychology to
justify their claim that a post-mortem existence is likely:

• Near Death Experiences: these experiences happen when people

are clinically dead for a period of time before coming back to life.
The experiences are often described as peaceful and joyful in
which the person is briefly reunited with dead relatives and
friends and/ or they enter another world. Doctors like Sam Parnia
and Pim van Lommel are currently researching this phenomenon.
• Spiritualism: People who claim to have seen a ghost or spoken to
the spirits of dead people through an Ouija board suggest that
there is an afterlife. Mediums claim to have the gift of
communicating with the dead providing a link between the
material and spirit worlds.

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 • Reincarnation (Remembered Lives): There have been a number of cases of children saying
they can remember living in a different house with other parents and family members as well
as recalling how they died. For some people, these remembered lives point to the
reincarnation of the soul.

Some non-religious people may believe in an after-life because it gives their lives meaning and
purpose. It also provides them comfort when a loved one dies. Furthermore, the possibility of an
afterlife provides an opportunity to satisfy their sense of justice; the next life may ensure the good are
rewarded and the wicked are punished.

Work:

1. If there is an afterlife, what do you think continues to exist?

2. Identify three reasons why non-religious people do not believe in an afterlife. [3]

3. Explain why some non-religious people believe in an afterlife. [6]

4. ‘The notion of an afterlife is pure fantasy’. Evaluate this statement. [12]

Reasons why Christians Believe in an Afterlife

Christian beliefs about life after death are based on the teachings and
the resurrection of Jesus. Christians believe Jesus’ death on the cross
pays the penalty for human sin enabling the relationship between God
and humanity to be restored (atonement).

Three days after Jesus was buried, he rose from the dead and appeared
to his disciples. This victory over sin and death means that whilst we
continue to experience physical death, those who believe in Christ and
live good lives may be rewarded with eternal life in heaven. The
experience of the after-life begins with judgement, during which God
decides whether the person should be punished with hell or rewarded
with heaven.

The evidence for this belief in the after-life comes mostly from the Bible. In John’s Gospel and Paul’s
letters we are told that the purpose of Jesus is to save humanity from sin to enable people to overcome
death and experience eternal life with God the Father.

For God so loved the world that he gave his only Son, so that everyone who believes in him may not perish
but may have eternal life. John 3:16

But God, who is rich in mercy, out of the great love with which he loved us even when we were dead through
our trespasses, made us alive together with Christ - by grace you have been saved - and raised us up with
him and seated us with him in the heavenly places in Christ Jesus, Ephesians 2:4-6

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During the course of his teaching ministry, Jesus frequently promised his disciples they would
experience eternal life if they believed in him.

Jesus said to her, “I am the resurrection and the life. Those who believe in me, even though they die, will live,
and everyone who lives and believes in me will never die. Do you believe this?” John 11:25-26

Towards the end of Jesus’ earthly ministry, he died and rose from the dead. All four Gospels record
Jesus was crucified and buried in a stone tomb. They also describe how some of his female disciples
visited the tomb on Sunday morning and found it empty. Later, Jesus is described appearing to his
disciples on several occasions. The resurrection of Jesus points to life after death. Indeed, St Paul
claims that we too will experience a resurrection like Jesus.

So it is with the resurrection of the dead. What is sown is perishable, what is raised is imperishable. It is
sown in dishonor, it is raised in glory. It is sown in weakness, it is raised in power. It is sown a physical body,
it is raised a spiritual body. If there is a physical body, there is also a spiritual body. 1 Corinthians 15:42-44

Christians may also appeal to the doctrine of creation found in Genesis to support their belief in an
after-life. Genesis describes God giving Adam the breath of life. Consequently, many Christians believe
people are composed of a body and soul. They believe this soul to be immortal; when a person dies,
the soul continues to exist with God.

Christian Beliefs about Life after Death

Eschatology is the study of Christian teachings about the End Time and the
after life. The basis of most of these teachings come from the apocalyptic
teachings in the Bible. Some Christians take these apocalyptic teachings
literally whilst others regard them to be more poetic and symbolic.
Consequently, there are a number of different understandings within
Christianity about what will happen after we die and at the End Time.

Then I saw an angel coming down from heaven, holding in his hand the key to the bottomless pit and a
great chain. He seized the dragon, that ancient serpent, who is the Devil and Satan, and bound him for
a thousand years, and threw him into the pit, and locked and sealed it over him, so that he would
deceive the nations no more, until the thousand years were ended. After that he must be let out for a
little while. Then I saw thrones, and those seated on them were given authority to judge. I also saw the
souls of those who had been beheaded for their testimony to Jesus and for the word of God. They had
not worshiped the beast or its image and had not received its mark on their foreheads or their hands.
They came to life and reigned with Christ a thousand years. (The rest of the dead did not come to life
until the thousand years were ended.) This is the first resurrection. Blessed and holy are those who share
in the first resurrection. Over these the second death has no power, but they will be priests of God and
of Christ, and they will reign with him a thousand years. Revelation 20:1-6

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The End Time

Some Christians take Revelation 20:1-6 literally. They believe that Christ will rule the earth for one
thousand years and it will be a time of peace and justice. After this period of time, the dead will be
resurrected and judged alongside the living by Jesus. The wicked will be punished and the good will
be rewarded. This understanding of the End Time is known as Millennialism.

However, there are different types of Millennialism, which affect how Christians think they should
behave until Christ returns to begin his thousand-year rule. Premillennialism holds that things will get
steadily worse in the world until God has
had enough and decides to act. There will
be the Tribulation during which Satan will
torture humanity (although some
fortunate Christians will avoid the
Tribulation because God will take them
up to heaven (Rapture)). The Tribulation
will be ended by God when he defeats
Satan at the battle of Armageddon. It is
only after this battle that Jesus will begin
his rule. As a result of this interpretation
of Millennialism, these Christians think their major goal is to prepare for the End Time and to help
others to prepare too. Hence, they think evangelism is vital.

Alternatively, Postmillennialism holds we are already experiencing the millennium – it began with his
resurrection. Jesus will return at the end of this period to mark the full realisation of God’s kingdom
on earth. Hence, we are moving towards a time of peace and righteousness. Christians, therefore,
have a duty to help achieve this goal by reshaping the world through social and political activity.

Many traditional Christian groups like Roman Catholics follow Amillennialism. They think the
millennium began with the incarnation of Jesus and will end with his return to the earth to judge the
living and the dead. They believe that Jesus is currently reigning in heaven and on earth in the hearts
of his followers.

Resurrection and Judgement

Christians believe that at the End Time the dead will be resurrected and judged alongside the living by
Jesus. The basis for judgement is whether or not the person has believed in God and followed his
commandments. Those who have will be rewarded with heaven whereas unbelief, sin, evil and
injustice will be punished with hell.

By believing in Christ, seeking God’s forgiveness and by obeying God’s commandments Christians think
salvation is possible. Hence, one must have faith in God and demonstrate that faith by following Jesus’
example. The Lord’s Prayer indicates that love of God is firmly linked with love of one’s neighbour

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(forgive us our sins as we forgive the sins of others). Jesus’ parables also indicated the need for love
of one’s neighbour, for example the Parable of the Sheep and Goats.

When the Son of Man comes in his glory, and all the angels with him, then he will sit on the throne of his
glory. All the nations will be gathered before him, and he will separate people one from another as a shepherd
separates the sheep from the goats, and he will put the sheep at his right hand and the goats at the left.
Then the king will say to those at his right hand, ‘Come, you that are blessed by my Father, inherit the
kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world; for I was hungry and you gave me food, I was
thirsty and you gave me something to drink, I was a stranger and you welcomed me, I was naked and you
gave me clothing, I was sick and you took care of me, I was in prison and you visited me.’ Then the righteous
will answer him, ‘Lord, when was it that we saw you hungry and gave you food, or thirsty and gave you
something to drink? And when was it that we saw you a stranger and welcomed you, or naked and gave you
clothing? And when was it that we saw you sick or in prison and visited you?’ And the king will answer them,
‘Truly I tell you, just as you did it to one of the least of these who are members of my family, you did it to me.’
Matthew 25:31-40

There is a question about when judgement occurs – does it happen immediately after a person has
died or does it happen at the end of time?

When Jesus was crucified, the Bible says that he turned to the penitent thief and said, today you will
be with me in paradise. Which implies judgement happens immediately after death.

However, the book of Revelation describes the return of Jesus in all his glory to judge the living and
the dead at the end of time. This implies, that all the dead are raised at the end of time for a general
day of judgement.

Many Christians believe that people are judged when they die but they also believe that there will be
a general day of judgement when Jesus returns to those still living on earth at the end of time to judge
them.

Heaven

Heaven is described as paradise because it provides the righteous with

the full experience of God’s kingdom. It is an eternal life in everlasting
communion with God. There is no sin, evil, suffering or death; it is an
existence filled with perfect joy.

Jesus’ account of heaven emphasised the communal nature of God’s

kingdom; there is fellowship between a group of like-minded people. His
parables described heaven as banquet or a wedding feast.

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Hell

This is the second death, the lake of fire; and anyone whose
name was not found written in the book of life was thrown
into the lake of fire. Revelation 20:14-15

Hell, on the other hand, is described as a place of torment

and agony. It is full of fire and brimstone (acid) burning the
unrighteous in punishment for their sins.

Many Christians nowadays find it difficult to relate eternal punishment with the loving God described
by Jesus. They argue that accounts of hell found in the Bible are not to be taken literally. Rather, they
are to be interpreted as a self-inflicted suffering of those who have rejected God. If the relationship
with God is essential for a fulfilled human existence (after all, humanity is created in the image of God)
then an existence where God is not present leads to loneliness and frustration.

There are even some Christians who do not regard hell as eternal. They simply cannot explain how a
loving and just God would punish temporal sins with an eternity of hell. Rather, they regard hell more
as a place of correction. Those people sent to hell will eventually realise their need for God and accept
him and the offer of salvation. This viewpoint is known as Universalism – the belief in a universal
salvation.

Purgatory

The concept of purgatory was developed during the Medieval period. The
preachers of the Middle Ages were keen to stress that only the righteous
could gain access to heaven. Once judgement had been passed one was
condemned or rewarded to an eternal life in hell or heaven. Movement
between the two realms was believed to be impossible.

Each man receives his eternal retribution in his immortal soul at the
very moment of his death, in a particular judgement that refers his life
to Christ; either entrance into the blessedness of heaven – through a
purification or immediately – or immediate and everlasting
damnation. The Catechism of the Catholic Church, section 1022

However, many people were very well aware they were not righteous because despite all good
intentions, sins were still committed. Given the stark alternative between heaven and hell, they felt
they were destined for hell. Consequently, the Roman Catholic Church developed the doctrine of
purgatory.

Purgatory is believed to be a place of purification for those who are already saved. Those people who
have believed in Christ and tried to follow his example go to purgatory to be cleansed of their sins so
that they are ready to take their place in heaven. It has also meant that the relatives and friends of
the deceased could pray for their dead loved ones to help them undergo the process of purification.

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However, the concept of purgatory has no Biblical foundation. The sixteenth century reformers
rejected the notion of purgatory by arguing that it undermined our total dependence on God and our
need for faith. One could not earn entry into heaven through works rather one is wholly reliant on the
mercy and love of God, which was found in Christ’s sacrifice on the cross.

The Romish Doctrine concerning Purgatory, Pardons, Worshipping, and Adoration, as well of Images as of
Reliques, and also invocation of Saints, is a fond thing vainly invented, and grounded upon no warranty of
Scripture, but rather repugnant to the Word of God. The 39 Articles of Religion (Church of England)

Work:

1. Explain two different Christian beliefs about purgatory. [4]

2. Explain how belief in judgement at the End Time might affect Christian lives. [6]

3. ‘Heaven means being with God, not a place’. Evaluate this statement. [12]

Other Religions’ Understandings of Life after Death

Hinduism has a dualistic understanding of humanity and unlike

Christianity, a cyclical notion of time. Hindus recognise the soul
as well as the body. However, Hindus do not go as far as Plato
and describe the body as a prison. They teach that every living
creature has a soul (atman). When the creature dies,
reincarnation occurs and the atman is rehoused in another
body. The body given to the atman is dependent on the
creature’s karma or action; good karma leads to a higher life-
form and bad karma leads to a less complex and lower life-
form. The aim of a Hindu is to attain moksha or escape from
this cycle of samsara so that the atman can be united with
Brahman (the World Soul).

Buddhism also has a cyclical notion of time. However, unlike Hindus,

Buddhists do not believe we have a soul. The Buddha taught that every
person experiences three universal symptoms – anicca (constant
change), anatta (no soul) and dukkha (suffering). It is only by
extinguishing greed and selfishness and seeing the world as it really is by
following the Noble Eightfold Path that one can experience Nirvana (an
enlightened state). Unlike Hindus, Buddhists do not believe in
reincarnation. Rather, they believe that at death we experience rebirth.
There is no soul to survive our death. Instead, our skandhas (form,
sensation, perception, thought and consciousness) separate and merge
with other skandhas to form completely new individuals. It is the
consequences of our actions which continue after death.

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Linear and Cyclical Views of Human Existence

Christianity has a linear view of human existence. People are born and
they have a period of time on earth before they die. God resurrects
them, judges them and then based on that judgement, they experience
heaven or hell.

