STEP TOWARDS SUCCESS SOLVED ) PAPERS ie YEARS SouyE0 QUESTION RARERS) ——— [B.Tech] Sixth/Seventh Semester Wireless Sensor Networks AKASH BOOKS NEW DEERSYLLABUS WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS Applicable from the Academic Session 2023-24 Discipline(s)/EAE/ | Semester] Group Sub-group Paper | OAE Code ECE 6 PCE PCE-3 | BCE-3427 | CSE-IoT 6 PC PC 1OT-328T E, 6 10T-EAE | TOT-BAB-2¢ | 107-332 EAE 6 ICB-EAE | ICB-EAB-20 | 107-3327 | EEE 7 PCE PCE-4 BEB-415T | CSE-NET 7 PC PC NET-475T. (CSE-in-EA. z OAR-OS-EA| _OAE-2 _| ORCE-421T EAE i NET-EAE | NET-EAE-5 | NET-475T OAB 7 ECE-OAE | ECE-OAE-4B | OBCE-421T | UNITI Introduction: Mobile Ad-hoc Networks (MANETs), Introduction to Sensor Networks, Constraints and Challenges, Advantage of Sensor Networks, Applications of Sensor Networks. Architecture: Single-Node Architecture - Hardware Components, Energy Consumption of Sensor Nodes, Operating Systems, Network Architecture -Sensor Network Scenarios, Optimization Goals, Gateway Concepts. UNIT IL Networking Sensors: Physical Layer and Transceiver Design Considerations, MAC Protocols for Wireless Sensor Networks, classification of MAC protocols, MAC protocols for sensor network, location discovery, S-MAC, IEEE 802.15.4, Routing Protocols- Energy-Efficient Routing, Geographic Routing. UNIT Ut Infrastructure Establishment: Topology Control, Clustering, Time Synchronization, Localization and Positioning, Sensor Tasking and Control. Case study, of WSN’s for different applications. UNIT IV Platform, Tool and Security: Sensor Node Hardware — Berkeley Motes, Programming Challenges, Node-level software platforms, Node-level Simulators: Security issues in Sensor Networks, Future Research Direction.ee SYLLABUS C [Academic Session: 2016-1 ] AD HOC AND SENSOR NETWORKS [ETEC-406] 3 ae od See ere Isory and cover the entire syllabus. This question should 1. Question a have objective or short answer type questions. It should be of 25 marks. the paper shall consist of four wnits as per the syllabus, Bee ee ree en ceter student may be uskeio'a te anal peeion from each unit. Each question should be of 12.5 marks. i ion networks, wireless communication and tive: The prerequisites are data communication ne 8 i pris Te ehfecdivesof the paper isto lntodace intastructare lees wireledf REE ORE UNIT I Ad Hoe Wireless Networks: Introduction, Issues in Ad Hoc Wireless Networks. Ad Hoc Wireless Internet. MAC Protocols for Ad Hoc Wireless Networ! Introduction, Issues in Designing a MAC Protocol for Ad Hoc Wireless Networks. Design Goals of a MAC Protocol for Ad Hoc Wireless Networks. Classifications of MAC Protocols, Contention- Based Protocols. Contention-Based Protocols with Reservation Mechanisms, Contention-Based MAC Protocols with Scheduling Mechanisms. MAC Protocols in Directional Antennas. Other MAC Protocols, (71, T2](No. of Hrs. 11] UNIT IL Routing Protocols for Ad Hoc Wireless Network: Introduction to Routing algorithm, Issues in Designin, ig a Routing Protocol for Ad Hoc Wireless -Driven Routing Protocols. On-Demand th Efficient Flooding Mechanisms. Hierarchical Routing Protocols. Power-Aware Routing Protocols, ‘Transport Layer and Security Protocols for Ad Hoc Wireless Networks: UNIT II Wireless Sensor Network: Frrgiustion. Sensor Network Architecture. Data Dissemination, Data Gathering. MAC Protocols for Sensor Networ cation vi ity of Other Issues 7K®: Location Discovery. Quality of a Sensor Network Evolving Standards. Hybrid wireless Network, Niroduction. Next-Generation Hybrid Wireless Architectures. Routin, id Wi res. Routing in Hybrid Wi Networks. Pricing in Multi-Hop Wireless Networks. Power Control Schemes in Hybrid Wireless Networks, Load Balancing in Hybrid Wireless Networks, (TL, T2I[No. of Hrs. 11] UNIT IV Wireless Geolocation Systems: Introduction, What js wireless Geolocation? Wireless Geolo for Wireless Geolocation. Geolocation Standards for E9: Geslocation Systems, Questions. Problems. Recent Advances in Wireless Networks: Newco, Ultra Wide. Band Radio Communication, Wirele Meera 8s Fidelity Systems. Optical Wireless | Vehicular song ttltimode 802.11 -IBEE 802.l11a/b/g. The Meghadoot Architecture, introduction to sor ] Networks, (TI, 'T2] (No. of Hrs. 11) cation System Archi tecture, Technologies 11 Services, Perfor i mance Measures forNew Topics Added From Academic Session 2023-24 Onwards SIXTH SEMESTER [B.TECH] WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS UNIT -I Q.1.What is an ad hoc network? Why ad hoc networks are needed? Discuss. Ans. Refer to Q.1. (a) End Term Examination 2017 (Pg. No. 8-2017). Q.2. Explain wireless sensor networks. What are the issues and constraints related to it? Ans. Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are like a group of tiny nodes spread out over an area to collect information about things like temperature, sound, or movement. They work together to send this information back so we can understand what's happening in that area, These networks face various constraints and challenges, including: * Limited Battery Life: The sensors are typically battery-powered, and replacing or recharging batteries can be difficult, especially in remote or hard-to-reach locations. + Energy Efficiency: Designing systems that minimize energy consumption for data processing and communication is critical to extend the lifespan of sensor nodes. (SECIS Depioyiaaat * Large-Scale Deployment: Managing a large number of sensor nodes can be complex. Ensuring network connectivity and data consistency across a wide area is challenging * Dynamic Topologies: Sensor networks often experience changes in network topology due to node failures, energy depletion, or environmental influences, requiring adaptive network management strategies, (ec) * Limited B: nsor networks typically have low bandwidth, which limits the amount of data that can be transmitted. * Interference and Reliability: Communication can be affected by interference from other wireless devices and physical obstacles, impacting data reliability and network performance. (@) Security and Privacy * Vulnerabilities: Sensor networks are susceptible to various security threats, including physical tampering, eavesdropping, and data manipulation. * Privacy Concerns: Collecting sensitive data raises privacy issues, requiring secure data a ection, transmission, and storage mechanisms. * Harsh Conditions: Sensors deployed in outdoor or industrial environments must withstand harsh conditions such as extreme temperatures, humidity, and physical impacts. * Maintenance and Durability: Regular maintenance ’can be challenging, and sensor nodes mus! reduce the need for frequent replacements. * Cost: Deploying and maintaining a WSN can be expensive, especially for large- scale applications, Cost-effective sensor design and network management are important, * Resource Allocation: Efficiently allocating limited resources, such as bandwidth and energy, is crucial for the optimal performance of sensor networks.4-2023 Sixth Semester, Wireless Sensor Networks Ans. Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are used in many areas of life to collect information and make things smarter, safer, or more efficient. Here’s how they're used in simple terms: (a) Watchirg the Environment * Weather and Air: They can check on the weather and air quality, like how hot it is or if the air is clean. * Animals and Nature: They help scientists watch animals or check how healthy forests and oceans are. * Water: They're used to make sure rivers, lakes, and oceans are clean and safe. (b) Farming * Growing Crops: They help farmers know when to water their plants or how to take better care of their fields to grow more food. * Greenhouses: In places where plants are grown inside, these sensors can control the light, heat, and water automatically. (c) Health Care + Keeping an Eye on Health: They can watch over people's health, like checking heart rate or sugar levels without goirfg to the doctor. * Helping the Elderly: They can help older people live safely at home by monitoring if they're okay. (d) Factories and Machines * Machine Health: They check if machines in factories are working right or if they need fixing, saving time and money. * Tracking Goods: They help keep track of products being shipped or stored, making sure everything is where it should be (e) Smart Cities * Traffic: They can monitor roads and traffic, helping reduce jams and making driving smoother. * Bridges and Buildings: They check if structures like bridges are safe and sound. (f) Safety and Emergencies * Fire Detection: They can quickly detect fires in firefighters respond faster * Disaster Response: They're used to monitor areas for floods, earthquakes, or other disasters to help with quick response and rescue efforts Q4. Explain the hardware components of sensor nodes, Ans. a i 8 6(a) End Term Examination 2017 (Pg, No. 22-2017) Ans. A basic sensor node comprises five main components (Figure ): forests or buildings, helping Memory ‘Communication Cont Sensors/ ee: ee actuators Power supplyLP. University-[B.Tech]-Akash Books 2023-5 1. Controller: A controller to process all the relevant data, capable of executing arbitrary code. 2. Memory:Somememorytostoreprogramsand Intermediate Data;usually, different types of memory are used for programs and data. 3. Sensors and actuators: The actual interface to the physical world: devices that can observe or control physical parameters of the environment. 4, Communication: Turning nodes into a network requires a device for sending and receiving information over a wireless channel. __ 5. Power supply: As usually no tethered power supply is available, some form of batteries are necessary to provide energy. Sometimes, some form of recharging by obtaining energy from the environment is available as well (e.g. solar cells). Q.6. Mathematically explain energy Consumption of Sensor Nodes. Ans. Bot = Bye + Ey * Bone + Bite + Posey Where: * E._,,. is the energy consumed by the sensing unit for data acquisition. + E,,..is the energy used by the processing unit to compute and manage data. + E.,,,, i8 the energy used for data transmission an reception. © E,,, is the energy consumed when the node's communication unit is on but not actively communicating. + £,,,, is the minimal energy consumed during sleep mode. Each component can be further broken down as follows: + E... = Nin. < Exy soqar Where N,,, is the number of sensing operations and E «am i8 the energy per operation. © Eycc = Nye * Eger Where Nj is the number of of processing cycles and E,.. na i8 the energy per cycle. 7B... = (N. x By, a) (N,, x E,.,,,), where N,, and N,, are the number of transmit and receive operations, respectively, and E,.,, and E,,,,, are the energies per transmit and receive operation. % * Bug, = tig, * Pur Where ty, is the time spent in idle mode and P,,, is the power consumption in idle mode. © Eves = tunap * Pay? WHETE tg 18 the time spent in sleep mode and P,,., is the power consumption in sleep mode. Y 1. Sensing * Energy Use: The process of capturing data from the environment through sensors. The energy consumed depends on the type of sensor, the frequency of data capture, and the duration of sensing operations * Optimization: Reducing the sensing frequency or using low-power sensors can help minimize energy consumption. - 2. Processing + Energy Use: The operation of the microcontroller or processor to compute, store, and manage deta. Energy usage varies with the complexity of the data processing tasks and the efficiency of the processor. * Optimization: Employing low-power microcontrollers and optimizing the software to perform only necessary computations can significantly reduce energy usage.62023 Sixth Semester, Wireless Sensor Networks 3. Communication _ © Energy Use: Transmitting and receiving data consumes more energy than sensing and processing, especially over longer distances. The energy required increases with the amount of data sent, the communication frequency, and the distance to the receiving node or base station. * Optimization: Strategies include minimizing the amount of data transmitted by using data compression, adjusting the transmission power based on distance, and employing energy-efficient communication protocols. 7 4. Idle Listening * Energy Use: The energy consumed while the node’s radio is on but not actively transmitting or receiving data. This can he surprisingly high in poorly optimized systems, * Optimization: Techniques like duty cycling, where the radio is turned off for scheduled periods, and adaptive listening strategies can reduce idle listening energy consumption. 5. Sleep Mode « Energy Use: When not actively sensing, processing, or communicating, nodes can enter a low-power sleep mode, significantly reducing energy consumption. * Optimization: Maximizing the time spent in sleep mode without compromising the network’s functionality or data collection objectives can extend the lifetime of sensor nodes. Energy Harvesting ‘As a supplementary measure, some sensor nodes incorporate ene-gy harvesting techniques, such as solar power, thermal energy conversion, or kinetic energy conversion, to replenish their energy sources. This can help extend the operational lifespan of the nodes and reduce the need for battery replacements. Q.7. What are the operating system and execution environment for WSNs? ‘Ans. Operating systems (OS) and execution environments for Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) and Internet of Things (IoT) devices play crucial roles in managing hardware resources, enabling efficient program execution, and supporting network communication. These platforms must address the unique challenges of constrained devices, including limited processing power, memory, and energy resources. Here’s an overview of both, highlighting