HPGD2203

TAKE HOME EXAMINATION

SEMESTER 2 / 2024

HPGD2203

EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT

NO. MATRIKULASI : CGS03058342

NO. KAD PENGENALAN : 970824085578
PART A
QUESRTION 1

As a principal, it is necessary to involve teachers in forming and implementing new teaching

changes based on the four main management functions, namely organizing, leading,
planning, and controlling. Here are some ways to do it:

1 Planning:
Planning is a matter that requires understanding clear objectives or goals, building strategies,
and organizing activities. In this process, it is necessary to involve teachers in the planning
process to ensure that their needs and ideas are taken into account. Then it is necessary to set
clear goals and objectives for new teaching changes. Next, build a realistic timetable for
implementing the changes. When teachers are involved in new instructional changes, the
following scenario can arise as an illustration of the organizing function:

Event: To address the new teaching modifications, the principal called a special meeting of
all the teachers.

Justification: To talk about the new teaching modifications, the principal called a special
conference for all of the teachers. The principal will set up a thorough agenda for this
meeting that covers topics including implementation strategies, change goals, and the roles
that each teacher will play in the process. Additionally, the principal will see to it that every
teacher gets the chance to offer criticism, pose inquiries, and express their opinions.
Principals can arrange for productive teacher collaboration and communication by hosting
these sessions, and they can also guarantee that all

2. Organizing: Assign each teacher a specific role and establish a clear organizational
framework.

First, assemble a committee or special team of educators who are willing to assist with new
educational initiatives. Second, create an efficient communication system to guarantee that all
teachers receive instructions and information in a clear and understandable manner. As an

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example of the organizing function, the following is an event that may occur in the context of
involving teachers in new teaching changes:

Event: The principal held a special meeting session involving all teachers to discuss new
teaching changes.

Explanation: The principal arranged a special meeting with all the teachers to discuss the new
teaching changes. In this meeting, the principal will organize a detailed agenda that includes
things such as change goals, implementation strategies, and each teacher's role in the process.
The principal will also ensure that all teachers have the opportunity to provide feedback, ask
questions, and share their ideas. By holding this meeting, principals can organize effective
communication and collaboration between teachers, as well as ensure that all parties
understand and are involved in the new teaching changes, and most importantly, all parties
agree on developing or implementing changes to avoid conflicts or obstacles throughout the
reform.

3. Controling

Control is to monitor performance or work results, then compare them with the objectives
that have been outlined and make necessary corrections if there are errors or contrary results.

Examples of events involving the controlling function in the new instructional modifications
are as follows:

Events: Principals create performance metrics and evaluate instructors' effectiveness in

applying new teaching strategies on a regular basis.

Justification: Principals provide explicit performance metrics, including more student

accomplishment, technological integration in the classroom, or student participation in the
educational process. The performance of the teachers is then periodically assessed by the
principal using the predetermined performance metrics. Principals may, for instance, review
test results from students, visit classrooms, or request that teachers turn in portfolios of their
work. Following the evaluation, the principal gives the teachers performance feedback,
acknowledges their accomplishments, and offers advice on how to improve where needed.

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4. Leading

Inspiring workers or staff and selecting efficient routes of communication to deliver

information to educators. For instance, by having a face-to-face meeting, the principal can
settle any disputes that arise.

Events: Principals actively use new teaching strategies and provide a good example for
others.

Explanation: The principal is aware that he must lead by example and actively participate in
the process if he is to encourage teachers to adopt innovative teaching techniques. Attending
teacher classes and putting the suggested new teaching techniques into practice could be the
principal's initiative. By doing this, the principal demonstrates to the educators his
understanding of their needs and concerns and his readiness to work with them to navigate
these changes. Furthermore, the principal will maintain open and constant communication
with the teachers, offering them support and encouragement as they apply new teaching
strategies. Principals can sway instructors to implement the intended new teaching
innovations by setting an example and getting involved.

It is possible to guarantee that new teaching innovations may be implemented in schools in an

effective and efficient manner by integrating teachers in each of these crucial managerial
tasks.

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PART A

QUESTION 2

School Management Aspects. The processes involved in school management.

The teaching and learning process (curriculum), co-curriculum (sports, clubs, associations,
uniform bodies), student affairs (security, welfare, health, and student information system),
office administration and finance, infrastructure development, staff development, and
community relations are all under the principal's scope.