The benefit of this view is that each person has a strong sense of self/ identity. The soul has not been
rehoused in different bodies over an extended period of time. There is also a sense of urgency – there
is only one lifetime to pass God’s test. But it also means that if one fails God’s test, there is no
opportunity to try again. Instead, one is condemned to an eternity in hell.

Hindus and Buddhists have a cyclical notion of human existence. A person is born,
experiences a period of time on earth but at death they experience reincarnation
or rebirth. Based on their karma, their soul or skandhas experience higher or lower
life forms.

The benefit of a cyclical view of existences is that it offers endless lifetimes to enter
into a higher state of being without being condemned to an eternity in hell. It also
leads to a more cohesive notion of the natural world – one’s soul or skandhas can
be reincarnated or reborn in the animal and plant kingdoms too. However, a
constant stream of reincarnations or rebirths could dissolve the sense of self and
identity.

Cause and Effect in Relation to Life after Death

For Christians, an end to life marks the beginning of

judgement. The Apostles’ Creed states that Jesus will
come to judge the living and the dead and St Paul states,
we must all appear before the judgement seat of Christ. (2
Corinthians 5:10) A key question is on what basis are we
judged? Is it faith or action?

In Mark 16:15-16 Jesus states, go into all the world and

preach the gospel to all creation. Whoever believes and is
baptised will be saved, but whoever does not believe will
be condemned. Hence, many Christians think faith is
essential for salvation and will be the basis for judgement.
Accepting Jesus’ death for one’s sins is the only way to
atonement with God. It is for this reason that many
Christians proselytise in order to convert others to the
Christian faith.

However, other parts of Scripture imply that people are judged on the basis of their actions, e.g., the
parable of the sheep and goats. Similarly, St Paul states, God “will repay each person according to what
they have done.” To those who by persistence in doing good seek glory, honour and immortality, he
will give eternal life. But for those who are self-seeking and who reject the truth and follow evil, there
will be wrath and anger. (Romans 2:6-8) It is for this reason that some Christians think you do not need
explicit faith in Christ to be saved. Karl Rahner described those non-Christians who did good works as

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anonymous Christians and said they would be saved because their lives showed evidence of the Holy
Spirit acting in them.

Most Christians are likely to argue that both faith and action are important for salvation. They would
encourage people to believe in Christ and live good loves in the hope that it would have a positive
effect in the next life.

For Hindus and Buddhists, the law of karma affects what

happens to you in the next life. There is no concept of a
judging God. Rather, there is a direct link between one’s
actions and reincarnation or rebirth. Bad karma is the
inevitable and natural consequence of bad actions, just as
good karma automatically comes from good voluntary
actions.

Work:

1. Explain why religious people differ in their views about the afterlife. [6]

2. Explain how their beliefs about the afterlife may affect the way in which Christians live their lives.
[6]

3. ‘Every person is in complete control of their destiny’. Evaluate this statement. [12]

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 2.2 The Meaning and Purpose of Life

In this part of the Section, you will consider the following issues:

• Religious beliefs and teachings about the meaning and purpose of life, salvation, liberation
and how these goals may be achieved.

• (Differing) views about whether life can have meaning and purpose only for religious people.

• Non-religious ideas about the meaning and purpose of life.

• The view that questions about the meaning and purpose of life get in the way of living it to
the full and making the world a better place.

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 Christian Views on the Meaning and Purpose of Life

Christians derive their understanding of the meaning

and purpose of life from the doctrines of creation and
salvation. In Genesis, humanity is described as being
created in the image of God. Christians think this means
that God set apart humanity to be in a special
relationship with him. Humanity is part of God’s plan and
the purpose of humanity is to be at one with God.
However, through disobedience (Original Sin), this
relationship broke down and humanity grew apart from
God. The Law and the Prophets were sent to heal the rift.
However, Christians believe it was only through the incarnation, when God himself became man that
the divide was breached. The revelation of God through the person and work of Jesus along with the
redemption offered through Jesus’ sacrifice on the cross enables humanity to regain its true meaning
and purpose. Hence, Christians think that by accepting Christ’s sacrifice and living by God’s
commandments (namely, a life of love and self-denial) they can gain real meaning and purpose in
their lives.

St Augustine (354-430) outlined the importance of a real relationship with God in many of his written
works. Based on his own life-experience, he realised the sinfulness of humanity and our inability to
save ourselves. He argued that we have no choice but to put our trust in Christ so as to be in fellowship
with God.

Augustine believed that we need to regret our sinful nature so

A good will is one which desires to
that we can be restored to a positive relationship with God.
live an honourable life, aiming to
Original Sin led to humanity’s alienation from goodness.
attain the highest wisdom. This can
Continued hubris (pride) ensures we remain turned from God and
be done by aligning one’s will with
seek meaning in material gain and through competing against
the will of God. Augustine in On the
other people. It is only through repentance and accepting that we
Freedom of the Will
belong to God’s will that we will find real meaning and purpose
in our lives.

St Aquinas (1225-1274) believed the meaning of life is to be found in the metaphysical foundations of
life. In other words, we will find meaning when we address the question, why are we alive? In Summa
Theologiae, he argued that God is the first cause of the universe and therefore, the reason for life. To
discover the source of our existence we need to experience God which helps us to find meaning in our
lives.

Aquinas also argued that God

Now, the ultimate end of man, and of every
intellectual substance, is called felicity or
happiness, because this is what every intellectual
substance desires as an ultimate end, and for its
sake alone. Therefore, the ultimate happiness and
felicity of every intellectual substance is to know
God. Aquinas
designed creatures to be oriented to
good. God has hardwired our
desires to point us to good. As God
is the ultimate good, we should
orient ourselves towards God in
order to find true meaning and
purpose.

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The Christian notion of a linear view of existence further supports this understanding of purpose and
meaning. Christians believe that they have a duty to transform the earth so that it becomes more like
the kingdom of God. By preaching God’s word, loving their neighbour and living a life in harmony so
that the Christian Church is a shining example to other people on how best to live their lives, Christians
may achieve this aim. They will also be judged by Jesus at the End Time if they have faithfully served
him in this way.

Work:

1. Explain how the Christian teachings on salvation give meaning and purpose to a Christian’s life. [6]

2. Explain how Christians might achieve their purpose in life. [6]

Non-Religious Views on the Meaning and Purpose of Life

It varies as to whether non-religious people believe that there is meaning and purpose to life. Non-
religious people may draw upon science to understand the purpose of human beings. The Darwinian
theory of evolution holds that human beings are the product of natural selection; interacting with the
environment, the fittest of our species survives. The purpose of humanity, along with all other
creatures, is to survive as a species.

Aristotle (384-322BC) argued in his Nichomachean Ethics that the purpose of human life is to flourish
(eudaimonia). He believed that everything we choose to do aims at some good. However, not
everything we do is done for its own sake. Instead, we do things which will gradually lead to a higher
good. For example, we work in order to be paid money so that we can save money to pay a deposit
on a house so that we can provide shelter for our family. Happiness or flourishing, however, is different
because we want it for its own sake. Aristotle described flourishing as living well and doing well. Such
a life leads to a full expression of the unique human characteristic of the intellect. The exercise of
human reason virtuously and excellently then is the ultimate purpose of humanity.

Some non-religious people believe that seeking pleasure is the motivating principle in people’s lives.
These people are known as Hedonists (hedone comes from the ancient Greek word for pleasure).
Psychological hedonism maintains that only pleasure or pain motivate us whilst ethical hedonism
holds that only that which leads to pleasure has any value. Pleasure refers to any pleasant experience
or sensation and it is not limited to the physical. Pleasure can be gleaned from fame, friendship,
knowledge and art.

One notable hedonist, Epicurus (341-270 BC), argued that whilst pleasure is the focus of humanity, it
should be guided by reason. He claimed that retaining a level of self-control in the pursuit of pleasure
would also reduce the amount of pain one experienced to a minimum.

Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) revived a form of hedonism in his happiness principle. Using the
concept of utility, he argued value could be ascertained by finding the greatest good for the greatest
number.

Recently, a form of Christian hedonism has become popular in some evangelical circles. It is the
conviction that God’s ultimate goal in this world (his glory) and our deepest desire (to be happy) are
one and the same – God is most glorified in us when we are most satisfied in him. For Christian
hedonists, the primary purpose of humanity is to enjoy God lavishly through knowing, worshipping
and serving him.

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Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) argued that there is no such thing as human ‘essence’
or human nature. Rather who we are and what we are come from the choices we
make – ‘existence precedes essence’. Sartre was an existentialist. He was interested
in the uniqueness of an individual’s life. He believed the meaning life could only be
derived from a subjective point of view and that each person has the freedom to
choose their own projects, meanings and values.

Sartre argued that there are no transcendent values and no

intrinsic purpose to our lives. Neither God nor evolution has Man is nothing else but what he makes of
created us for any purpose. Instead, we choose our own himself.
values. The meaning of life is something we each create.
Man is condemned to be free, because once
Consequently, there is no human nature. The most basic thing
thrown into the world, he is responsible for
that can be said about humanity is that we are radically free –
everything he does.
we can choose anything except not to choose. Hence, self-
knowledge entails understanding the reasons for our actions
and beliefs.

Friedrich Nietzsche (144-1900) also rejected the notion that there is an objective order or structure in
the world. He argued that all values are baseless and reason is impotent. He asserted the
meaninglessness of life by embracing nihilism

Work:

1. Identify three accounts of the meaning and purpose of life. [3]

2. Outline two reasons why questions about the meaning and purpose of life might get in the way of
living it to the full. [4]

3. Explain one religion’s account of salvation. [6]

4. ‘Life has meaning and purpose only for religious people.’ Evaluate this statement. [12]

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 2.3 Sanctity of Life, Abortion and Euthanasia

In this part of the Section, you will consider the following issues:

• Religious beliefs/ teachings about the sanctity of life.

• Non-religious beliefs about the value of life.

• The particular value that religious and non-religious people attach to human life.

• Religious beliefs/ teachings and non-religious beliefs about the importance of relieving
suffering.

• The nature of abortion and euthanasia: current legal arrangements (in any named country)
that permit or prohibit them.

• Differing attitudes to abortion and euthanasia mong religious and non-religious people within
particular traditions.

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 The Sanctity of Life

Christians believe that all life is sacred. God is the source of

O Lord, how manifold are your works! In
everything (the doctrine of creation) hence, all life is holy.
wisdom you have made them all; the earth is
Consequently, Christians think it is important to care for the
full of your creatures. Yonder is the sea, great
and wide, creeping things innumerable are natural world.
there, living things both small and great.
Human life is regarded as particularly special. In Genesis, God
Psalm 104:24-25
moulds Adam from dust and breathes life into him.

then the Lord God formed man from the dust of the ground, and
breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and the man became
a living being. Genesis 2:7

No other animal is described as being created in this way. Many Christians

believe this account shows that humanity is distinct from the animal
kingdom. They think the ‘breath of life’ refers to the soul; a spiritual
dimension unique to humanity which enables people to be in communion
with God. This means that human life is intrinsically valuable as its worth
comes from God rather than who we are or what we do.

Genesis also describes humanity as being created in the image of God. Christians take this to mean
that there is some common ground between God and humanity; people share something of God’s
nature such as the ability to create, to love or simply to be capable
of relationships with others. Furthermore, Christians believe that So God created humankind in his
the life and death of Jesus emphasises the sacred nature of human image, in the image of God he
life. They believe God sanctified human life by becoming human. created them; male and female he
Jesus’ willingness to endure his sufferings shows that life is not to created them. Genesis 1:27
be ended except when God decides to do so.

St Thomas Aquinas (c.1225 -1274) developed the Natural Law Theory based on natural revelation. He
believed a rational study of nature allows humanity to discover God’s purposes in creation. He stated
that there were certain fundamental laws set by God and that human beings should follow these laws
and apply them to decision making throughout life. These laws or primary precepts are:

1. Self-preservation

2. The continuation of the species through reproduction

3. The education of children

4. To live in society

5. To worship God

From these Five Primary Precepts secondary precepts are developed to help people live their lives
according to God’s expectations.

Hence, he deduced from his studies that one of God’s purposes is that all people should have the
opportunity to find God for themselves. Each person should be helped and guided in their holy
journey, making their lives sacred.

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The Importance of Sanctity of Life for Christians Today

Christians believe that as all life, human and non-human, has its source in God then they have a duty
to nurture and care for God’s creation. Hence, the sanctity of life underlies the Christian concept of
stewardship.

Human life is sacred because from its beginning it involves the

creative action of God and it remains for ever in a special
relationship with the Creator, who is its sole end. God alone
is the Lord of life from its beginning until its end: no one can
under any circumstance claim for himself the right directly to
destroy an innocent human being.

The Roman Catholic Catechism

The sanctity of life also means they have a duty to look after themselves. Hence, many Christians think
they should not drink alcohol or take drugs.

Given that the sanctity of life means that all human life is intrinsically valuable then all human life is
worthy of respect. As a result, many Christians work in caring professions to help those most in need.
It also affects their attitudes towards abortion, embryo research, cloning, fertility treatment, genetic
engineering, euthanasia, suicide, war and capital punishment. They believe all people are entitled to
dignity and respect.