their importance, characteristics, and examples. Operating Systems (OS) for WSNs/loT Characteristics and Requirements: + Lightweight and Efficient: They are designed to be minimalistic, consuming as little memory and processing power as possible. « Energy-Aware: Given the battery-powered nature of many sensor nodes and IoT devices, these OSes often include mechanisms for energy conservation. * Real-Time Capabilities: Some applications require the OS to support real-time task scheduling and execution. * Networking and Connectivity: Support for various wireless communication protocols is essential for data transmission within the network and to the internet. * Security: Features to ensure data integrity, confidentiality, and resistance against attacks are increasingly important.LP. University-[B.Tech]-Akash Books 2023-7 Examples: * TinyOS: Optimized for low-power wireless devices, event-driven and component- based, making it highly suitable for WSNs. * Contiki: Known for its lightweight, yet powerful support for IP networking and its ability to turn sensor nodes into networked smart objects. * RIOT: Targets IoT devices, emphasizing developer-friendliness, real-time capabilities, and support for a wide range of low-power hardware. * Mbed OS: Developed by ARM, focuses on IoT devices, providing a rich set of APIs for connectivity, security, and device management. Execution Environments Characteristics and Requirements: * Modularity: Allows for dynamic loading and unloading of software components to adapt to changing conditions or update application logic. * Interoperability: Support for standard APIs and communication protocols enables devices to work together seamlessly, regardless of the underlying hardware. * Resource Management: Efficient allocation and use of limited computational, memory, and energy resources. * Security and Isolation: Mechanisms to safely execute code from different sources, preventing malicious code from affecting system operation. Q.8. Explain Sensor Network Scenarios and optimization goal of WSNs. Ans. WSNs can be deployed in a multitude of scenarios, each with unique requirements and challenges. Here are a few examples: + Environmental Monitoring: Sensors are deployed in natural settings to monitor climate conditions, wildlife activities, or pollution levels. These networks must be robust and energy-efficient to last in potentially harsh conditions. + Smart Agriculture: Sensors monitor soil moisture, temperature, and crop health to optimize irrigation and fertilization, aiming for precision farming that maximizes yield while conserving resources * Healthcare Monitoring: Wearable sensors collect health-related data from individuals, requiring strict privacy measures and real-time data processing for timely health interventions. * Industrial Automation: In factories, sensors monitor machinery and environmental conditions, necessitating real-time processing and high reliability to prevent costly downtimes. + Smart Cities: Sensors monitor traffic, structural health, and public services, requiring extensive coverage and interoperability with different systems and technologies. - Optimization Goals The design and deployment of WSNs often revolve around several optimization goals, including: + Energy Efficiency: Since sensor nodes are typically battery-powered, extending their operational lifespan through energy-efficient designs is a primary goal. * Data Accuracy and Reliability: Ensuring the collected data is accurate and reliably transmitted to the processing center or gateway. * Network Lifetime: Strategies to maximize the overall lifetime of the sensor network, such as energy harvesting and efficient routing protocols.~ 82023 Sixth Semester, Wireless Sensor Networks * Scalability: The network should be able to grow in size or density Without. : significant losses in performance or manageability. * Security: Protecting the network from unauthorized access ant integrity and confidentiality of its data. * Cost-effectivenes: linimizing the cost of deployment and maintenance oa of the sensor network without co: ‘ionality Ans. Gateway Concepts d ensuzing the In WSNs, a gateway plays a critical role as the bridge between sensor nodes and the external network or internet, facilitating communication and data transfer. Here are key points about gateways: (a) Data Aggregation: Gateways can aggregate data from mull reducing the amount of information that needs to be transmitted to thereby saving network bandwidth and energy (b) Protocol Translation: The Protocols, enabling sensor nodes t different standards, (c) Processing and Stora; store data, providing prelimina1 or cloud service tiple sensor nodes, the central system, y often translate between different communication © communicate with external networks that use ge: Some gateways have the capability to process and ry analysis before forwarding the data to a central server (@) Security: Gateways also serve as a security checkpoint, implementing firewalls, encryption, and other security measui res to protect the sensor network from external threats. .' Operating frequency affects the propagation — on. Lower frequencies generally offer better Ber antennas or more power, acteristics and energy consumpt) and penetration but may require lar,LP. University—[B.Tech]-Akash Books 2023-9 (v) Interference Mitigation: In environments with other wireless devices, mechanisms to avoid or cope with interference are crucial. This can include frequency hopping, spread spectrum techniques, or adaptive channel selection. Transceiver Design Considerations The transceiver, which combines both transmitter and receiver functionalities, is key to enabling communication between sensor nodes. Key considerations include: (i) Low Power Operation: Power efficiency is paramount. This includes not just the active transmission and reception modes but also idle and sleep modes since the transceiver can consume significant power even when not actively communicating. (ii) Range vs. Power Consumption: There's a direct trade-off between the transmission range and power consumption. Designing a transceiver involves finding the right balance based on application-specific requirements. (iii) Integration and Size: For compactness and efficiency, transceivers are often highly integrated, combining several functions into single chips. This integration helps reduce the size and power consumption of the sensor node. (iv) Adaptive Techniques: Advanced transceivers may include features like automatic gain control, adaptive data rates, and dynamic power management to optimize performance and energy use based on current conditions. (v) Antenna Design: The antenna is a critical part of the transceiver, affecting range, directionality, and physical size of the node, Antenna design must balance these factors, often favoring compact, omnidirectional antennas for flexibility and ease