1. The Management of Teaching and Learning (Curriculum)

A curriculum is the list of courses and their contents that a school or institution offers in
formal education. A curriculum is a set of courses from which students select the subjects
they want to study as well as a particular learning plan.

The following are some aspects why curriculum and teaching-learning management in
schools are significant:

(a) Ensuring that the curriculum is implemented correctly in schools:

Curriculum/teaching-learning management plays a key role in ensuring that the curriculum

established by the education authority is appropriately implemented in classrooms. This
entails making certain that pupils are taught all necessary material and components and that
suitable evaluations are carried out to gauge their progress.

(b) Assign tasks to each school teacher in order to coordinate the teaching and learning
activities:

As part of curriculum/teaching-learning management, all teachers in the school receive

assignments and obligations. This guarantees that each instructor has a significant part to play
in providing pupils with high-quality instruction so that learning objectives are met at the
conclusion of the process. Schools can guarantee consistency and uniformity in the teaching
approach among teachers by coordinating the teaching and learning activities.

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(c) Assure that the lesson plans for the week, month, and semester are carried out and
practiced:

Effective implementation of lesson plans is ensured by the use of curriculum and teaching-
learning management technology. This entails making certain that the required instructional
resources are readily available, that pertinent assessments are completed, and that learning
activities are carried out in accordance with the subjects and student levels. Lesson plans at
the daily, weekly, and semester levels can be monitored and practiced by schools to make
sure that instruction proceeds as planned and the stated learning objectives are met.

2. Management of Co-curriculum (Sports, Clubs, Associations and Uniform Bodies)

"Any educational plan managed by a school or educational institution to achieve educational

goals is defined as curriculum by the Malaysian Ministry of Education. It also includes a
framework that covers all knowledge, skills, values, and norms, as well as elements of culture
and society that are to be passed down to its members. Additionally, it includes all
experiences created and discovered by the party as if “ (Neagley & Evans, 1992).

The following are guidelines for co-curricular activities:

a) Content and structure based on National Education Policy: - The curriculum and
established National Education policy must be followed in the planning and execution of co-
curricular activities.

- The activity's material ought to be pertinent to the students' learning objectives and
professional development aspirations.

- Activities should be planned to satisfy the needs of the pupils and take into account their
developmental stage.

For instance, when it comes to sports, the curriculum and administration must adhere to the
Malaysian Ministry of Education's rules while making sure the activities help students
achieve their goals for both physical and mental growth.

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(b) Extracurricular activity participation based on interest, talent, and volunteerism: Students
ought to be allowed to take part in extracurricular activities in accordance with their interests
and skills.

- Encouragement of volunteer work is another way to promote a sense of social responsibility

and community care.

For instance, students with an interest in painting should be able to join an art group, and
students with athletic talent should be able to join the school's sports team. In order to get
students involved in aiding the community, volunteer events like gotong-royong or
community service programs should be set up.

(c) The roles that students and teachers should play: - Students should be allowed the
freedom to participate fully in extracurricular activities.

- Teachers assist and mentor students by serving as advisors and facilitators.

For instance, students will take part in the drafting of arguments and debates during debate
events. Instructors will take on the role of advisors who assist students develop their debate
techniques and facilitators who offer technical support.

Co-curricular activities can be planned and carried out successfully, meet students'
educational and developmental objectives, and provide them the chance to grow in
accordance with their interests, skills, and volunteerism by adhering to these criteria.

The management of the curriculum calls for a number of tasks. Some of the primary tasks
involved in managing the curriculum in schools include the following examples:

(a) Allocate funds for managing extracurricular activities A budget should be developed to
cover the costs of equipment, sports apparel, certificates of appreciation, transportation, and
other extracurricular management needs. Every extracurricular activity's needs and
importance must be taken into account when allocating funds.

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(b) Oversee and plan the extracurricular activities offered by the school. The co-curricular
management is responsible for overseeing and arranging the different events that happen
within the school. This entails working in tandem with sports panels, co-curricular advisory
teachers, and teachers who oversee co-curricular activities.

(b) Arranging a yearly schedule of extracurricular activities that incorporates games and
sports All of the co-curricular events that will take place during the year must be scheduled in
an annual calendar by the co-curricular management. This include taking part in athletic
events, artistic creations, religious pursuits, inspirational talks, etc. The activities in this
calendar plan must support the goals of applying holistic education and student development.