Do you not know that you are God’s temple and that God’s Spirit dwells in you? If anyone destroys God’s temple,
God will destroy that person. For God’s temple is holy, and you are that temple. 1 Corinthians 3:16-17

However, some Christians may argue that in some situations the quality of life outweighs the quantity
of life. They may believe that based on Jesus’ teachings of agape they could support someone who
wishes to end their life because they are suffering so much.

Work:

1. Outline three ways Christians might show respect for life. [3]

2. Explain two reasons why the sanctity of life causes problems for Christians. [4]

3. Explain two Christian teachings about the sanctity of life. [6]

4. ‘Christians should never take a life.’ Evaluate this statement. [12]

Non- Religious Views on the Value of Life

Many non-religious people think human life is of greater value than the life of other creatures.
Humanists wish to promote the well-being of humanity in general and would, thus argue that all
should be done to preserve human life. They may refer to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Article 3 to argue that all people have the right to be respected and valued. Equally, they could refer
to Utilitarianism to argue that the value of human life is dependent on the happiness experienced and
therefore, we have a duty to ensure all people enjoy their existence.

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However, some non-religious people (for example, Peter Singer) may argue that human beings are
different only from other creatures by degree and therefore, human life is not of greater value than
the lives of other organisms.

Similarly, some non-religious people may argue that the lives of those
individuals who lack self-awareness have lesser value. They may insist that
the quality of life is an important indicator of the value of life. Hence, in the
case of those people who experience severe pain or a lack of dignity, they
should have the right to decide whether they should continue to live.

There have been and there are still groups of people who think the quality of an individual’s life is
ranked on ethnic characteristics or the contribution they make to society. For example, the Aryan
ideology of Nazi Germany distinguished between the Aryans and the Untermensch.

Work:

1. Outline two reasons why non-religious people value human life. [4]

2. Explain why some non-religious people do not think human life is more important than the lives of
other animals. [6]

3. ‘Only religious people truly value human life.’ Evaluate this statement. [12]

The Importance of Relieving Suffering

Christians believe they have a duty to help relieve the suffering of others. Jesus’
teachings on agape are a stark reminder of this duty, for example the parables of
the Sheep and Goats and the Good Samaritan. The way in which Jesus lived his life
provides a role model for Christians to follow; he healed the sick and welcomed all
people to be his disciples. With the sending of the Holy Spirit, Jesus provided
support to help his followers to relieve suffering as one of the gifts of the spirit is
healing.

Now to each one the manifestation of the Spirit is given for the common good. To one there is
given through the Spirit a message of wisdom, to another a message of knowledge by means of
the same Spirit, to another faith by the same Spirit, to another gifts of healing by that one Spirit, to
another miraculous powers, to another prophecy, to another distinguishing between spirits, to
another speaking in different kinds of tongues, and to still another the interpretation of
tongues. All these are the work of one and the same Spirit, and he distributes them to each one,
just as he determines. 1 Corinthians 12:7-11

Non-religious people believe they too have a duty to relieve suffering.

Applying the ethics of Utilitarianism, they should aim to relieve suffering
in order to increase the happiness and wellbeing of those people
afflicted. Many non-religious and religious people have taken this aim to
their hearts as the developments of modern science and medicine over
the years have played a crucial role in reducing the suffering of humanity.

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Work:

1. State three ways a Christian may relieve suffering. [3]

2. Outline two reasons why Christians believe it is important to relieve suffering. [4]

3. ‘Relieving suffering should be our primary aim.’ Evaluate this statement. [12]

Abortion

Abortion refers to the expulsion of the foetus from the

mother’s uterus before the pregnancy has reached full term
(normally 40 weeks). An abortion can happen naturally (known
as a spontaneous abortion or a miscarriage). However, the
term abortion is usually applied to a ‘procured abortion’, i.e.
the termination of the pregnancy has been deliberately sought.

Abortions normally take place within the first three/four months of pregnancy. Procured abortions
are illegal after 24 weeks (except in certain medical circumstances such as the mother’s life is at risk)
because the foetus is viable, i.e. it could survive outside the womb.

The Abortion Act 1967, as amended by the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990, allows the
termination of a pregnancy by a registered medical practitioner subject to certain conditions. Under
the Act, an abortion must be carried out in a hospital or specially licensed clinic, normally before 24
weeks of pregnancy. Before a legally induced abortion can take place, two doctors must agree that
the operation is less risky for the woman than continuing the pregnancy and that one or more of the
following grounds for the abortion apply:

• It is necessary to save the pregnant woman’s life.

• It is necessary to prevent grave, permanent damage to the woman’s physical or mental
health.
• There is substantial risk that the child will be born with physical or mental abnormalities and
be seriously disabled.

There are two main methods of abortion:

• Medical abortion involves the use of medication instead of surgery to terminate the
pregnancy such as the abortion pill and the morning-after pill. The abortion pill can be used
in the first seven weeks or pregnancy and prevents the fertilised egg from implanting (sticking
to the lining of the womb) and then triggers contractions and bleeding during which the
foetus is expelled from the womb. The morning-after pill can be used up to 72 hours after
sexual intercourse. It either delays ovulation or inhibits the fertilised egg from implanting.
• Surgical abortion involves dilating the cervix of the womb and then emptying the contents of
the womb through suction or by scrapping out the contents with a tool called a curette.

Christian Attitudes Towards Abortion

All Christians think abortion is wrong because it involves the deliberate destruction of a human life.
However, there is debate within the Christian community regarding whether or not a pregnant woman
should be permitted the choice to abort her unborn child in exceptional circumstances.

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Pro-Life:

The Roman Catholic church and most evangelical Protestants are pro-life.
They refer to the Biblical teaching on creation and the sanctity of life to
determine their response to abortion. The belief that God is the source of the
universe and he has set human beings apart so as to in a relationship with
them mean that life is precious and should be nurtured. Similarly, one of the
Ten Commandments specifically states that it is wrong to kill (Exodus 20:13).

The Roman Catholic church takes an absolutist stance regarding abortion; abortion is forbidden
regardless of the circumstances. God is the lord of life and death, hence, a person’s ultimate value
stems from God and no person can take it upon themselves to place themselves in total mastery over
the life of another.

We are obliged once more to declare that the direct interruption of the generative process already begun
and, above all, all direct abortion, even for therapeutic reasons, are to be absolutely excluded as lawful
means of regulating the number of children. Humanae Vitae 14

According to Natural Law, from the very moment of conception, the individual is in a relationship with
God and has a purpose in God’s plan. Each individual has a general purpose too; blessed immortality
in the presence of God at the End Time. Hence, the Roman Catholic church teaches that from the
moment of conception, each individual life is not just a potential human being but a human being with
potential.

God’s interest in every human life from the moment of conception

For thou didst form my
inward parts, thou didst knit
me together in my mother’s
womb. Psalm 139:15
means the unborn child has a soul, a spiritual dimension enabling
communion with God. The foetus then has the same rights as a new
born baby and an adult because ensoulment has taken place at the
moment of conception.

Rather than resorting to an abortion, the Roman Catholic church and evangelical Protestants would
encourage
Before counselling
I formed you in theor practical support for the pregnant woman so that she carries the baby to full
womb I knew
term. If you. Jeremiah
the child was still unwanted after the birth, it could be adopted.
1:5
However, in some situations, the Roman Catholic church does allow the application of the Law of
Double Effect. For example, it is justifiable to save the life of the mother even if the secondary effect
is the death of the unborn child. The death of the child in these situations would be regarded as a
miscarriage rather than a procured abortion.

Pro-Choice:

There are some Christian groups who accept there are exceptional cases
when a woman should be allowed the choice of an abortion. Christian
denominations such as the Church of England, the Methodist church and
the Baptist church argue that the pregnant woman’s personal
circumstances and the reasons for the abortion should be taken into
consideration.

The Church of England combines strong opposition to abortion with a recognition that there can be - strictly
limited – conditions under which it may be morally preferable to any available alternative. General Synod

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Whenever possible, if the child is unwanted and the pregnant woman is capable of carrying the foetus
to full term, then Christians advise that she give the child up for adoption. However, if the mother’s
life is endangered by the pregnancy, the child is likely to be born severely disabled or conception
occurred through rape then Anglicans, Methodists, Baptists and some Quakers argue she should have
the option of an abortion.

When people who are fighting injure a pregnant woman so that there is a miscarriage, and yet no further
harm follows, the one responsible shall be fined what the woman’s husband demands, paying as much as
the judges determine. If any harm follows, then you shall give life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand
for hand, foot for foot, burn for burn, wound for wound, stripe for stripe. Exodus 21:22-25

Exodus 21:22-25 implies the life of the woman is of greater value than the life of the unborn child – if
only the unborn child is killed then the perpetrator is given a monetary fine whilst if the pregnant
woman is killed, the person responsible forfeits his/her life.

Nevertheless, those Christians who accept abortions can take place in exceptional circumstances are
worried about the number of abortions that occur.

Abortion law needs to be applied more strictly and the number of abortions carried out drastically reduced.
Every possible support, especially by church members, needs to be given to those who are pregnant in difficult
circumstances. Abortion – A Briefing Paper, 2005, The Church of England

Atheist and Humanist Attitudes Towards Abortion

Atheists and Humanists are not restricted by the Christian teachings on ensoulment or the sanctity of
life but they do respect human life. Nevertheless, they tend to favour pro-choice. They may support
this attitude by referring to the viability of the foetus. Up until 24 weeks, the foetus is completely
dependent on the mother for its survival. Therefore, it could be argued that it is not a person in its
own right and its treatment should be determined by its mother.

Charles Taylor (b.1931) claimed in his book Sources of the Self that what is central for the person is
that ‘things matter for them’. He argued that in the early stages of human development, things do not
matter to the foetus and so they do not count as persons having rights.

Some atheists and Humanists think that we should be governed by the law on abortion; a pregnant
woman should only be able to obtain an abortion if two doctors agree she meets the criteria. However,
other atheists and Humanists think abortion should be available on demand. The pregnant woman
should have autonomy over what happens during the course of the pregnancy as it is her body.

Judith Jarvis Thompson (1929-2020) questioned who had the right

to decide about abortion in her article ‘A Defence of Abortion’. She
argued that as the foetus is developing in the mother’s womb, the
mother should make the decision as it’s her body. She used the
analogy of a violinist dependent on someone else’s blood for nine
months to keep him alive to explain her reasoning. Just as no one
should be obliged to give up all their freedoms to supply blood to
the violinist for nine months, so too no mother should be obliged
to keep an unwanted foetus who is dependent on her blood supply for nine months.

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For some Humanists, the quality of life will always be more important than the preservation of life at
all costs. The probable quality of the life of the baby and the woman’s rights should always be taken
into account. Whereas other Humanists would apply Situation Ethics in each case. They would look at
the situation of the pregnant woman, weighing up the pros and cons of the possible choices before
determining what could be the most loving thing to do.

Work:

1. Outline three reasons why a woman might seek an abortion. [3]

2. Explain two reasons why Christians might oppose abortion. [4]

3. ‘No Christian should ever have an abortion.’ Evaluate this statement. [12]

Euthanasia

Euthanasia is derived from the Greek words eu (well) and thanatos (death); it is
a term which refers to a good or painless death. Euthanasia refers to when a
person chooses to end his / her life, usually in response to a terminal illness but
requires help to do so. One can distinguish between several types of
euthanasia:

Voluntary Euthanasia: this form of euthanasia is also known as assisted dying. It refers to a person
who wants to die but cannot perform the act themselves. Death in these cases is regarded as
preferable to the suffering currently experienced. Many groups who wish to legalise euthanasia
campaign for voluntary euthanasia, e.g. EXIT (the Voluntary Euthanasia Society).

An adult person suffering from a severe illness, for which no relief is known, should be entitled by law to the
mercy of a painless death, if and only if that is their express wish…Doctors should be allowed to help incurable
patients to die peacefully at their own request. The patient must have signed at least 30 days previously, a
declaration making their request known. EXIT

Non-voluntary Euthanasia: this type of euthanasia refers to killing someone who is not in a position
to give their consent, for example, someone in a long term coma or a severely brain damaged person.
Some people have made a living will in which they have set out the conditions under which they wish
to die, e.g. if they have a heart attack they do not want to be resuscitated. These living wills are legally
recognised in Canada and the USA. In the UK, one can make a living will which may influence one’s
treatment but there is no legal obligation to follow them.

Active Euthanasia: this form of euthanasia involves giving something or doing something to end the
person’s life, e.g. the administration of a lethal dose of morphine.

Passive Euthanasia: this type of euthanasia involves withdrawing something or not providing the
person with the necessary treatment which leads to death, e.g. turning off the life-support machine.

Euthanasia and the Law

The 1961 Suicide Act decriminalised the act of suicide but as the law currently stands in the UK,
deliberate or active euthanasia will leave anyone assisting suicide or death liable for murder. However,
the law now agrees that withdrawing artificial nutrition and hydration or switching off a life-support

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machine is not classed as murder. Similarly, withholding treatment from patients with little or no
chance of survival is also not classed as murder.