of deployment. ‘Ans. Medium Access Control (MAC) protocols are crucial in managing how data packets are transmitted from different nodes across a shared communication medium in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN). The design of MAC protocols in WSNSis significantly influenced by the need to conserve energy, manage network bandwidth efficiently, and ensure reliable communication under varying network conditions. Here’s an overview of the key types of MAC protocols used in WSNs: 1, Contention-Based Protocols * Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA): Before transmitting data, a node checks if the channel is free to avoid collisions with other transmissions. Variants like CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance) introduce mechanisms like the random backoff time to further reduce collision risk. * ALOHA: A simple approach where a node sends data whenever it has data to send, without listening to the channel first. Collisions are handled through retries, which can lead to high energy consumption and reduced efficiency in dense networks. 2. Schedule-Based Protocols * Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA): The chennel time is divided into slots, and each node is assigned a specific slot to transmit its data, reducing collisions and saving energy by allowing nodes to turn off their radios when not transmitting or receiving. + Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA): The frequency band is divided into sub-bands, and each node is assigned a specific sub-band for communication. This approach reduces interference but requires more complex radio hardware.10-2023 Sixth Semester, Wireless Sensor Networks 3. Hybrid Protocols * Hybrid TDMA/CSMA: Combines the predictability with the flexibility of CSMA, allowing for scheduled trans unscheduled transmissi throughput, 4. Duty-Cycled Protocols * Sensor-MAC (S-MAC): Introduces periodic listen and reducing idle listening time and thereby conserving energy. N sleep schedules to ensure communication opportunities, * Timeout-MAC (T-MAC): An enhancement over S-MAC, where the activg Period can be dynamically shortened if no communication activity is detected, further Improving energy efficiency. 4 5. Cross-Layer Protocols * These protocols integrate functions acro: Such as combining MAC layer scheduling wit Retwork performance and energy efficiency. Q3. What is location discovery in WSN. Ans. Refer to Q.6. (a) End Term E; Q4. Discuss about the MAC pi Ans. Refer to Q.7. (a) End Term Q.5. What is IEEE802.15.147 Ans. IEEE 802.15.14 and efficiency of missions with additiy ton opportunities, optimizing both energy usage ang ety sleep cycles for odes, lodes synchronize thes ss multiple layers of the network g h routing decisions, to optimize overall q ‘amination 2018. (Pg, No, 13-2018) rotocol in WSN. Examination 2017, (Pg. No. 24-2017) Low Power: Designed for devices that require minimal power consumption, E extending battery life for months or even years, Low Data Rate: Supports data rates of up to 250 kbps, which is sufficient for ‘many Sensor network applications where the amount of data transmitted is relatively small. Small Packet Size: Optimized for small Packet transmission, reducing overhead and complexity, i Security: Provides specifications for secure data transmission, including encryption and authentication mechanisms. mM, supporting a wide range of on to industrial monitoring 1, LEACH (Low Energy Adaptive Cluste LEACH is a pioneering protocol that int to minimize energy consumption. It opera two phases: ring Hierarchy) troduces a hierarchical clustering approach 'tes in rounds, where each round consisLP. University-[B.Tech]-Akash Books. 2023-11 + Setup Phase: Sensor nodes are organized into clusters, and one node in each cluster is elected as the cluster head based on a probabilistic approach. This role is periodically rotated to distribute energy consumption evenly among nodes. + Steady-State Phase: Cluster members transmit their data to the cluster head, which aggregates the data to reduce redundancy and then forwards it to the base station. This reduces the number of transmissions and, consequently, the energy consumed. 2. PEGASIS (Power-Efficient GAthering in Sensor Information Systems) PEGASIS builds on LEACH by forming chains of sensor nodes rather than clusters Each node communicates only with its closest neighbor, and only one node (selected on a rotating basis) transmits the aggregated data to the base station. This chain-based approach further reduces energy consumption by minimizing the distance over which data must be transmitted. 3. HEED (Hybrid Energy-Efficient Distributed Clustering) HEED improves upon LEACH by using a hybrid metric based on residual energy and intra-cluster communication cost to elect cluster heads, aiming for more uniform energy consumption across the network. It periodically selects cluster heads based on a combination of their residual energy and proximity to their neighbors, leading to more effective clustering and energy utilization. 4. TEEN (Threshold Sensitive Energy Efficient Sensor Network Protocol) TEEN is designed for time-critical applications, introducing a threshold-based data transmission approach. It sets hard and soft thresholds for sensed attributes; nodes transmit data only when the sensed attribute exceeds the hard threshold, and subsequent transmissions are made only if the data varies by an amount greater than the soft threshold. This reduces the number of transmissions, saving energy, especially in applications where the data does not change frequently. 5. EAR (Energy Aware Routing) EAR focuses on finding energy-efficient paths through the network for data transmission. It evaluates paths based on energy consumption and selects routes that minimize energy depletion, distributing energy usage across multiple paths to avoid exhausting individual nodes. Q.7. Explain advantages of using geograpuchl routing protocols for WSNs. ‘Ans. Geographic routing, also known as position-based routing, is a routing strategy used in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) and ad hoc networks where the decision to forward packets is based on the geographic positions of routers and the packet's destination. This approach leverages the physical locations of nodes, typically obtained through GPS or other localization mechanisms, to simplify routing decisions and reduce overhead associated with traditional routing protocols. How Geographic Routing Works (a) Location Information: Each node in the ne‘work knows its own geographic location and the location of the destination node (or at least the direction to the destination). 