3. Administration of Student Affairs: Health, Safety, Security, and Student Information

System

The following are some of the roles that the Student Affairs Department plays in institutional
education:

(a) Overseeing and coordinating the student affairs administration The Department of Student
Affairs holds the responsibility of overseeing and arranging the management of student
affairs within the organization. This include overseeing the policies and guidelines pertaining
to student affairs, including admission fund policies and discipline policies. Additionally, this
section makes ensuring that student affairs policies are implemented correctly inside the
university.

(b) Oversee and organize the registration and documentation of students. The department in
charge of overseeing and arranging the university's new student registration process is the
Student Affairs Department. They make sure that students finish all the paperwork and steps
needed to register. They also keep track of students' academic performance, extracurricular
activities, and personal information in their student records.
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(c) Keeping track of learners daily attendance records The daily attendance records of the
students at the university are also maintained by the Department of Student Affairs. Every
day, they keep track of and record the attendance of the students. This is crucial to ensure
constant student attendance, comply with institutional standards, and track attendance.

(d) Overseeing student transfers throughout the institution, the Department of Student Affairs
is in charge of overseeing the movement of students from one program or class to another.
The needs of the student—for example, transitioning from a primary to a secondary class or
from a dialect class to an introductory language class—may be taken into consideration. In
specific circumstances involving disciplinary action or student requirements, student transfers
may also take place.

These initiatives involve, among other things, hiring advising teachers, creating co-curricular
committees, managing documentation, and tightening co-curricular policies and procedures.
For the entire school co-curriculum to be managed and implemented smoothly, it is
imperative that this co-curriculum be formed and organized.

4. Administration of Finance and Office, Infrastructure, and Staff Development

The following are some of the responsibilities related to administrative finance,

infrastructure, and staff development in educational institutions, as well as office travel:

(a) Assign duties to educators and support personnel This division is in charge of assigning
work to instructional staff members and support personnel at educational establishments.
They oversee the daily responsibilities, work schedules, and assignments for educators and
support personnel. This entails finishing jobs so that everything runs smoothly and offering
assistance so they can complete tasks efficiently and on time.

(b) Organizing training sessions, examinations, and classes for educators and support
personnel Exams, courses, and teacher and support staff training programs are also
coordinated by this department. They oversee the timely administration of exams, the
provision of professional development opportunities and training programs to help educators

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become more adept at imparting knowledge, the registration and upkeep of pertinent data,
and the mastery of efficient teaching methodologies. Ensuring quality education and
professional development for staff members is crucial.

(c) Organizing the information and data gathering The department is also in charge of
organizing the gathering of data and information in educational establishments. They make
certain that all data pertaining to infrastructure, personnel development, and administration is
appropriately gathered and preserved. This covers information about employees, students,
expenses, etc. A solid grasp of and management of pertinent facts and information is essential
for effective administration.

5. Controlling Relations with the Community

Regarding the significance of fostering positive relationships with the community,

educational establishments ought to involve a number of outside groups, including parents,
the community, and non-governmental organizations. This productive two-way interaction
between the school and outside parties is described as follows:

(a) Guardians to guarantee that parents take an active role in their children's education, a
positive relationship between the school and parents is crucial. Schools ought to make an
effort to include parents in the creation of school regulations, in decision-making involving
their kids, and in giving them feedback on how well their kids are doing in school. Open lines
of contact with parents can strengthen bonds and promote teamwork in the advancement of
students' education. Examples of this include parent-teacher conferences, school bulletins,
and digital portals.
(b) The Group Having positive relationships with the local community aids the school in
gaining support and increasing student learning possibilities. Public speaking engagements,
mentor-mentee programs, and community service are examples of cooperative initiatives that
schools and the community should actively manage together. Incorporating guest speakers or
speakers from the community into school programs can inspire kids and give them new
knowledge. Furthermore, it is imperative for educational institutions to cultivate positive
partnerships with community institutions like libraries, businesses, and cultural groups in
order to receive support for curriculum enrichment and expanded access to resources.

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Non-governmental entities (c) Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) play a significant
role in improving the wellbeing and educational opportunities for children. Schools ought to
modify the framework that permits collaboration with non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) to acquire assistance, backing, or initiatives that enhance students' educational
experiences. collaborating, for instance, with non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that
supply literature and equipment, financial assistance schemes, or volunteer-run mentorship
programs. These kinds of partnerships can give students more chances to get advice,
resources, and fulfilling educational experiences.

Schools can create an atmosphere that supports and enhances educational institutions by
building strong partnerships with parents, communities, and non-governmental organizations.
This will promote and advance student education by facilitating better communication and
resource sharing across parties.