Euthanasia has been decriminalised in a number of European countries. As early as 1984, the Dutch
Supreme Court declared voluntary euthanasia acceptable and in 2002, the Netherlands became the
first EU country to legalise adult euthanasia. In Switzerland, assisted suicide is legal by omission; it can
be performed by non-physicians as long as they are not making a profit. Many terminally ill people
have taken advantage of Swiss law and they have travelled to Switzerland to commit suicide.

Belgium’s parliament approved euthanasia legislation in May 2002. In 2005 Belgium’s pharmacists
were allowed to supply doctors with the fatal doses of medicine needed for assisting suicide, thereby
making it easier for them to practice voluntary euthanasia.

Many people in the UK want the law to change to enable voluntary euthanasia. However, pro-life
supporters argue that the decision to legalise euthanasia in some European countries has been the
first step on a slippery slope which has led to an increase of people ending their lives for morally
unacceptable reasons. For example, in January 2005, a report in the Dutch Journal of Medicine alleged
there had been 22 cases of illegal euthanasia involving children born with spina bifida.

Christian Attitudes to Euthanasia

Many Christians think that euthanasia is morally wrong. They argue that a person who is willing to end
their lives prematurely has no faith or trust in God. Those Christians against euthanasia offer the
following reasons to support their view:

Life is a gift from God: according to the doctrine of creation, all life comes from
God. Equally, people are created in God’s image (Genesis 1:27), their lives are
sacred and they have a unique place in God’s creation. Consequently, life has to be
cherished. God has planned out every individual’s future, hence, no one has the
right to end their life.

From one man he made every nation of men, that they should inhabit the whole earth; and he determined
the times set for them and the exact places where they should live. Acts 17:26

Christians are told not to kill (Exodus 20:13). The deliberate taking of a life, even one’s own and no
matter the reason, is wrong. It is an intentional violation of God’s law.

Suffering must be accepted as well as happiness. Christians believe that there are important lessons
to be learnt from the book of Job. Job refused to end his life despite the immense amount of suffering
he experienced. Indeed, suffering can be a means of bringing about good, e.g. the redemptive
suffering of Christ.

Then his wife said to him, “Do you still persist in your integrity? Curse God, and die.” But he said to her, “You
speak as any foolish woman would speak. Shall we receive the good at the hand of God, and not receive the
bad?” Job 2:9-10

Jesus taught his followers to love their neighbour. Consequently, Christians believe that a better
solution to pain and suffering should be sought. They remember the parable of the sheep and goats
in which Jesus taught his followers that by helping the sick and needy they are actually helping him
(Matthew 25:31-46).

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 The argument for euthanasia will be answered if better methods of caring for the dying are developed.
Medical skill in terminal care must be improved, pre-death loneliness must be relieved, patient and family
must be supported by the statutory services and by the community. The whole of the patient’s needs,
including the spiritual, must be met. Methodist Conference 1974

Many Christians believe that the Hospice Movement offers a better

solution for those suffering from terminal illnesses. Care is provided
through the administration of palliative care so as to make the dying
person as comfortable as possible. Help is also given to the patients and
their friends and relatives so that they can come to terms with the
imminent death through counselling and practical advice.

Some Christians believe that if voluntary euthanasia becomes legal then

the old, disabled and the terminally ill may suffer unacceptable pressure
to consent to their death because of the high costs of their health care or an unwillingness to be a
burden to one’s family. Such pressure devalues our understanding of humanity; one is only kept alive
if one is of some use to society. Equally, it may lead to a loss of trust between the doctor and the
patient.

Another ethical argument offered against euthanasia is the slippery slope argument. Namely, if one
form of euthanasia is decriminalised (voluntary) then it may mean other forms of euthanasia become
legal (non-voluntary).

However, not all Christians are against euthanasia. Some Christians think that certain forms of
euthanasia in particular situations are ethically acceptable. Voluntary euthanasia could be an option
for someone with a terminal illness especially if the palliative care offered by doctors does not alleviate
the pain. Indeed, one could argue that the most loving thing a Christian could do in this particular
instance is to end that person’s suffering and, in this way, carry out Jesus’ command to love one’s
neighbour. The sanctity of life needs to be balanced with the dignity and freedom of an individual.

The Roman Catholic Church does allow for the law of double effect in the case of a painful terminal
illness. Large doses of pain-killers can be given to the patient even though it may mean that death
happens more quickly. However, the Pope has made it clear that there is an ethical distinction
between what is intended and what is foreseen but unintended. Hence, there is a difference between
deliberate killing and the shortening of life through the administration of pain killing drugs.

Many Christians accept the modern medicine has introduced new issues. They believe that switching
off life-support machines is not euthanasia if brain death has already been established by medical
experts. They also believe it is not wrong to allow death to occur by withholding extraordinary
treatment which is likely to cause distress to the patient and only put off death for a short time.

Discontinuing medical procedures that are burdensome, dangerous, extraordinary, or disproportionate to

the expected outcome can be legitimate; it is the refusal of ‘over-zealous’ treatment. Catechism of the
Catholic Church.

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Atheist and Humanist Attitudes to Euthanasia

There is no one attitude towards euthanasia amongst

atheists and Humanists. Some of them wish euthanasia to
remain illegal in the United Kingdom because it reduces
trust within families. There is always likely to be doubt as
to whether it is what a person really wants; families may
encourage ailing relatives to seek euthanasia because
they no longer wish to care for them or to benefit from
their will. Equally, it puts doctors into a difficult position
as their role is to save lives rather than end them. Patients
may find it difficult to trust doctors if they know they have
the authority to end their lives.

Other atheists and Humanists are in favour of the legalisation of euthanasia in this country. Advances
in medicine are now enabling people to be kept alive who would have previously have died and with
very little quality of life. It would be better if doctors and relatives have the right to give these people
a painless death. Forms of passive euthanasia such as withholding or withdrawing treatment are
allowed, it seems logical to allow active forms of euthanasia too.

Some Humanists may argue it depends on the circumstances of the person who requests an assisted
death and one should apply Situation Ethics to determine whether euthanasia should be allowed.
Depending on the intensity of pain, the prognosis of the illness and the quality of life experienced by
the person, they would weigh up the most loving thing to do in that particular situation.

Work:

1. Outline three reasons in favour of euthanasia. [3]

2. Explain two reasons against euthanasia. [4]

3. Explain Christian views about euthanasia. [6]

4. ‘Sanctity of life is more important than the quality of life.’ Evaluate this statement. [12]

5. ‘Every human being has the right to choose how and when they die.’ Evaluate this statement. [12]

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 2.4 Human Relationships

In this part of the Section, you will consider the following issues:

• Religious and non-religious beliefs/ teachings about and the (differing) attitudes of religious
and non-religious people to: human sexuality and its purposes, relationships between the
sexes, including heterosexuality and homosexuality.

• (Differing) religious and non-religious responses to changing patterns of relationships

between the sexes.

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Christian Teachings about Love and Relationships

The Bible teaches Christians that they can share in God’s love through the
power of the Holy Spirit and this love should be the basis of all their
relationships. Christians can look to the prophets to see how they were
inspired by God to demand justice for all people. But the primary and most
powerful of God’s love at work in the world can be in the person and work
of Jesus. Jesus spent his life trying to reform people from living lives of
selfishness to lives empowered by God’s agapeic love.

CS Lewis provided an analysis of the different types of love and the relationships they inspire in his
book The Four Loves (1960). He distinguished between:

• Eros: the love of getting, normally associated with the romantic love of possessing one’s
beloved.
• Storge: the love for family.
• Philia: the love of friends.
• Agape: the distinctively Christian love of caring concern for the world regardless of one’s own
desires, identity or enthusiasms. It can result in charitable acts for those whom one does not
know.

CS Lewis believed that all of these loves should feed into each other. The erotic love of sexual
attraction should be integrated into the family love of a husband and wife for each other and their
children, which itself should be integrated into the ties of friendship and finally into religious practices
by which one can share in God’s agapeic love to guide and direct one’s life.

Christian Teachings about the Nature and Importance of Sexual Relationships

In the past, attitudes towards sexuality in our society have been heavily
influenced by the teachings of the Church. Until very recently, Christianity
seemed to regard sex as a ‘naughty indulgence’ to be practised within
marriage. Many of the leaders of the Christian Church, from St Paul
onwards, thought the sexual urge was a threat to a person’s religious life.
The body is a temple of the Holy Spirit and should be kept pure.
Consequently, controlling one’s sexual urges was regarded as one way to
reject the sins of the flesh.

Do you not know that wrongdoers will not inherit the kingdom of God? Do not be deceived! Fornicators,
idolaters, adulterers, male prostitutes, sodomites, thieves, the greedy, drunkards, revilers, robbers—none of
these will inherit the kingdom of God… Or do you not know that your body is a temple of the Holy Spirit within
you, which you have from God, and that you are not your own? For you were bought with a price; therefore,
glorify God in your body.1 Corinthians 6:9-10, 19-20

Nowadays, Christians have a more positive attitude towards sex. They regard it as a gift from God,
given from the very moment of creation. It is something to be celebrated and enjoyed.

So God created humankind in his image, in the image of God he created them; male and female he created
them. God blessed them, and God said to them, “Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth and subdue it;
and have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the air and over every living thing that moves
upon the earth.” Genesis 1:27-28

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Hence, Christians regard sex as an important expression of love between a couple and is also the
means of creating new life.

Given that many Christians regard sex as the most intimate physical expression of the couple’s
relationship, they think it should only take place in a marital relationship. During the marriage
ceremony, the couple promise in the presence of God to remain faithful to each other and to nurture
one another regardless of any future circumstances until death. Hence, many Christians encourage
chastity before marriage and fidelity during marriage.

There have been a number of campaigns run by Christians to encourage young people
to abstain from sex until they are married. For example, the Silver Ring Thing – a
campaign promoted by some evangelical Christian groups to discourage pre-marital
sex. It includes a special ceremony during which young people vow to abstain from sex
and they receive a silver ring to symbolise that vow. Later, when they marry, the silver
ring is removed and replaced with the golden band of a wedding ring.

Many Christians also think extra-marital sex is wrong. You have heard that it was
said, ‘You shall not commit
Some liberal Christians, however, think keeping sexual activity within adultery.’ But I say to you that
marriage is outdated and are open to pre-martial sex or cohabitation. They everyone who looks at a
argue that sex before marriage enables people to explore their sexuality woman with lust has already
and to channel their sexual urges. It also prevents young people from committed adultery with her
marrying because of sexual frustration. in his heart. Matthew 5:27-28

However, most Christians are concerned about our current permissive

society. Whilst they welcome a more open and positive approach to sex, they worry about the
commercialisation of sex (e.g. in the pornography industry), promiscuity (sleeping around), the
increase in the spread of sexually transmitted infections and the consequences of young people being
exposed to social media (e.g. sexting). All Christians, traditional and liberal, think sex should be
experienced in a committed and loving relationship.

Work:

1. Outline 3 Christian teachings about sexual relationships. [3]

2. Explain two reasons why some Christians think sex outside marriage is acceptable. [4]

3. Explain why Christian teachings about sexual relationships are important today. [6]

4. ‘No one should have sex outside marriage’. Evaluate this statement. [12]

Christian Attitudes Towards Homosexuality

Homosexuality refers to those people who are attracted to members of the

same sex. Regarding heterosexuality as the ideal form of sexual relationship

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based on the creation stories in Genesis, Christianity has traditionally taught that homosexuality is a
sin. The Roman Catholic Church and some evangelical groups retain this view.

This inclination, which is objectively disordered, constitutes for most of them a trial. They must be accepted
with respect, compassion and sensitivity. Every sign of unjust discrimination in their regard should be
avoided… Homosexual people are called to chastity. The Catechism of the Catholic Church

They justify this viewpoint by referring to certain texts in the Bible. The doctrine of creation describes
how God specifically created a woman to provide companionship for Adam.

So the Lord God caused a deep sleep to fall upon the man, and he slept; then he took one of his ribs and
closed up its place with flesh. And the rib that the Lord God had taken from the man he made into a woman
and brought her to the man. Then the man said, “This at last is bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh; this
one shall be called Woman, for out of Man this one was taken.” Therefore, a man leaves his father and his
mother and clings to his wife, and they become one flesh. Genesis 2:21-24

Adam and Eve completed each other and were commanded to procreate. Consequently, the Roman
Catholic Church believes that it is part of God’s Natural Law for the male and female to unite.
Homosexual relationships, therefore, contravene Natural Law.

In places, the Bible also condemns homosexuality. It is regarded as a sin.

If a man lies with a male as with a woman, both of them have committed an abomination; they shall be put
to death; their blood is upon them. Leviticus 20:13

For this reason, God gave them up to degrading passions. Their women exchanged natural intercourse for
unnatural, and in the same way also the men, giving up natural intercourse with women, were consumed
with passion for one another. Men committed shameless acts with men and received in their own persons
the due penalty for their error. Romans 1:26-27

Given that they believe homosexuality is a choice rather than a part of a person’s nature, some
fundamentalist Christians offer to pray for homosexuals to be cured of their sin of homosexuality.

Some Christian denominations like the Church of England do not go so far as to give a definitive
statement on the issue as it would cause divisions within their church community. Rather they take
the position of ‘love the sinner, hate the sin’. Hence, they think love and compassion should be shown
to homosexuals but equally homosexuals should remain celibate (not engage in sexual activity).