2 (b) Greedy Forwarding: The most common strategy in geographic routing is greedy forwarding. In this method, the current node forwards the packet to its neighbor that is geographically closest to the destination. This process repeats until the packet reaches its destination.12-2023 Sixth Semester, Wireless Sensor Networks aad ein greedy forwarding is (c) Handling Local Maxima: A GOES a greet ae ee Fe maximum problem, where : ee ae ig the destination. Solutions Raines Routing: The packet is routed along the edges a aa graph fo by the nodes until it exits the local maximum area a greedy forwarding can reg (e) Right-Hand Rule: The packet follows the right-hand rule along the faces of th graph to circumvent obstacles. : : a (f) Location Services: To facilitate routing, geographic routing protocols may y location services that maintain the positions of nodes. This allows nodes to query destination’s location before starting the greedy forwarding process. Advantages of Geographic Routing (a) Scalability: Geographic routing scales well with the size of the n because it eliminates the need for route discovery and maintenance processes create overhead in large networks (b) Efficiency: By making localized routing decisions, geographicrouting minimizes the number of hops packets take to reach their destination, potentially reducing latency and energy consumption. (c) Simplicity: The logic behind routing decisions is simple, relying on the comparison of geographic positions, which reduces the complexity of the routing . algorithm, Challenges and Limitations (a) Location Accuracy: The efficiency of geographic routing heavily depends on the accuracy of location information. Inaccur: acies can lead to suboptimal routing paths _ or routing loops. g (b) Obstacles requiring the routin, Physical obstacles can disrupt the line-of. sight path between nodes, ig protocol to find alternative paths that circumvent these obstacles. Q.1. What is the (WSN). Ans. Topology control in W: network performance, conservis ireless Sensor Networks (WSN) is crucial for en ing energy, and extending the network's lifetime. ) Transmission Power Adjustme: - “6 : nt: Modifying nodes’ cae save energy while maintaining network connectivity. Snedes! neni aaa (2) Duty Cyelin, Techniques: Using aires; * Using directional as tO duce energy use and interforene, urectional antenn transmissions and re¢LP. University~[B.Tech|—Akash Books. 2023-13 (7D Mobility Management: Adjusting topology in response to node or base station mobility to ensure continuous connectivity and coverage. Each method aims to balance energy efficiency, connectivity, and coverage, tailored to the specific needs and constraints of the WSN. Q.2. What is the need for time synchronisation in wireless sensor networks. Ans. Time synchronization in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) is a critical process that ensures all sensor nodes in the network operate on a common time scale. This is essential for coordinating communication, managing sleep and wake-up schedules, aggregating data, and ensuring the sequential integrity of collected data across the network. Importance of Time Synchronization (a) Data Consistency and Integrity: Ensures that data collected from different parts of the network can be accurately compared or combined. (b) Energy Efficiency: Helps in coordinating sleep schedules of nodes, conserving energy without compromising network functionality. (c) Event Ordering: Allows the correct sequencing of events detected by multiple nodes. (d) Security: Time stamps can be used in security protocols to prevent replay attacks. Methods of Time Synchronization (a) Reference Broadcast Synchronization (RBS): Instead of synchronizing the entire network to a single clock, RBS synchronizes neighboring nodes to each other by broadcasting reference beacons. This method focuses on reducing relative clock offsets between neighboring nodes (b) Flooding Time Synchronization Protocol (FTSP): A single time source broadcasts synchronization messages, which are propagated throughout the network. Nodes adjust their clocks based on the arrival time of synchronization messages, considering communication delays. (c) Timing-syne Protocol for Sensor Networks (TPSN): This protocol establishes a hierarchical structure in the network. It uses a two-way message exchange between pairs of nodes to estimate and compensate for clock drifts, synchronizing the entire network in phases. ‘ (d) Gradient Time Synchronization Protocol (GTSP): GTSP uses a gradient- based approach, where nodes adjust their clocks based on the synchronization status of their neighbors, gradually achieving network-wide synchronization. (e) Precision Time Protocol (PTP): Although more commonly used in industrial and research networks than in traditional WSNs, PTP can provide high-precision time synchronization by accounting for network latencies in its time correction calculations, (f) Global Positioning System (GPS): In networks where nodes are equipped with GPS receivers, the GPS signal can provide a universal time standard for all nodes. However, this method can be costly and power-consuming, making it less ideal for resource-constrained WSNs. Q.3. What are the Properties of localization and positioning procedures. Ans. Localization and positioning procedures in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) involve determining the geographical location of sensor nodes within the network. These procedures are critical for many applications of WSNs, such as environmental monitoring, tracking, and targeted service delivery.14-2023 Sixth Semester, Wireless Sensor Networks 1. Accuracy: The precision with which a system can determine: the actual Tocat of nodes. Higher accuracy is essential for applications requiring precise tracking objects or detailed environmental monitoring. 2. Scalability: The ability of the localization system to maintain its the network size grows. Scalable localization methods can efficiently han the number of nodes without significant losses in accuracy or increase costs, Positioning, performance, dle increases in d computati " 3. Robustness: The system’s resilience to varying environmental conditions, noise. and errors in measurement. Robust localization techniques can provide reliable location information despite signal attenuation, interference, or physical obstacles. 4. Cost-effectiveness: Involves the economic considerations of implementing ‘the localization system, including the cost of additional hardware (if any), computational resources, and energy consumption. Methods that utilize existing network infrastructure or minimal additional components are generally preferred. . 5. Energy Efficiency: Especially critical for battery-powered sensor nodes, the energy consumed by the localization process should be minimized to prolong the network's operational lifetime. 