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PART B

QUESTION 1

1. Henry Fayol’s management principles are highly applicable in organisations such as

schools. Identify 10 of these principles and explain how these principles are used in my
organisation.

Organisation: Qomary Centre (Quran Learning)

a) Division of work: Workforce specialization, broken down by department or unit, is

necessary to guarantee that the company is run in a methodical and organized way.

- The study teacher's chart should clearly delineate and organize the various jobs and
responsibilities. Here, for instance, you will find a head teacher of the Qur'an, a teacher of
Tamid for Beginners, a head teacher overseeing Online Studies, a head of Marketing and
Sales, and an administrator. This contributes to the specificity of each person's roles, abilities,
and talents.

b) Authority: Since that person will be responsible for all risks and obligations, the
instructions must come from someone who has been given permission by management.

- Here, "head teacher" refers to the person who has the authority to instruct other educators on
how to adhere to Standard Operating Procedures (SOP), which are established methods of
teaching and learning that ensure smooth operation. This means that she is the first person
who needs to be notified if there is an issue.

c) Discipline: Respect and obeying all instructions is essential to run a company's operations.

- Time management demonstrates several aspects of discipline. For example, HR is

designated to keep an eye on workers from a variety of perspectives. Considering the
instructor's presence, it is imperative to adhere to the scheduled time. Employees' attendance
will be monitored by HR; if they are late, they will receive a warning first. In order to

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preserve self-discipline, teachers must accept responsibility for their errors and make an
effort to remedy them.

d) Unity of Command

- Every employee is required to follow the job instructions issued by the designated
individual, who is the Head of the relevant Unit. For instance, the online teacher's unit
requires that his subordinates adhere to certain online teaching practices, like the length of the
class, opening the camera, recording student readings, and sending reports at the designated
time.

e) Unity of direction: Every employee in a company should be given the same instructions,
work together, and be focused on achieving the organization's objectives.

- All of the teachers, permanent and part-time, will gather at this study center once a month
for a meeting. This is done to ensure that all parties acquire and convey same information. In
order to parallel or prevent inconsistencies, teachers must follow the established directions.

f) Conflict of interest: The conflict between private and public interests is the largest
management difficulty faced by businesses. If the business has a well-organized management
system and flow procedure that all stakeholders must adhere to, this can be prevented.

- All departments are directed to adopt Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) to streamline
workflow and improve appearance in an effort to make management more methodical. To
facilitate the head teacher's oversight, teachers must also annotate the completed assignments
list and submit the lessons presented into a specific Whats App group.

g) Remuneration: Pay for each employee should be determined by their accomplishments and
credentials inside the organization. Personal interest factors are absent.

- The company's manager demonstrates her gratitude for her staff members by awarding them
a Raya bonus each year in recognition of their contributions to the business and their
steadfast devotion, which helps to further enhance the company's reputation and attract more.

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h) Order: Every directive, order, and procedure flow should be adhered to as directed.

- To ensure simultaneous and seamless operations, employees and educators are directed to
adhere to the scope of work for every unit. scopes related to marketing, cleaning, teaching,
and other areas.

i) Stability and tenure of personnel: Every employee should be allowed a set amount of time
to learn from their job experience as well as the ongoing process of learning from each
training session. During this time, every employee will be content and will give the business
their best effort.

- Following a successful interview, every new hire or teacher will have a three-month trial
and training period to help them adjust to and comprehend the extent of work they will be
doing.

j) Esprit the corps: Harmony among all employees is the main key in the success of a
management in the company that will benefit all employees.

- The manager takes great care to maintain unity between the ranks of teachers and staff; she
is open to change and willing to hear about issues raised by staff members. As a result, staff
members feel appreciated and are more driven to actively accomplish goals.

QUESTION 2

a) The following issues could arise in our nation's education planning process:

 Unbalanced attention in the curriculum:

- When designing curricula, there is a propensity to prioritize academic content over the
development of other content, such as social values, marketability, and life skills. A group of
pupils who are less competent in other crucial areas may arise from this.

 Insufficient resources:

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- One of the biggest challenges to putting excellent educational planning into practice is a
lack of resources, including money, teachers, and competent management. This may result in
an uneven distribution of high-quality education among students.

 Imbalance in educational technology:

- In this digital age, educational technology plays an important role in improving the learning
and teaching process. However, there is an imbalance in the implementation of educational
technology in our country, where some schools still lack access or do not have sufficient
resources.