Some Christian groups, most notably Quakers, have a different attitude towards
homosexuality. They think there should be complete equality and acceptance of
homosexuals and they should be encouraged to be in stable and loving relationships.

Where there is genuine tenderness, an openness to responsibility, and the seed of

commitment, God is surely not shut out. Can we not say that God can enter any relationship
in which there is a measure of selfless love?... To reject people on the grounds of their sexual
behaviour is a denial of God’s creation. Towards a Quaker View of Sex 1963

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They think the Bible needs to be interpreted in the light of our current knowledge of homosexuality,
namely, it is part of one’s nature and not a choice. Indeed, homosexuality can be found in other
species. Hence, it should be regarded as a natural alternative to heterosexuality. God is the source of
all creation, heterosexuals and homosexuals alike.

These Christians argue that the Biblical teachings should be read and applied with care. The negative
passages about homosexuality may be a reflection of a past, homophobic society rather than the will
of God. There are many other teachings found in the Bible such as the endorsement of slavery and
capital punishment which are disregarded. The same approach could be taken with those passages
which condemn homosexuality.

Work:

1. Outline 3 Christian teachings about homosexuality. [3]

2. Explain why some Christians think homosexuality is wrong. [6]

3. ‘Everyone should accept homosexual relationships.’ Evaluate this statement. [12]

Non-Religious Views about Love, Sex and Relationships

Many non-religious people think each individual should have the right to choose when and with whom
they have sex as long as they cause no harm. They may draw upon the harm principle to justify this
view.

The harm principle says people should be free to

act however they wish unless their actions cause
harm to somebody else. The principle is a central
tenet of the political philosophy known
as liberalism and was first proposed by English
philosopher John Stuart Mill. The harm principle
is not designed to guide the actions of individuals but to restrict the scope of criminal law and
government limitations of personal liberty. For Mill, social disapproval or dislike for a person’s actions
is not enough to justify intervention by government unless they actually harm or pose a significant
threat to someone.

For many non-religious people, sex is one way in which a couple can express their love for each other
as well as being a source of pleasure. As such, it may be the means by which the couple are brought
closer together. Non-religious people do not think the couple need to be in a stable relationship in
order to have sex. They do not necessarily frown upon promiscuity. Monogamy and marriage are a
matter of choice. However, they are more likely to think it is wrong to have an affair or commit
adultery if you are in a committed relationship. But they would not condemn an ‘open relationship’ in
which both partners have agreed that it is permissible to have other sexual partners.

Similarly, most non-religious people have no reason to object to homosexual relationships. They are
more likely to accept that homosexuality is genetic rather than a choice and therefore, heterosexual
relationships are not superior to homosexual ones.

Work:

‘Attitudes to same sex relationships are changing.’ Evaluate this statement. [12]

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 2.5 Marriage and Partnership

In this part of the Section, you will be considering the following issues:

• Religious and non-religious beliefs/ teachings about and the (differing) attitudes of religious
and non-religious people to: marriage and its purposes, the roles and status of partners
within marriage / civil partnerships, same-sex marriages and religious and non-religious
attitudes to it and the importance and role of marriage in religious communities and society.

• (Differing) religious and non-religious attitudes towards sex outside marriage (pre-marital
sex, promiscuity and adultery) and to couples living together, including in long-term
relationships, without being married (cohabitation).

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The Importance and Purpose of Marriage for Christians

Marriage is the legal recognition of a couple’s relationship. Christianity

teaches that marriage is the right way for men and women to express their
love for each other. Indeed, marriage is regarded as a gift from God.
According to the doctrine of creation, God created a partner for Adam.

So the Lord God caused a deep sleep to fall upon the man, and he slept; then he took one of his ribs and
closed up its place with flesh. And the rib that the Lord God had taken from the man he made into a woman
and brought her to the man. Then the man said, “This at last is bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh; this
one shall be called Woman, for out of Man this one was taken.” Therefore, a man leaves his father and his
mother and clings to his wife, and they become one flesh. Genesis 2:21-24

Jesus also emphasised the importance of marriage. He taught that marriage should be a life-long union
involving commitment and responsibility.

But from the beginning of creation, God made them male and female. For this reason, a man shall leave his
father and mother and be joined to his wife, and the two shall become one flesh. So they are no longer two,
but one flesh. Therefore, what God has joined together, let no one separate. Mark 10:6-9

Given that Christians believe marriage is a life-long commitment, it is not a decision that can be made
lightly.

Marriage is given that husband and wife may comfort and help each other, living faithfully together in need
and in plenty, in sorrow and in joy. It is given, that with delight and tenderness they may know each other in
love, and, through the joy of bodily union, may strengthen the union of their hearts and lives. It is given as
the foundation of family life in which children may be born and nurtured in accordance with God’s will, to his
praise and glory. Common Worship 2000, The Church of England

Hence, Christians think is marriage is significant for the following reasons:

• It is a public declaration of the couple’s love for each other and their commitment to support
each other mutually until death.
• It is the right context for sexual intercourse. Sex should be part of a loving and stable
relationship; another way in which the couple express their love for each other.
• It provides a sense of security; the couple have promised to comfort, love and protect each
other.
• Given the stability offered by marriage, it promotes the right context for procreation. It is the
place where love and support can be given to one’s children. It enables parents to educate
their children so as to live according to Christian principles, learn about their faith and worship
together at home and in church.
• It is an opportunity for the relationship to receive God’s blessing. Indeed, the Roman Catholic
Church teaches that marriage is a sacrament; the vows and exchange of rings are visible signs
that God is present witnessing the promises made by the couple to each other.
• The marriage of the husband and wife reflect the relationship between Christ and his
followers, the Church. Through their love for each other, the couple experience something of
God’s love for his creation.

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It is important to note, however, marriage is not obligatory in Christianity. Some Christians choose to
remain single and celibate because they believe they can focus more on serving God in their ministry
to other people, for example, monks, nuns and Roman Catholic priests.

Cohabitation

However, marriage is not as popular as it used to be. Since the 1970s, the
number of couples getting married for the first time has been falling
steadily. Many people (including some Christian couples) choose instead
to co-habit (live together). Some do so to decide whether the
relationship will be secure enough for marriage later on. But most
couples choose to live together without getting married at all. Some
people make this decision because they think it is wrong to promise life-
long love when you don’t know how you are going to feel about that
person in twenty years’ time. Others think that by co-habiting, you are
less likely to take your partner for granted. Others may simply argue that
if the relationship comes to an end, they can separate without having to
endure an expensive and possibly painful divorce.

Whilst some Christians may approve of cohabitation as a prelude to marriage, many other Christians
think cohabitation is wrong. They think it lacks the stability necessary for the survival of an intimate
relationship particularly if the couple have children. Indeed, cohabiting couples have fewer rights;
their entitlement to a partner’s estate upon their death is uncertain, they cannot depend on sharing
a property if it is not joint owned if they separate and they cannot guarantee shared parental
responsibility of the children if the relationship ends. Some Christians may be against cohabitation
because they think sex outside of marriage is a sin – Exodus 20:14 forbids adultery.

Work:

1. Outline three reasons why some people think marriage is not important. [3]

2. Explain two reasons why many Christians think sex outside of marriage is wrong. [4]

3. Explain why marriage is important for Christians. [6]

4. ‘Marriage is the best way to begin family life’. Evaluate this statement. [12]

Christian Marriage

A Church of England Marriage Ceremony

If a couple want to get married in a church, they are often invited to discuss the meaning of marriage
with the priest or minister in their local parish. They will talk about the vows they are going to make
to ensure that they understand the significance of these promises.

Before the wedding, the Banns (a public announcement of a forthcoming marriage) are read out on
three Sundays during the three months before the wedding.

At the beginning of the service, the priest explains the importance of marriage. He/ She reflects on
the importance of love and asserts that marriage is a gift from God. Indeed, the love of the couple
reflect God’s love for the world. The priest also states that the unity found within marriage enriches
and strengthens society as a whole.

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Before the vows are made by the couple, the priest asks the couple and the congregation if they know
of any reason why the couple should not be joined together in holy matrimony.

The vows themselves are a fundamental part of the ceremony. They are exchanged in the presence
of God and the congregation. The couple promise to love and support each other until death
regardless of the situation.

Agatha, will you take Arthur to be your husband? Will you love him, comfort him, honour and protect him
and forsaking all others, be faithful to him as long as you both shall live?

I, Agatha, take you Arthur to be my husband to have and to hold from this day forward; for better, for
worse, for richer, for poorer, in sickness and in health, to love and to cherish, till death us do part, according
to God’s holy law; and this is my solemn vow.

Hence, the couple promise to be faithful to one another,

respect and love each other for the rest of their lives.

During the course of the service, the couple will

exchange rings. These rings symbolise their enduring
love; the circle is a symbol of eternity. When the rings
are exchanged, the couple promise to honour each
other and share all that they have.

I give you this ring as a sign of our marriage. With my body I honour you, all that I am I give to you, and all
that I have I share with you, within the love of God, Father, Son and Holy Spirit.

During the ceremony, prayers are said calling upon God to bless the relationship of the couple. There
will be readings too. Most couples choose a pertinent passage from the Bible to be recited during the
service. One of the most popular is St Paul’s explanation of the significance of love found in 1
Corinthians 13:1-7. Hymns are sung and most have the theme of love, e.g. Love Divine All Loves
Excelling. The priest often gives a sermon explaining the importance of the ceremony by focusing on
the themes of love and commitment.

A Roman Catholic Marriage Ceremony

The Roman Catholic Church emphasises the Biblical teaching that God himself is the author of
marriage and therefore, it is a sacrament (a visible sign that God is present). As a divine institution, it
cannot be broken. Even if a Roman Catholic couple get a divorce that is recognised by the State,
according to the Church, they are still bound together in matrimony as long as they are both alive.

Thus, the marriage bond has been established by God himself in such a way that a marriage concluded and
consummated between baptised persons can never be dissolved. This bond, which results from the free
human act of the spouses and their consummation of the marriage, is a reality, henceforth irrevocable, and
gives rise to a covenant guaranteed by God’s fidelity. The Church does not have the power to contravene this
disposition of divine wisdom. The Catholic Catechism article 1640

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When preparing for marriage, the couple spends time with their parish priest talking about the
sanctity of marriage and its importance. They discuss questions regarding family, children, religion and
lifestyle choices. This preparation is known as pre-Cana.

The marriage itself may include a Mass (Holy Communion) and takes the following structure:

• Entrance and introduction to the ceremony.

• The Liturgy of the Word: prayers, hymns, Bible readings.
• The rite of marriage: the exchange of vows and rings.
• The Liturgy of the Eucharist: the blessing of the bread and wine.
• Concluding prayers and blessings.

Work:

1. Outline three Christian beliefs about marriage. [3]

2. Explain two reasons why some Christians think marriage is a sacrament. [4]

3. Explain how a Christian marriage ceremony might support the married couple’s relationship. [6]

4. ‘A marriage is more likely to last if the couple are religious.’ Evaluate this statement. [12]

Non- Religious Beliefs about Marriage and Partnership

Whilst many non-religious people think there is nothing wrong with cohabitation, many atheists and
Humanists choose to marry their partners. But they are more likely to opt for a civil ceremony than
one performed in a religious building. Like Christians, atheists and Humanists choose to marry so as
to make a commitment to share their lives with their respective partners. However, unlike Christians
they think their commitment is reliant on their own efforts without the need to appeal to a
supernatural power for a blessing or help. Similarly, they are less likely to frown upon same-sex civil
partnerships or marriages.

Atheist and Humanist marriages allow for greater personalisation than religious ceremonies; they
have more choice of words and rituals to incorporate within their services. However, if the ceremony
is not performed by a registrar in a registry office or a location with a license to hold weddings then
the couple will need to have a civil ceremony too for their marriage to be legally recognised.

Roles and Status of Partners in the Marriage

Most people would say that the couple should have equal status and equal roles in a marriage. Many
Christians would agree with this, believing that God created men and women to be in a relationship
with each other, with both being created in his image.

Changes in society including attitudes to the sexes and the labour market
mean that the roles they play in the family should be interchangeable. Indeed,
most households need both partners to go out to work and share the childcare
in order to make ends meet.

However, some Christians, whilst accepting that the couple are equal in status,
think men and women have distinctly different roles to play. They take the
traditional view that men should go out to work, whilst women should stay at
home, raising the children and fulfilling a domestic role. The biological

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differences between men and women justify this view – for example women need to breast-feed their
babies, making them better suited to caring for young children. Men, on average, are stronger, making
them more suited to performing physical labour. They may also argue that by having clearly defined
roles, the marriage is more likely to work better as there will fewer arguments about sharing the
chores.
Wives, obey your husbands as you
There are some Christians who think men and women have
obey the Lord. The husband is the
different status as well as different roles. They believe the Bible head of the wife, just as Christ is the
justifies teaching the husband has the final say on family decisions. head of the church people. The
In Ephesians 5:22-24, women are exhorted to obey their church is his body and he saved it.
husbands, implying they are subordinate in status to their Wives should obey their husbands in
husbands. everything, just as the church people
obey Christ. Ephesians 5:22-24
Civil Partnerships and Same Sex Marriages

Civil partnerships were introduced in 2005, specially aimed at homosexual couples who until 2014
were barred from marriage. A couple who has a civil partnership has the same legal rights as a married
couple. For example, they have the right to a portion of their partner’s pension in the event of their
partner’s death.