6. Latency: location informati data is crucial Refers to the time taken by the localization process to provide the ion. Lower latency is beneficial for real-time applications where timely 7. Coverage: The extent of the area within which the localize nodes. Effective localization meth of the deployment area. 8. Independence from GPS: Many localization techniques aim to provide accurate Positioning without relying on GPS, which can be power-intensive and ineffective imi indoor or dense urban environments. ‘ 8. Deployment Ease: The simplicity with which the localization system eal be deployed and configured, including the need for manual calibration, placement of anchor nodes (nodes with known locations), or pre-deployment surveys. 10. Adaptability: The system’s ability to adapt to changes in the network, such as node mobility or changes in the 11. Privacy and Security: unauthorized access and manipulat location spoofing and to protect personal tracking. system can accurately ods should provide comprehensive coverage tion. Security measures should be in place to prev the privacy of individuals in applications invol Q4, Discuss the mechanism for location discovery in WSN. Ans. Refer to Q.6. (a) End Term Examination 2018, (Pg, No. 13-2018) Q5. What are Range-Based Localization Protocols. Ans. Range-based localization protocols in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN#) Jeverage measurable distances or angles between nodes to determine their posiiell™ accurately. 1. Ad Hoc Localization System: environments without fixed infrastruct to dynamically establish their positions. neighboring nodes with known positio Ad hoc localization systems are designed a ure, relying instead on the nodes themsel¥e! In these systems, nodes may use signals fr0 ns (anchors) to determine their own location” through methods like triangulation or trilateration. The ad hoe nature of these systems allows for flexibility and scalability, as nodes can join or leave the network witho' affecting its overall ability to localize nodes.LP. University-[B.Tech|-Akash Books. 2023-15 2. Localization with Noisy Range Measurements: Dealing with noisy range measurements is a significant challenge in range-based localization, Noise can stem from various sources, including hardware imperfections, environmental factors, and signal interference. To mitigate these effects, advanced signal processing techniques and robust statistical methods are employed. For example, Kalman filters and particle filters can be used to estimate node positions more accurately by filtering out noise from the range measurements. These methods often require iterative refinement and can leverage historical data to improve localization accuracy over time. 3. Time-Based Positioning Scheme: Time-based positioning schemes, such as Time of Arrival (ToA) and Time Difference of Arrival (TDoA), calculate the distance between nodes based on the travel time of a signal. These methods require precise time synchronization between nodes in the case of ToA or at least among the receiving nodes for TDoA. The accuracy of time-based schemes is highly dependent on the precision of the timing measurements, making them suitable for applications where specialized timing hardware can be deployed. These schemes are particularly effective in clear line- of-sight conditions but may be impacted by signal multipath and reflections in cluttered environments. 4. Mobile-Assisted Localization: Mobile-assisted localization introduces mobile nodes or agents into the WSN to aid in the localization process. These mobile nodes, which know their positions through mechanisms like GPS or manual configuration, move around the network and gather range measurements to or from stationary nodes. The mobility of these agents helps overcome the limitations of sparse networks by providing additional reference points for localization. This approach can significantly enhance localization accuracy and coverage, especially in large or obstacle-dense environments where fixed anchor nodes might not provide sufficient coverage. Q.6. What are range free localization protocols. Ans. Range-free localization protocols in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) provide a means to estimate the positions of sensor nodes without relying on precise measurements of distance or angle, making them particularly suitable for networks where cost, complexity, and energy constraints limit the use of range-based methods. two specific range-free approaches: Convex Position Estimation and the Approximate Point-in-Triangulation (APIT) Protocol Convex Position Estimation Convex Position Estimation is a technique that leverages the connectivity information between nodes to estimate their positions. Unlike range-based methods that require distance or angle measurements, convex position estimation relies on the concept that the actual position of a node lies within the convex hull formed by its neighbors with known positions. The main steps involved include: Connectivity Information: Gather information on which nodes are within communication range of each other. Convex Hull Calculation: For a node seeking to determine its location, identify the neighbors with known positions and compute the convex hull of these positions. The convex hull is the smallest convex polygon that encloses all the known points. Position Estimation: The node estimates its position to be within this convex hull. Various strategies can refine this estimate, such as assuming the node is at the centroid of the hull or using additional constraints to narrow down the possible area. ‘This method is particularly appealing for its simplicity and minimal hardware requirements, although its accuracy is generally lower than that of range-basedsixth Semester, Wireless Sensor Networks 16-2023 4 ‘ 5 can be influenced by the density and distribution of anchor nodes techniques and with known positions). Approximate Point The APIT protocol offers a novel t-in-Triangulation (APIT) Protocol | approach to localization by determining wh a node is inside or outside of triangles formed by triplets of anchor nodes Tt dp require distance measurements but instead uses the connectivity information b odes to make this determination. The process involves: ‘Triangle Formation: Use the positions of anchor nodes to form triangles, entire network area may be covered by multiple overlapping triangles. In/Out Determination: For each triangle, the target node (the node being local checks if it can communicate with the triangle’s vertices (anchor nodes). Based on connectivity pattern and certain rules, the node can determine ifit lies inside or out the triangle. 3 Position Estimation: By aggregating the in/out determinations for triangles, the node approximates its location to be within an area where it is cons inside the maximum number of triangles. This method effectively narrows down th possible location of the node without precise distance information. Q.7. With the help of case studies explain the applications of WSN. ‘Ans. Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) have found applications across a br range of fields due to their flexibility, cost-effectiveness, and capability for gatheriy detailed environmental data. Here are case studies highlighting the use of WSNSi various applications: 1. Environmental Monitoring Case Study: Forest Fire Detection Objective: Early detection of forest fires to minimize damage and facilitat response. and smoke sensors deployed throughout a forest. These nodes monitor environmer conditions in real-time, sending data back to a central system for analysis. Outcome: The system successfully detected early signs of fire in several insta allowing for rapid response and significantly reducing the extent of fire damage. 2. Precision Agriculture Case Study: Vineyard Monitoring Objective: To optimize water usage and improve crop health in a vineyard. He Sensor nodes measuring soil moisture, temperature, a ah levels were distributed across the vineyard, Data collected by the Se08 fas used to create a detailed map of thi 's microcli ling tar8 irrigation and intervention. vineyards micah al Outcome: Improved grape qualit: : . . mnsum and lower operational costs. Pr ogg and quantity, ith rede 3. Health Care Case Study: Remote Patient Monitoring Objective: To monitor the heal Ith condi sents in their homes, the need for hospital visits ‘onditions of patient asLP. University-[B.Tech]-Akash Books 2023-17 Implementation: Patients were provided with wearable sensors measuring vital signs such as heart rate, blood pressure, and body temperature. The sensors transmitted data to healthcare providers for continuous monitoring. Outcome: Enhanced patient care with early detection of potential health issues, increased patient comfort, and reduced healthcare costs. 4, Industrial Automation Case Study: Machine Health Monitoring Objective: To predict machine failures in a manufacturing plant and schedule maintenance proactively. Implementation: Sensors attached to machinery monitored vibrations, temperature, and acoustic emissions, signaling the early signs of wear or failure. This, data was analyzed to predict when maintenance was required. Outcome: Decreased downtime, extended machinery life, and reduced maintenance costs through timely interventions. 5, Structural Health Monitoring Case Study: Bridge Monitoring Objective: To ensure the safety and integrity of a bridge structure by detecting early signs of wear or damage. Implementation: A network ofsensors, including strain gauges and accelerometers, was installed on key points of the bridge. These sensors monitored the bridge's response to traffic and environmental stresses over time. Outcome: The system provided early warnings of potential structural issues, allowing for repairs before costly or dangerous failures could occur. 6. Smart Cities Case Study: Traffic Management Objective: To reduce traffic congestion and improve road safety in an urban area. Implementation: Sensor nodes deployed at intersections collected data on vehicle flow and pedestrian movements. This information was used to optimize traffic light timings and provide real-time traffic information to drivers. Outcome: Improved traffic flow, reduced congestion, and enhanced road safety. UNIT-IV Q.1. What are the key hardware components and features of Berkeley Motes that have facilitated their widespread use in Wireless Sensor Network (WSN). ‘Ans. Berkeley Motes, often considered pioneering devices in the field of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN), represent a series of small, low-power, wireless sensor nodes developed initially by researchers at the University of California, Berkeley. These devices played a crucial role in advancing WSN technologies and applications, serving as a foundation for numerous research projects and commercial products. Here’s an overview of the sensor node hardware typically found in Berkeley Motes: Core Components 1. Microcontroller (MCU): The brain of the mote, responsible for processing data, executing the software, and controlling other components. Early Berkeley Motes, like the MICA series, often used Atmel ATmega microcontrollers, known for their low power consumption and sufficient processing capabilities for sensor data management.18-2023 Sixth Semester, Wireless Sensor Networks 2. Radio Transceiver: Enables wireless communication between sensor and with a base station. The choice of radio technology impacts the mote’s at rate, and energy consumption. For instance, the MICAz Mote uses a 2.4 GHz IER] 802.15.4-compliant transceiver, allowing for low-power, robust wireless communicag, 5. Sensors: Berkeley Motes ean be equipped with a variety of sensors to meagung environmental parameters such as temperature, humidity, light, vibration, and mo The modularity of the design often allows for easy integration of different g depending on the application needs. 4. Power Source: Typically powered by batteries, with a design focus on minimizi ng | energy consumption to extend operational life. Some motes are designed to work wilh energy harvesting technologies, like solar power, to further prolong their deployment without maintenance. 5. Memory: Includes both RAM for temporary data storage during operation and flash memory for storing the operating system, application code, and collected data, The amount of memory determines how much data can be processed and stored locally on the mote. 6. Interface Ports: For programming the device, debugging, or connecting additional peripherals. Early motes might include serial or USB interfaces, allowing for direct connection to computers for programming and data extraction. Q.2. What are the Challenges in Sensor Network Programming. Ans. Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) present distinct challenges compared | to traditional computing environments, necessitating specialized programming frameworks and tools tailored to their unique characteristics, These characteristics significantly influence the design of sensor network programming tools; 1. Reliability: WSNs are inherently less reliable due to their distributed nature and susceptibility to node and link failures. Programming environments for WSNs must support resilience, enabling the network to adapt to changes and failures to ensure | continuous operation. This involves mechanisms for fault tolerance and dynamic. topology management. 