There are a number of actions that may be taken to address these issues, such as involving
stakeholders, expanding access to and usage of educational technology, balancing the
curriculum's emphasis, and allocating more funds to the educational system.

b) Educational processes would I suggest to deal with the problems.

(1) Educational Planning Process Problem Definition

- Limited resource requirements: One of the main problems in educational planning is the
lack of sufficient resources to support effective planning. These can include lack of funds,
qualified and skilled teaching staff, inadequate infrastructure and equipment. This lack of
power can hinder the implementation of planning and create inequality in the provision of
quality education resources.

(2) Research Scope Analysis

- Mapping identified resource gaps should be part of the research scope analysis process.
identifying the absence of resources, such as adequate funding, qualified educators, adequate
infrastructure, and adequate equipment.

(3) Conceptual

- A research scope analysis in the context of resource scarcity might reveal a number of
resource-related problems. For instance, a shortage of funding may hinder the creation of

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educational facilities, the enhancement of teacher quality, or the acquisition of instructional
materials and equipment. A dearth of competent teachers can have an impact on the standard
of instruction and make it more difficult to deliver current and relevant instruction. Equal
access to education may also be hampered by inadequate educational facilities.

(4) Evaluation

- The stimulation approach will be utilized to plan the evaluation in accordance with the
needs and trends and to select an appropriate strategy. First, the amount of money available to
build the school system, the quantity and caliber of teachers on staff, or the availability of the
required teaching resources can all be evaluated. Second, keep an eye on and assess
educational trends, such as shifts in IQ, advancements in technology, or changes in the
population that may have an impact on adjustments to and demands made on educational
resources. In general, the needs, trends, and choice of relevant plans should be the main areas
of emphasis for evaluating the deficiency of resources in educational planning. To overcome
resource constraints and accomplish desired educational planning goals, educational planners
can devise effective solutions and strategies by integrating assessments from various
evaluation perspectives.

(5) Identification of Planning

- It completes when each issue that has to do with education is identified and regularly
reported. Plans of action and tactics are created to accomplish these objectives. This plan
covers a wide range of topics, including infrastructure development, technology utilization,
curriculum enhancement, and teacher quality improvement. After that, the action plan is put
into practice by enlisting the help of a variety of stakeholders, including the community,
government, educational institutions, and education specialists.

(6) Implementation

- Setting together a suggested educational program, getting authority to put it together, and
setting up each department to work according to schedule. A party with the authority and
resources to carry out the program must be in charge of organizing it. This entails program
organization and management that adheres to established educational policies and objectives,

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which may be done by the education department, school administrators, or the educational
community. Next, allocate tasks to each pertinent department in accordance with the
established schedule. This can involve designating organizations to plan and build curricula,
appointing teachers to teach particular courses, or designating administrative staff to oversee
operations and track results.

(7) Evaluation of Implementation

- Observe every step of planning that is done, evaluate the planning, and solve, modify,
develop, and adapt the planning to make it more cohesive and dynamic. The process of
designing education should be dynamic and grounded in the realities of the present. It's
critical to regularly assess and analyze how the strategy is being implemented and to make
any required revisions. In order to make sure that education planning goes smoothly and is
suitable for the current circumstances, a variety of topics should be addressed with the
appropriate approach. To guarantee more efficient and high-quality education planning, a
thorough analysis of the issues should be conducted before taking any action to address and
enhance the situation.

QUESTION 3

a) Choose and explain THREE of the following learning theories:

i. Behaviourism Learning Theory

- According to learning theory, environmental adaptation leads to human development and is

a learn behavior. The theory's fundamental ideas are to comprehend the behavior that is
produced and to suggest methods for helping students develop positive personalities through
a learning strategy. The behaviorism idea relates learning to altering behavior. A shift in
behavior will result from stimulus and reaction. It is therefore possible to watch, manage, and
forecast student behavior.

- Additional individuals who played a significant role in the development of learning theories
include Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936), Edward Thorndike (1874–1949), John Watson (1878–
1958), B.F. Skinner (1904–1990), and Albert Bandura.

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- Ivan Pavlov: Made a study of the dog's digestive system, which has had a great discovery
and impact on the theory of learning, which is the concept of conditioning. This concept of
conditioning is also known as classical conditioning, which suggests that behavior is
produced from a response to stimuli received. The concepts introduced are generalization,
discrimination, elimination, and relearning. Pavlov's Classical Conditioning Theory is also
known as replacement conditioning, transfer conditioning, response or respondent
conditioning, or R-G Theory.

- Edward Thorndike: In accordance with his theories on instrumental learning, Edward

Thorndike (1874–1949) created Pavlov's Classical Learning Theory. His studies on puzzle
boxes used by ravenous cats effectively demonstrated the Law of Effects and the Cuba Jaya
Method. According to Edward Thorndike, the outcome of an act—that is, whether it has a
positive or negative effect—determines whether or not the behavior is displayed. Once the
intended response has been achieved, the stimulus will be administered. He has tried his hand
at teaching dogs to stand.

- Johson Watson: Albert Einstein once said that John Watson (1878–1958), the "Father of
Behaviorism," carried on the work of Pavlov and Thorndike by studying newborns and
demonstrating that even negative emotions could be conditioned. Every behavior that is
acquired comes from how one reacts to a stimulus. He believes that since mental processes
are invisible, there is no need for us to investigate them.

- Skinner: created the Thorndike-presented Instrumental Conditioning to Operant

Conditioning. Throughout his career, B. F. Skinner (1977) developed theories regarding
reward and concentrated on behavior research.

- Albert Bandura: Albert Bandura (1925–present) is regarded as a new-behaviorist (neo-

behaviorist) since he believes that behavior is influenced by mental processes in addition to
training. According to Albert Bandura (1977), a person will see another person execute an
action, retain the observed information in their brain, and then carry out the activity.

ii. Constructive learning Theory

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- Students develop, deconstruct, and rebuild their own knowledge according to the three basic
tenets of constructivism theory. Learning then involves creating, disintegrating, and
reconstructing meaning. After that, learning happens when pupils connect new concepts to
preexisting ones in order to reorganize them. Constructivism holds that learning is an
ongoing, dynamic process that involves social and mental activities, language use, context,
background knowledge, enough time, and metacognition—the awareness and capacity to
regulate one's own thought processes during the learning process. Motivation is also seen as a
critical element of learning.

- The four pillars of constructivism are the emergence of concepts meant to establish links
with the experiences of the pupils. Second, restructuring is an interactive, hands-on, mental,
emotional, and assessment-based exercise. Third, use problem-solving and assessment to
incorporate concepts into enrichment activities. Fourthly, in order to draw judgments and
conclusions, reflection or closing attempts to draw comparisons between new and old ideas.
One philosophy that serves as a guide in education is constructivism.

iii. Cognitive Learning Theory

- The cognitive approach emphasizes the thought process more than the actual behavior. Put
another way, it emphasizes internal mental processes more. After being received, information
is processed by being chosen, compared, and combined with previously stored information.
After that, this information will be consolidated and rearranged. The internal mental process
determines the outcome of thought. The emphasis of cognitive psychologists is that humans
are not merely objects of stimulation. However, as soon as we acquire information, our brain
will actively process it and change it into a different structure or category. According to this
view, learning is essentially the process of acquiring new cognitive structures and rearranging
them so that pupils can easily recall and understand them.

b) Explain with relevant examples why learning theory is considered fundamental

knowledge for educators.

As learning theory offers a crucial theoretical foundation for organizing successful teaching
tactics and creating a supportive and productive learning environment, it is regarded as
fundamental information for educators. Teachers may design learning experiences that meet

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the needs of each individual student by comprehending and putting learning theory into
practice. The behaviorist hypothesis is the first illustration. This idea places a strong
emphasis on how the outside world shapes an individual's conduct. When applying
behaviorism, educators would emphasize reinforcement—whether it be positive or negative
—as a stimulus that influences learning. For instance, in a foreign language class, the
instructor can commend or award the pupils for correctly using the target language. By doing
this, you hope to reinforce good behavior and motivate kids to participate more fully in their
education.

Second, is a cognitive theory that highlights the role that information processing, knowledge
management, and the creation of new understanding play in learning. A cognitive theory-
based teaching strategy will emphasize the use of problem-solving techniques, organized
information presentation, and higher-order thinking-promoting tasks. For instance, when
teaching mathematics, teachers can employ a problem-based instructional strategy that
encourages students to recognize difficulties, evaluate data, and come up with answers while
actively participating in the thought process.

Third, is constructivism, which highlights how students actively participate in their own
learning through interactions with peers and the surrounding environment. Constructivist
teachers will aim to create a collaborative learning atmosphere where students can take part
in group projects, discussions, and problem solving. For instance, when teaching science,
teachers can set up laboratory experiment activities where students can cooperate to plan and
carry out experiments as a team and use what they've learned to form conclusions.

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