If the couple wish to end their civil partnership, they need to get a dissolution order, which is the
equivalent of a divorce.

Initially, civil partnerships were only available to homosexual couples. However, in 2019 the Civil
Partnership Act (2004) was amended to allow all couples the right to apply for a civil partnership as
an alternative to marriage.

In 2014, gay marriage was introduced in Britain. The law on gay

marriage enables same sex couples to have a registry office
wedding. However, gay marriages are banned in the Church of
England and the Roman Catholic Church. Other religious
institutions are permitted to perform gay marriages but they are
not required to do so. Hence, same sex couples cannot prosecute
a religious institution for refusing to marry them

Adultery

Very few people, religious and non-religious alike, would ever argue that adultery is acceptable.
Committing adultery involves breaking your marriage vows and being unfaithful to your partner. It is
for this reason that adultery is one of the grounds for divorce under UK law.

Promiscuity

A lot of non-religious people may support the idea of

pre-marital sex and faithful cohabitation. However,
many atheists and Humanists think promiscuity, namely
having sexual relations with a number of partners
without any commitment, is unacceptable. They may
hold this view for practical reasons as promiscuity
increases the likelihood of the spread of sexually
transmitted infections. Similarly, leading a promiscuous

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life opens oneself to emotional harm as having a lot of very short term relationships could undermine
a person’s sense of self-worth.

Work:

1. Outline two attitudes to the roles of men and women in the family. [4]

2. Explain Christian attitudes to sex outside marriage. [6]

3. ‘No-one should have sex outside of marriage.’ Evaluate this statement. [12]

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 2.6 Divorce and Remarriage

In this part of the Section, you will be considering the following issues:

• Religious and non-religious beliefs/ teachings about and the (differing) attitudes of religious
and non-religious people to divorce and remarriage.

• (Differing) religious and non-religious attitudes to the breakdown of marriage and its
implications for the individuals concerned, religious communities and society.

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Divorce and the Law

If people marry, they are legally recognised as a couple. A marriage carried

out in a church or in a registry office is legally binding. Consequently, if a
couple want to separate and legally end their relationship then they must
go through the legal process of divorce.

A civil partnership is also a legal recognition of a couple’s relationship. It

can be ended by a dissolution order.

Divorce has only been possible for normal people since the Matrimonial
Causes Act of 1857 (before that you needed an act of parliament to get a divorce!). The original act
made it much easier for men to get a divorce than for women (women had to prove that their
husbands had been cruel or raped them - infidelity alone was not a sufficient case for divorce).

Under current UK law (The Divorce Reform Act of 1969), a couple can only divorce if they can prove
that one of the following conditions applies:

• Adultery
• Unreasonable behaviour
• Desertion
• Two years separation with consent (i.e. they both agree they want a divorce)
• Five years separation without consent (i.e. one of the couple does not want a divorce)

In practice, if couples want a quick divorce (i.e. they do not want to wait five years) then they are likely
to try to prove 1 or 2. This means that one partner has to accuse the other of either adultery or
unreasonable behaviour (and provide some evidence for it).

Christian Teachings and Attitudes towards Divorce and Remarriage

Christians teach that marriage is a life-long commitment. Hence, before

a marriage takes place the priest will spend time with the couple trying
to ascertain if they have grasped the serious nature of the ceremony. If
the marriage gets into difficulties, then the couple are encouraged to
do everything they can to save the relationship.

The couple can seek advice from the priest or members of the congregation as well as from members
of their own family. There are also counselling groups such as Relate or Accord that offer advice and
support for those suffering difficulties in their relationship. By listening to the couple and guiding their
conversations, the counsellors help them to identify the problems in their relationship so that they
can change it for the better.

However, in some situations the breakdown in the marriage seems to be so severe that divorce or at
least separation appears to be the only option. The Biblical teaching on divorce is unclear and this
leads to differing attitudes towards divorce within Christianity.

In the Old Testament, divorce is permitted.

Suppose a man enters into marriage with a woman, but she does not please him because he finds something
objectionable about her, and so he writes her a certificate of divorce, puts it in her hand, and sends her out
of his house; she then leaves his house. Deuteronomy 24:1

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In the New Testament, Jesus seems to take a tough line on divorce. He emphasises the Genesis
teaching that once joined together by God, the couple cannot be separated despite the allowances
made within the Mosaic Law. However, he makes an exception in the case of adultery.

When Jesus had finished saying these things, he left Galilee and went to the region of Judea beyond the
Jordan. Large crowds followed him, and he cured them there. Some Pharisees came to him, and to test him
they asked, “Is it lawful for a man to divorce his wife for any cause?” He answered, “Have you not read that
the one who made them at the beginning ‘made them male and female,’ and said, ‘For this reason a man
shall leave his father and mother and be joined to his wife, and the two shall become one flesh’? So they
are no longer two, but one flesh. Therefore, what God has joined together, let no one separate.” They said
to him, “Why then did Moses command us to give a certificate of dismissal and to divorce her?” He said to
them, “It was because you were so hard-hearted that Moses allowed you to divorce your wives, but from
the beginning it was not so. And I say to you, whoever divorces his wife, except for unchastity, and marries
another commits adultery.” Matthew 19:1-9

Based on these teachings, the Church of England does not encourage divorce
because it regards marriage as a sacred institution. However, Jesus also
taught his followers to love and forgive each other. Using Situation Ethics,
they could argue when a marriage has irretrievably broken down, the most
loving thing to do would be to accept the couple’s divorce. Consequently,
this denomination believes they should help and sympathise with those
couples who divorce. At the General Synod in 2002, the Church of England
agreed that in exceptional circumstances a divorced person may marry again
in church even if their former spouse is still alive. It is up to the discretion of
the local parish priest to offer a full service of marriage to divorcees.

For the Roman Catholic Church, marriage is a sacrament; the promises made by the couple to each
other are also made to God. The marriage is sealed by the presence of God. If a couple’s relationship
gets into difficulties, then they are encouraged to seek help. If the breakdown is irretrievable, then
they can separate but not divorce. Even if the couple obtain a civil divorce, the Roman Catholic Church
will not recognise it. Hence, they may have ended their legal agreement but the holy agreement
remains unbroken. If, after legally divorcing, one or both of the couple enter into another relationship
then it is regarded as a sin, an adulterous act, and they would not be allowed to receive holy
communion.

Whilst the Roman Catholic Church does not

recognise divorce, it does allow annulment or a
degree of nullity. (It is important to note that
annulment is not a divorce). A marriage can be
annulled if there is evidence that it was flawed in
the first place. In other words, if one or both of the
couple were forced to marry, if one or both of the
couple were incapable of knowing what they were
doing or if one of the couple had no intention of
consummating the relationship, then the marriage can be declared null and void. If the couple want
to annul their marriage, they have to apply to their local bishop and the agreed annulment comes
from the Pope. If an annulment is granted and the couple have also obtained a civil divorce, then they
are free to marry again in church.

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Given its teachings about marriage, the Roman Catholic Church does not perform or recognise
remarriages. Marriage is a legal bond on earth and a spiritual bond witnessed by God. The spiritual
bond cannot be broken using temporal laws. Whilst a couple may be granted a civil divorce by the
State, according to the Roman Catholic Church, they will still be married in the eyes of God and
therefore, they cannot remarry in a church. However, they do allow widowers and widows to remarry
as the wedding vows are only valid until the death of one of the partners.

Non-religious Teachings about Divorce and Remarriage

Atheists, including Humanists, regard marriage as a legal contract without any supernatural
dimension. Whilst they think divorce is sad and regrettable, they recognise there are legitimate
reasons for divorce because of domestic violence, the couple are no longer compatible or they have
simply grown apart. Consequently, if the couple wish to end their marriage, then there is nothing to
stop them seeking a divorce. The only stipulation atheists might have would be to ensure the wellbeing
of the couple and any children they might have. Similarly, atheists would have no problem with
divorcees remarrying. They may justify this view by appealing to Utilitarianism; if the divorce leads to
happiness for both partners, then the consequences of the divorce justify it.

The Implications of Divorce

For the Individual

Divorce has serious implications for the people involved. There will be many practical things that need
to be sorted out. These might include:

• Custody of children
• Child maintenance payments
• Dividing up assets (joint bank account, communally owned house)

Some couples are able to come to arrangements about these things

amicably, but sometimes it is not possible for them to agree and the
courts need to make a ruling on who should have custody of the children
and how much maintenance should be paid to whom. It may also be quite
challenging for each partner starting a new relationship.

For Society

The implications of divorce on society are difficult to prove. The breakdown of marriages leads to more
children being brought up in single parent families. More often than not they are brought up by the
mother which means many children grow up without a father figure. There have been suggestions
that in some (obviously not all) cases children brought up in single parent families are more likely to
engage in antisocial behaviour and crime. This means that divorce is bad for society as a whole. There
is also some evidence to suggest that children of divorced parents are more likely to experience the
breakdown of their own relationships later in life so the problem is repeated.

Work:

1. Outline three reasons why people divorce. [3]

2. Explain different Christian attitudes to divorce. [6]

3. ‘Attitudes to divorce have not really changed.’ Evaluate this statement. [12]

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 2.7 Family Structures and Responsibilities

In this part of the Section, you will consider the following issues:

• Religious and non-religious beliefs/ teachings about and the (differing) attitudes of religious
and non-religious people to family life and its importance, responsibilities within the family,
including those between different generations, the rights of children.

• The changing nature of family life (nuclear, extended, single-parents and reconstituted
families).

• The roles of men and women in the family

• The consequences for the individuals concerned when family life breaks down.

• Ways in which religious communities and society can help to sustain family life, support the
upbringing of children and keep the family together.

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Christian Teachings about the Purpose and Importance of the Family

The family forms the most basic social unit of humanity. Whilst
everyone’s experience of family life is different, the purpose of the
family is the same. Ideally, it offers a safe environment in which
children are raised and prepared for adulthood. Through love and
physical and emotional care, children are taught how to behave.
Similarly, it should be the place where adults support and love each
other as well as provide care for older members of the family.

There are a number of types of family:

a) The nuclear family: this family consists of two adults and any number of children.

b) The extended family: this family is composed of three or more generations who live together in the
same household or close by.

c) The reconstituted or step family: this family occurs where one or both adults have children from a
previous relationship who live with them.

d) The single-parent family: this family is composed of one parent who is not living with his/ her
partner and has most of the day to day responsibilities of raising the children.

e) The same-sex family: this family consists of a same-sex couple raising children who are either from
another relationship, adopted or conceived via a sperm donor or a surrogate mother.

Most Christians think the ideal family is either a nuclear or extended family. They believe children
should be brought up in a loving and supportive family, founded on marriage. They do not think the
family is a human creation. Rather, Genesis tells us that God created the family for the benefit of
humanity; therefore, we are stewards of the family. Husband and wife have the responsibility of
holding the family unit together, which involves love, commitment, compassion and forgiveness.

Hence, for Christians, the family is important for the following reasons:

All members of the family, each according to his or her own gift, have the grace and responsibility of building
day by day the community of persons making a family a school of deeper humanity. This happens when there
is care and love for the children, the aged and the sick; where there is a sharing of goods, of joys and of
sorrows. Pope John Paul II

• It is the place for procreation. A committed marital relationship provides stability for raising
children. By having children, the parents can practise agape (sacrificial Christian love) by
providing for them.

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 • The family provides education for the next generation. It gives children the first experience of
human society. It provides them with their first experience of love, companionship and
forgiveness.
• The family also provides cohesion within society. By supporting other families, caring for the
elderly and adopting or fostering unwanted children the family can play a vital role in the
community.

Children, obey your parents in the Lord, for this is

right. “Honour your father and mother”- this is the
first commandment with a promise: “so that it may
be well with you and you may live long on the earth.”
And, fathers, do not provoke your children to anger,
but bring them up in the discipline and instruction of
the Lord. Ephesians 6:1-4

Within the family, children are to be loved and nurtured; they are regarded as a gift from God. Hence,
parents are expected to care for them properly, teach them how to live and accept authority.

Honour your father and your mother, so that your days may be long in the land that the Lord your God is
giving you. Exodus 20:12

Listen to your father who begot you, and do not despise your mother when she is old. Proverbs 23:22

Christian parents play a significant role in the spiritual development of their children. They can teach
them how to pray, take them to church so they can attend Sunday School, send them to Church
schools and have them baptised.

In return, children are encouraged to love their parents, treating them with honour and respect.
Children are also encouraged to look after their parents if they can no longer look after themselves.

Discipline your children, and they will give you rest; they will give delight to your heart. Proverbs 29:17

And whoever does not provide for relatives, and especially for family members, has denied the faith and is
worse than an unbeliever. 1 Timothy 5:8

However, since 1971, the number of single-parent families has doubled. Most Christians think that it
is better for children to have two loving parents so that they have a role model of each sex. However,
they do not condemn single-parent families. Rather, they work towards providing single parents with
the support they need to ensure their children thrive. They think more can be done to provide practical
help (e.g. financial support and cheaper housing) and moral and emotional support through the
extended family and local community.

Christian attitudes towards same-sex families are mixed. Those Christians who think homosexuality is
wrong will worry that the children in the family have a poor role model for adult relationships.
However, those Christians who think homosexuality is a natural alternative to heterosexuality think
that as long as the couple are in a happy, stable relationship, they are likely to provide the right
environment for raising happy and well-grounded children.

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Work:

1. State three types of family. [3]

2. Explain why Christians think family life is important. [6]

3. ‘A religious family is a happy family’. Evaluate this statement. [12]

4. ‘It is the responsibility of a family to look after elderly relatives.’ Evaluate this statement. [12]

Christian Teaching about the Equality of Men and Women in the Family

The Bible teaches that all people are equal. The doctrines of creation,
salvation and judgement emphasise the importance of every person; all
have been created by God, all are offered the opportunity of salvation
through Christ and all will be judged at the end of time. Consequently,
Christianity teaches that both men and women in the family are to be
equally valued.

There is no longer Jew or Greek, there is no longer slave or free, there is no longer male and female; for all
of you are one in Christ Jesus. Galatians 3:28

Traditionally, the Church has taught that whilst men and women are equal, they have differing roles
within the family. The role of each partner complements the other and both are equally valued.

Then the Lord God said, “It is not good that the man should be alone; I will make him a helper as his partner.”
Genesis 2:18

The story of the creation of Adam and Eve found in the second chapter of Genesis describes Adam as
being created before Eve. For traditional Christians, this means there is a hierarchy of order within the
family; the husband is the head of the family and the wife, his helper, should submit to his authority.

For the husband is the head of the wife just as Christ is the head of the church, the body of which he is the
Saviour. Ephesians 5:23

Wives, in the same way, accept the authority of your husbands, so that, even if some of them do not obey
the word, they may be won over without a word by their wives’ conduct… Husbands, in the same way, show
consideration for your wives in your life together, paying honour to the woman as the weaker sex, since they
too are also heirs of the gracious gift of life - so that nothing may hinder your prayers. 1 Peter 3:1,7

The story of Original Sin in Genesis chapter 3 describes how Eve was first to succumb to the temptation
to eat the fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. This story could be used to argue that
women are morally weaker and need to be guided by their husbands.

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 Let a woman learn in silence with full submission. I permit no woman to teach or to have authority over a
man; she is to keep silent. For Adam was formed first, then Eve; and Adam was not deceived, but the woman
was deceived and became a transgressor. Yet she will be saved through childbearing, provided they continue
in faith and love and holiness, with modesty.1 Timothy 2:11-15

For traditional Christians then, the role of the man in the family is to love and
protect his wife. He has the task of caring for his wife as Christ cares for the
Church, providing for his wife and family. The role of the woman is to support her
husband, look after the home and care for the children. Many Christian women
are encouraged to follow the example of the Virgin Mary and cultivate the virtues
of obedience, submission and enduring strength in their roles as wife and mother.

However, there are many Christians who have found the traditional understanding of the roles of men
and women in the family unacceptable. They argue that society has changed, making the patriarchal
nature of some Biblical teachings dated. Similarly, greater knowledge of early Christian society has
aided Biblical scholars in their interpretation of Scripture. For example, those teachings that tell
women to maintain silence may have been written because the home (normally the jurisdiction of the
wife) initially doubled up as the Christian place of worship. When Christians first started meeting in
each other’s homes, Christian leaders were keen to remind women that they could automatically
assume a leading role in the worship.

Likewise, one can appeal to other Biblical teachings which imply

men and women are to work, side by side in the family on an equal
footing. In Genesis 1:27, both Adam and Eve are created at the same
time and both are described as being created in God’s image. Even
the creation story in Genesis 2 suggests equality as Eve is created
from one of Adam’s ribs, which could be taken to mean that God
wanted them to work together, side by side.

Those Christians who question a hierarchy within the family would prefer the husband and wife to
share equally the roles of providing for the family and caring for the children. They should listen to
each other, be prepared to compromise and share the responsibility of making decisions for the
family.

Work:

1. Outline three roles a woman plays in the family. [3]

2. Outline three roles a man plays in the family. [3]

3. Explain two reasons why Christians think men and women have an equally important role within
the family. [4]

4. ‘A woman should always obey her husband.’ Evaluate this statement. [12]

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Support for the Family by the Church

For Christians, the family remains the most important grouping that has ever been developed within
humanity. Children are more likely to thrive, grow and develop with the love and safeguarding of a
family. Hence, families should be able to offer each of their members commitment, fun, love,
companionship and security. Consequently, much of the Church’s ministry tries to support the family.

Most Christian denominations divide the countries in which they work into parishes. Each parish is
under the pastoral care of a parish priest or minister, who may be assisted by one or more curates and
who operates from a parish church. The ‘parish’ can also refer to the people or congregation of the
parish church. The work performed to support the family is led by the parish priest but all members
of the congregation may contribute to it.

Worship

Many of the Christian acts of worship encourage the whole family to

participate. Family services in particular try to include the children
with drama, newer hymns/ songs and interactive sermons. Children
may also be encouraged to join the choir.

The festivals particularly offer an opportunity to engage all the family.

For example, the Christingle service, nativity plays and carol singing at Christmas. These celebrations
do not just take place in church but also continue in the home with the family enjoying a special meal
together to mark the occasion.

Rites of Passage

The local parish plays a vital role in pivotal moments in a family’s life. Local churches perform the rite
of baptism in which the baptismal candidate is welcomed into the Christian community. In traditional
churches like the Roman Catholic Church, this ceremony is performed shortly after the baby is born
and thus, it is also the celebration of a new life within the family. Later, the child will be encouraged
to make his/ her own promises to be true to God in a service of Confirmation. This service marks the
transition from childhood to adulthood. Holy matrimony is performed in parish churches, bringing
together couples so that they too can begin their own families. The local parish also offers comfort
and solace by performing funeral services, reminding the bereaved that according to the Bible, death
does not mark the end of a person’s existence.

Support Groups

The local parish priest is on hand to offer advice and help to families. This may take the form of
confession for individual members of a family or it may involve counselling for the whole family unit.
Spiritually, Bible study groups and the sermons given during acts of collective worship, support the
family in their faith and help them grow in their relationship with God.

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 Then little children were being brought to him in order that he might lay his hands on them and pray. The
disciples spoke sternly to those who brought them; but Jesus said, “Let the little children come to me, and do
not stop them; for it is to such as these that the kingdom of heaven belongs.” Matthew 19:13-14

Children are particularly catered for within the local parish. Parent, Baby and Toddler groups are a
common feature of parish churches, where parents can bring their children to play as well as give
them an opportunity to meet other parents within their parish.

Sunday School is commonly offered by local parishes. It normally takes

place during the first half of the Sunday Eucharist service. During these
sessions, a lay (ordinary) member of the congregation teaches the
children about the Christian faith.

Confirmation classes are offered in traditional churches to provide a more

detailed understanding of the Christian faith for those teenagers who wish to confirm their faith in
Christ and thus, become fully practising members of the Christian community.

Hence, the support of the local parish is vital for Christians today:

• It provides a regular pattern of worship.

• It officiates over key rites of passage such as baptism, confirmation, marriages and funerals.
• It educates people from the local community about the Christian faith.
• It ministers to the sick and elderly. Parish priests often visit and pray for their parishioners
who are most in need.
• It supports local groups campaigning for justice and peace.

Work:

1. State three implications of the breakdown of a family. [3]

2. Explain two ways in which the Church supports the family. [4]

3. ‘The local parish is necessary for the survival of the Christian family.’ Evaluate this statement.[12]

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 2.8 Childlessness and Celibacy

In this part of the Section, you will be considering the following issues:

• Religious and non-religious beliefs/ teachings about and the (differing) attitudes of religious
and non-religious people to childlessness.

• Decisions not to have children (and reasons for such decisions).

• Forms of genetic engineering and fertility treatments to support successful conception.

• Contraception.

• Celibacy (including reasons for and against it and differing attitudes to it).

• Adoption and fostering, including religious and non-religious attitudes to them.

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Childlessness

For Christians, having children is a blessing from God. In Genesis, God calls upon
humanity to be fruitful and multiply (Genesis 1:28). Many wedding ceremonies
contain prayers calling upon God to grant the couple with the gift of children.
However, some couples struggle to conceive.

In the Bible, there are passages which imply there was shame connected to being
unable to have children. For example, Abraham and Sarah have no children when
God first makes a covenant with Abraham. In that covenant, God promises
Abraham that he will be the father of many nations. Sarah feels keenly that she has not been able to
produce a son and heir to Abraham and resorts to rather drastic measures.

Now Sarai, Abram’s wife, had borne him no children. But she had an Egyptian slave named
Hagar; so she said to Abram, “The LORD has kept me from having children. Go, sleep with my slave;
perhaps I can build a family through her.” Genesis 16:1-2

Nowadays, we have a better knowledge about the body and conception. If things go wrong on a
biological level, then a couple can seek medical treatment or adopt.

Nevertheless, some Christians think one should put one’s faith in God
in order to bring about an end to their childlessness. The Bible teaches
that God has power over human fertility. In Deuteronomy 28:62, God
threatens to curse his people with infertility if they do not keep his
commandments. More positively, it is through God’s power that Sarah,
once barren, was capable of conceiving and bearing a son at the age
of ninety years old.

And by faith even Sarah, who was past childbearing age, was enabled to bear children because
she considered him faithful who had made the promise. And so from this one man, and he as good
as dead, came descendants as numerous as the stars in the sky and as countless as the sand on
the seashore. Hebrews 11:11-12

Some people, religious and non-religious, choose not to have children. It may be simply because they
do not want to have the burden of raising children and have no natural urge to start a family. It may
be because their family has a history of genetic disorders and they think it would be selfish to have
children knowing they could inherit the condition. They may have decided that the best way they can
help save the planet is by not contributing to an increase in the population. Equally, their choice to
remain childless may be based on their choice of career or vocation.

Some Christians think that it is part of God’s Natural Law that all couple should have children. The
primary purpose of sex is to reproduce. So, if the couple are having sexual relations, they should be
open to having children.

However, other Christians think that having a family is a decision to be made by each individual and
couple. Some people may wish to serve God in a way that makes having a family impractical or
impossible such as priests, monks and nuns. Other Christians may argue that as we have been given
freewill, it should be a matter of conscience.

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Non-religious people would similarly agree that every
individual should have the freedom to choose whether
or not they have children. Having a child is a huge
responsibility and privilege, which means starting a
family should not be taken lightly. For some feminists,
a woman should have ultimate say over whether or
not she should have a child as it is her body which will
carry and bear the child.

Work:

1. What do you think about the belief that God has control over fertility?

2. Outline two reasons why some people decide not to have children. [4]

3. Explain the differing attitudes of Christians to the issue of childlessness. [6]

4. ‘Those couples who choose not to have children are being selfish.’ Evaluate this statement. [12]

Fertility Treatment

There have been many developments in reproductive medicine in recent years. Before
fertility treatment was available, childlessness and infertility simply had to be
accepted, with a lucky few couples given the option to adopt. Since the late 1970s, it
is now possible to create embryos in large numbers and store them, achieve
pregnancies in women of any age through egg donation and diagnose genetic
abnormalities in an eight-cell embryo. Consequently, infertile couples have a number
of options open to them:

• Artificial Insemination (AI): live sperm are injected into a

woman’s uterus at the time of ovulation. The sperm may
belong to the husband (AIH) or a donor (AID).
• In vitro fertilisation (IVF): the egg of a woman (or one from
a donor) is fertilised with the sperm of her partner (or a
donor) in a laboratory and then the embryo is placed into a
woman’s uterus.
• Embryo donation: unused embryos are donated by couple
who no longer need them. They are implanted into the
woman’s uterus.
• Surrogacy: the living embryo of the couple is implanted into another woman’s womb and she
carries the foetus until its birth and then hands over the child to the couple. However, paid
surrogacy is illegal in the UK.

The Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990 led to the establishment of the Human Fertilisation
and Embryology Authority (HFEA) which has the power to control and regulate certain aspects of
assisted reproductive medicine. The Act also licensed the treatment, storage and research of embryos
(research on live embryos is limited to the first fourteen days of development). Limits were also set
on the length of time that one could store embryos (ten years).

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Christian teaching on fertility treatment differs from denomination to denomination. The Roman
Catholic Church sees no problem in allowing corrective surgery such as unblocking a fallopian tube to
aid fertility. However, it is very critical of reproductive medicine.

…the Church teaches that among humans Artificial Insemination violates the dignity of the person
and the sanctity of marriage. It is therefore contrary to Natural and Divine Law…It is condemned
because a third party becoming involved in a marriage is like ‘mechanical adultery’: the donor fathers
a child (with his sperm), yet he has no responsibility to the child; any process that isolates the sacred
act of creating life from the marriage union is a violation of that marriage union (which alone is the
way to create life). Modern Catholic Dictionary

The Roman Catholic Church bases its view of fertility treatment on its
understanding of human sexuality and parenthood. By separating sex from
reproduction, fertility treatment goes against God’s Natural Law. One could
even argue that doctors are usurping the role of God by interfering in natural
processes to facilitate reproduction. In addition, introducing a third party into
the act of procreation is tantamount to marital infidelity. It may also enable
single people and gay couples to have children, thereby encouraging non-
traditional families.

Many Christians are also concerned about the possible social and physical risks to the offspring. For
example, it is not possible to discover whether the child will inherit the parents’ infertility until the
child reaches puberty. There are concerns too for the wellbeing of the infertile couple. Despite the
advances in fertility treatment, the success rate is very poor. The distress of undergoing the treatment
and the experience of failure can be devastating and can place huge strain on a relationship.

Many Protestant denominations are more open to the use of fertility treatment. They recognise the
great joy that raising a family can bring. Given the advances in fertility treatment, it seems wrong to
deny couples the chance to have a child. Nevertheless, those Christians who adopt a more positive
attitude to fertility treatment voice their reservations about the fate of excess embryos. The Human
Fertilisation and Embryology Act limited the time of storing embryos to ten years. The couple who no
longer wants to use their stored embryos can donate them to other infertile couples. However, if they
refuse to do so or cannot be contacted then the embryos are destroyed, which raises questions about
the value of human life and the status of the embryo.

Non-religious people will be more open still to the use of reproductive medicine to help infertile
couples conceive. However, they may have some issues over the use of egg, sperm and embryo
donations. It is possible that once a child learns of the way in which it was conceived, it might have
identity issues. Equally, there are some concerns about unintentional incest – it is possible (although
highly unlikely) that both members of the couple have been conceived using the same sperm or egg
donor.

Work:

1. Identify three types of fertility treatment. [3]

2. Explain what Christians believe about fertility treatments. [6]

3. ‘Every woman has the right to have a child.’ Evaluate this statement. [12]

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Genetic Engineering and Cloning

Reproductive Cloning

Reproductive cloning is a technology used to produce an animal which is genetically identical to

another animal. The process is called somatic cell nuclear transfer. Genetic material is taken from the
nucleus of a donor cell and placed in an ovum in which the nucleus has been removed. Various
treatments are given to the ovum to encourage cell division. When it reaches a suitable stage, it is
placed in the uterus of a female host and birth will potentially follow. In the UK, reproductive cloning
is illegal in humans.

In 1996, scientists managed to clone a sheep, Dolly (1996-2003)

from an adult cell. However, this success came after a large
number of failed attempts. There were 430 attempts at cell
fusion, from which 277 reconstructed eggs were produced but
only 23 of those embryos developed enough to be implanted
into foster mothers. Only one embryo, Dolly, was carried to full
term; the others suffered from genetic abnormalities which
lead to miscarriages.

The successful production of Dolly raised the possibility for infertile couples reliant on donor eggs or
sperm of having a child who carried their genetic make-up. However, the ethical cost of offering
cloning to infertile couples raises a multitude of ethical problems:

• Women would have to donate hundreds of eggs

• There could be surrogate pregnancies with high rates of miscarriage.
• The children born through the process may suffer from premature aging.
• It brings to a halt the natural process of variety and selection fundamental to evolution.
• The person cloned is not a unique individual which may lead to all sorts of psychological and
emotional issues.

Therapeutic Cloning

Therapeutic cloning involves the extraction of stem cells from the ovum
at the blastocyst stage, i.e., five days after fertilisation in humans. These
undifferentiated cells are then developed into organs for the treatment
of disease. This does not involve reproduction, only organ production
and is legal in the UK. However, it does result in the destruction of the
embryo.

Christian responses to cloning vary. The Roman Catholic Church thinks

cloning is wrong. The Bible teaches about the sanctity of life. In both
reproductive and therapeutic forms of cloning embryos will be
destroyed which shows a disregard for human life, treating the embryo
as a commodity rather than a person.

The Church of England, whilst against the use of reproductive cloning, regards therapeutic cloning as
ethically acceptable. The Biblical teachings on stewardship and Jesus’ teachings on agape can be used
to justify the use of cloning to treat disease.

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In a briefing paper entitled ‘Therapeutic Uses of Cell Nuclear Replacement’ written by Dr Jon
Polkinghorne in 2000 for the Church of England, a distinction was made between an embryo that has
the full moral status of a person from the moment of conception and an embryo that acquires moral
status as it develops greater complexity. The Church of England accepted that it is possible to use
embryos for research in the first 14 days of their existence as long as the research has a serious and
beneficial purpose.

Work:

1. Explain Christian attitudes to gene manipulation to assist the birth of a healthy child. [6]

Contraception

Contraception is used to regulate births and therefore enable family planning. Contraception is the
use of physical or chemical means to prevent sexual intercourse resulting in the conception of a child.
There are two types of contraception:

• Natural contraception: natural methods such as the cycles of the body

are used to regulate births, for example, the rhythm method, which
calculates when a woman is likely to ovulate so that she can avoid sex
during that time.
• Artificial contraception: chemical methods such as the pill or physical
barriers such as the condom are used to prevent conception.

Christian Attitudes to Contraception

Christian ideas about contraception come from Church teachings rather than from the Bible.
Teachings on birth control and family planning are often based on different Christian interpretations
of the meaning of marriage, sex and the family. Hence, there is much disagreement within the
Christian community over the use of contraception. All Christians believe in the sanctity of life because
life is a gift from God. But some Christians believe they have a choice when a life is conceived, whilst
other Christians think the power to decide when a new life begins belongs to God.

Many Protestant churches such as the Anglican, Baptist and Methodist Churches believe that parents
have a responsibility to decide whether or not to have children and when to have them. Consequently,
they think it is sensible for a couple in a stable and loving relationship to use contraception. Children
are more likely to be loved and cared for properly if the parents want them and can afford to bring
them up well.

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 The Roman Catholic Church, on the other hand, has maintained that
the use of artificial forms of contraception is wrong. This
denomination teaches that the purpose of sex is procreation and
every act of sexual intercourse should be performed with the
intention of procreation. In December 1930, Pope Pius XI issued the
encyclical Casti Connubii (‘Of Chaste Marriage’) which condemned
anything that deprived the sexual act of its natural power of
procreation. Anything that is used to prohibit procreation during sex
is a violation of God’s natural law.

Roman Catholicism has appealed to natural law to argue that God’s plan for us is inbuilt within our
human nature. This plan means that we have specific goals such as to reproduce and to acquire
knowledge. Our general goal is blessed immortality. From this plan, Roman Catholic moralists have
argued that every human being has a function and the various organs of each person have a purpose.
An examination of the proper functions of each organ leads to an understanding of one’s moral duties.
For example, the function of the brain is to acquire knowledge, which means everyone has the right
to an education. A denial of a person’s right to an education is immoral. Similarly, the function of the
reproductive system is to produce children. Hence, it is immoral to act in a way that will impede the
reproductive system in its function. Consequently, Roman Catholics are taught that the physical
expression of love between a husband and a wife in sexual intercourse cannot be separated from the
reproductive implications of both the act and marriage.

In 1968, the papal encyclical Humanae Vitae issued by Pope Paul VI reinforced the Catholic position
on contraception. Artificial methods of contraception are wrong but the use of natural family planning
is permitted for valid reasons.

The Church, nevertheless, in urging men to the observance of the precepts of the natural law, which it
interprets by its constant doctrine, teaches that each and every marital act must of necessity retain its
intrinsic relationship to the procreation of human life… Similarly excluded is any action which either before,
at the moment of, or after sexual intercourse, is specifically intended to prevent procreation—whether as an
end or as a means… If therefore there are well-grounded reasons for spacing births, arising from the physical
or psychological condition of husband or wife, or from external circumstances, the Church teaches that
married people may then take advantage of the natural cycles immanent in the reproductive system and
engage in marital intercourse only during those times that are infertile, thus controlling birth in a way which
does not in the least offend the moral principles which We have just explained. Humanae Vitae, 1968

Natural family planning involves self-control to regulate sexual activities in harmony with nature. The
most commonly practised form is the rhythm method. This involves measuring and charting physical
symptoms of the woman so as to ascertain when she is least fertile. It is permissible because it uses a
mechanism designed by God; nothing is added to the sexual act so as to change it. It also does not
completely prevent conception; the power of deciding when to create a new life still rests with God.

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Non-Religious Attitudes to Contraception

Many atheists and Humanists think the Roman Catholic

position towards artificial contraception is wrong. They
argue that by allowing people to choose to use
contraception they are given ‘procreative liberty’, which
allows them greater control over their lives. Using
contraception may bring about health benefits too; some
forms of contraception prevent the spread of sexually
transmitted infections and it also prevents unwanted
pregnancies which would otherwise result in abortions. It
could also be argued that being able to use contraception may actually strengthen the family unit;
couples can choose when to conceive and the number of children within their family. This will enable
them to be able to support their family financially as well as ensuring they have enough time to devote
to their children whilst raising them.

Ethical theories have also been used to calculate the advantages and disadvantages of using
contraception. Immanuel Kant’s categorical imperative could be used to argue against the use of
contraception. If it became a universal law that all couples have to use contraception, the law would
be counter-productive – eventually there will be no one around to apply the law! However, one could
make it a categorical imperative that all couples can decide when to have children.

Utilitarianism (‘greatest good for the greatest number’) comes out strongly in favour of allowing the
use of contraception. The consequences of using contraception such as safe sex and family planning
make its use morally justifiable. Similarly, Situation Ethics (agape should be the basis of judging the
morality of a situation) favours the use of contraception. Situationists would argue that allowing the
spread of sexually transmitted infections and an increase in the number of unwanted pregnancies is
not a loving way to treat people.

Whilst most Protestant groups would agree with the conclusions of these ethical theories, the Roman
Catholic Church would not. Pope Paul VI stated, ‘It is never lawful, even for the gravest reasons, to do
evil that good may come of it.’

Work:

1. Outline three types of contraception. [3]

2. Explain why there are different Christian attitudes to contraception. [6]

3. ‘It is wrong to use contraception.’ Evaluate this statement. [12]

4. ‘Contraception should be accepted by all religious people.’ Evaluate this statement. [12]

Celibacy

Celibacy refers to the state of abstaining from sexual relations. This can be for religious or non-religious
reasons where people stay celibate for life or simply stay celibate until marriage. Saint Paul was a firm
believer that the best way to serve Christ through living a celibate life. In 1 Corinthians 7:8 he states

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“to the unmarried and the widows I say that it is well for them to remain unmarried as I am.” The book
of Revelation states that there is a special place for virgins in heaven.

These are those who did not defile themselves with women, for they remained virgins. They follow
the Lamb wherever he goes. They were purchased from among mankind and offered as first fruits
to God and the Lamb. Revelation 14:4

When people choose to stay celibate for religious reasons

it is so that they can devote themselves to God and to the
service of others. Christian denominations today differ in
their approach to the issue of celibate priests and ministers.
In the Roman Catholic tradition, priests take a vow of
celibacy when they are ordained, whereas ministers from
Protestant traditions are allowed to marry.

Recently, the issue of celibacy has become quite

controversial – there is a feeling that it is outdated. Some
people think Roman Catholic priests should be allowed to marry and have a family if they choose to
do so. However, the Vatican continues to maintain that celibacy allows a priest to dedicate himself
entirely to his ministry.

Many people who are not members of a religious or holy order choose to live a celibate lifestyle for a
number of reasons:

• They may be unmarried and believe that it is wrong to have sex outside marriage
• They may not have met the right person yet
• They believe that staying celibate until marriage is the best way to avoid unwanted pregnancy
outside marriage
• They believe that avoiding sex before marriage and being faithful to one partner reduces the
risk of getting a sexually transmitted infection
• They may want to dedicate their lives to God or some other worthy cause e.g. charity work

Work:

1. ‘The idea of celibacy is outdated.’ Evaluate this statement. [12]

Adoption and Fostering

Adoption involves a single person or a couple taking legal responsibility for bringing up a child who
was born to someone else. Fostering involves an individual or a couple taking the role of a parent for
a specified time period. However, the local authority and the child’s birth parents retain responsibility
for the child. Many children who are adopted often experience a period of fostering before decisions
are made about the need to give the child up for adoption.

Jesus’ teachings on agape and care for the vulnerable have motivated many Christians to become
foster parents or adopt unwanted children. The Roman Catholic Church teaches that infertile Catholics
can ‘give expression to their generosity by adopting abandoned children’. (Roman Catholic Catechism
2379) Pope John Paul II endorsed this teaching by saying in 2000 ‘to adopt a child is a great work of

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love, when it is done, much is given, but much is also received’. In other words, the adopting parents
have a chance to fulfil their dream of being a complete family and the child gains a stable and caring
family that will set them up, prepared to meet life’s challenges.

In 2002, adoption law was changed by the Adoption and Children Act. It is now possible for either a
single person or a couple including same sex couples to apply to adopt a child in England and Wales.
Supporters of this change think there will be more people available to adopt children because the
most important think about adoption is ensuring all children are provided with a stable family
environment.

However, some Christian groups have objected to the amendment to the law. They have raised doubts
over the stability of relationships outside marriage and the effects same sex parents might have on
the child’s welfare.

Work:

‘Every Christian has a duty to foster or adopt a child if they have the means to do so.’ Evaluate this
statement. [12]

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