4 2. Resource Constraints: Sensor nodes are limited in processing power, memory, and especially energy. Programming tools must enable developers to create energy- efficient applications that minimize power consumption across various operations, from | communication to data processing. The programming environment should abstract some of these complexities, allowing developers to focus on application logic while automatically optimizing for energy efficiency, 3. Scalability: WSNs can potentially include thousands of nodes, demanding Programming models that scale effectively. Tools should facilitate application development for large and possibly heterogeneous networks, supporting self-management and configuration to reduce the need for manual intervention. Programming might treat the network as a single entity rather than a collection of individual nodes simplifying development for large-scale deployments, y 4. Data-centric Networks: Unlike traditional networks where the focus might be on the devices themselves, WSNs are primarily concerned with the data generated: Applications often require timely and relevant information, regardless of the ee nodes generating the data. Programming models for WSNs need to support efficient | data collection, aggregation, and analysis, possibly within the network itself to reduce | redundancy and conserve energy. This necessitates support for distributed algori and collaborative processing across nodes.LP. University-[B.Tech]-Akash Books 2023-19 Q.3. Explain Node-level Software Platforms. Ans. Node-level Software Platforms Node-level software platforms provide the runtime environment and libraries necessary for developing and executing applications on individual sensor nodes. These platforms abstract the hardware details, allowing developers to focus on application logic rather than low-level programming. Key characteristics and examples include: TinyOS: An event-driven operating system designed for low-power wireless devices, including sensor nodes. TinyOS’s component model allows for highly modular and reusable code, making it well-suited for the constrained environments of WSNs. Contiki: A lightweight, open-source operating system for the Internet of Things (ToT), offering powerful tools for building complex wireless systems. Contiki supports dynamic loading and unloading of individual programs, making it flexible for deploying updates and new applications. RIOT: An OS that aims to implement all relevant open standards supporting Internet of Things applications, including 6LoOWPAN, RPL, and CoAP. RIOT is designed to be developer-friendly, offering real-time capabilities and requiring minimal resources. ‘These platforms typically offer features such as multitasking, networking protocols optimized for WSNs, and libraries for accessing sensors and other hardware components, facilitating the development of energy-efficient applications that can operate within the resource constraints of sensor nodes. Q.4. Explain Node-level Software Platforms. Ans. Node-level Simulators Node-level simulators allow developers to model ayd test sensor network applications in a controlled environment before deployment. Simulators are crucial for evaluating the performance, reliability, and energy consumption of applications under various conditions. Examples of node-level simulators include: TOSSIM: A simulator for TinyOS applications that models the behavior of sensor networks at a high fidelity. TOSSIM can simulate thousands of nodes by emulating the ‘TinyOS code on a per-node basis, allowing for detailed analysis and debugging. Cooja: The simulator for the Contiki OS, which allows simulation of networks of Contiki nodes, including the ability to code and debug in real-time. Cooja supports simulating networks of heterogeneous nodes where each node can be individually configured NS-3: While not exclusively for WSNs, NS-3 is a discrete-event network simulator that supports a wide range of networking research, including 802,15.4 (used in WSNs), IPv6, and more. It provides detailed modelling of the network protocol stack. Simulators play a vital role in the development lifecycle of WSN applications by enabling the identification and correction of errors, performance bottlenecks, and energy inefficiencies early in the development process. They also facilitate experiments that would be difficult or impossible to perform in physical deployments, such as large- scale network simulations or testing the network under extreme conditions, Q.5. What are the primary security challenges faced by Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs).20-2023 Sixth Semester, Wireless Sensor Networks Ans. Security in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) is a critical concern due to their deployment in often unattended and hostile environments, coupled with their inherent Tesource constraints. The unique characteristics of WSNs introduce several security challenges that need to be addressed to protect the network and its data from various threats. Here are some key security issues in sensor networks: 1. Data Confidentiality: Confidentiality refers to ensuring that sensitive information is not disclosed to unauthorized entities. In WSNs, sensor nodes may collect and transmit critical data, making it imperative to protect this information from eavesdroppers. Achieving data confidentiality in resource-constrained environments without impacting the network's performance is challenging. 2, Data Integrity: Integrity involves ensuring that the data collected and transmitted by sensor nodes is not altered or tampered with. Attackers might inject false data or modify existing data to disrupt the network’s operation or to produce incorrect outcomes from data analysis. 3. Authentication: Authentication is crucial to verify the identity of nodes in the network to prevent unauthorized access and data falsification. Due to the open and distributed nature of WSNs, ensuring that only authorized nodes can join and communicate within the network is challenging, especially with limited computational resources. 4. Availability: Sensor networks must attacks or failures. Denial of Service (DoS! network's resources or disru of WSN services. 5. Secure Localization: Many WSN applications rely on accurate location information. Attackers might attempt to compromise the localization process by feeding false signals or manipulating the environment, leading to incorrect location estimation, which could severely impact the network’s functionality. 6. Sybil Attacks: In 2 Sybil attack, a malicious node illes identities to subvert the reputation system of the network, disrupt routing protocols, or bias aggregation functions. Detecting and Preventing Sybil attacks without demanding significant computational resources from sensor nodes is difficult. Rie 7. Node Capture Attacks: Attackers may physically capture and compromise sensor nodes to extract sensitive information, such as cryptographic keys, or to reprogram the nodes for malicious purposes. Protecting against node capture requires ‘istant hardware, which can be costly. Given the energy constraints of sensor nodes, attackers might target the energy aspect by inducing unnecessary communications or computations, aiming to deplete the nodes’ energy reserves rapidly, remain operational even in the face of ) attacks, where attackers aim to exhaust the ipt its operation, poses a significant threat to the availability gitimately takes on multiple 8. Energy Drain Attacks: