Class notes on Non-Destructive Testing of Structures

Unit 1
INTRODUCTION
Non-destructive testing (NDT) methods are techniques used to obtain information about the properties or
internal condition of an object without damaging the object. Non-destructive testing is a descriptive term used
for the examination of materials and components in such way that allows materials to be examined without
changing or destroying their usefulness. NDT is a quality assurance management tool which can give impressive
results when used correctly. It requires an understanding of the various methods available, their capabilities and
limitations, knowledge of the relevant standards and specifications for performing the tests. NDT techniques
can be used to monitor the integrity of the item or structure throughout its design life.
Though non-destructive testing procedures are very straightforward to use, analyzing and interpreting test
findings is more difficult. As a result, analyzing the hardened characteristics of concrete necessitates specialized
expertise. Because the specimen is not loaded to failure in non-destructive testing, the strength inferred or
calculated cannot be anticipated to give absolute values of strength. As a result, these approaches seek to test
certain additional characteristics of concrete in order to determine its strength, durability, and elastic parameters.
Hardness, resistance to projectile penetration, rebound number, resonance frequency, and capacity to transmit
ultrasonic pulse velocity are some of the characteristics of concrete.
Concrete’s electrical characteristics, as well as its ability to absorb, scatter, and transmit X-rays and Gamma-
rays, as well as its reaction to nuclear activation and acoustic emission, enable us to determine its moisture
content, density, thickness, and cement content.

Advantage
The greatest disadvantage of the conventional methods of testing concrete lies in the fact that in-situ
strength of the concrete can not be obtained without damaging the actual structure. Also the test specimens are
destroyed, once the test is performed and subsequent testing of the same specimens is not possible. Thus, the
effect of prolonged curing, weathering action and other time dependent characteristics can not be correctly
calculated. No matter how well a concrete mix is designed, there are variations in mixing conditions, amount
of compaction or curing conditions at site which cause the variations in the final product. Conventional method
of testing is not sufficient to predict the performance of the structures under adverse conditions e.g. exposure to
liquid, gas, and chemicals radiation, explosion, fire, extreme cold or hot weather, marine and chemical
environment. All such severe exposure conditions may induce deterioration in concrete and impair the integrity,
strength and stability of the structure. Thus, conventional strength test does not give idea about the durability
and performance of the actual concrete in the structure. This gave the impetus to the development of non-
destructive methods for testing structural concrete in-situ.
Advantages of non-destructive testing of concrete are:
1. The equipment is simple to use.
2. Defects can be found without causing damage to the components.
3. The methods are rapid and precise.
4. Electrical, magnetic, and chemical characteristics can be used to sort components.
5. It’s simple to keep track of test results and other information.
Disadvantages of non-destructive testing of concrete are:
1. Manual operations need the attention of skilled experts.
2. Inspection of irregular components might be difficult.
3. The couplant’s requirement.
4. Water-resistant test items are required.
Thus, NDT methods are extremely valuable in assessing the condition of structures, such as bridges, buildings,
elevated service reservoirs and highways, etc. The principal objectives of the non-destructive testing of concrete
in situ is to assess one or more of the following properties of structural concrete as below:
1. In situ strength properties
2. Durability
3. Density
4. Moisture content
5. Elastic properties
6. Extent of visible cracks

1
Prepared by Dr. S.M. Laskar
7. Thickness of structural members having only one face exposed
8. Position and condition of steel reinforcement
9. Concrete cover over the reinforcement.
10. Reliable assessment of the integrity or detection of defects of concrete members even when they are
accessible only from a single surface.
The standard life of R.C.C. frame structure is considered to be in the range of 50-60 years approximately
depending upon the use and the importance of the structure. But it has been observed that many of the buildings
completing just 50% of their life in coastal areas found to be in distressed condition and this needs the evaluation
of the strength of the building so that appropriate remedial action can be taken to improve performance of the
building depending upon the extent of deterioration of the structure.
A structure may also get damaged due to fire, earthquake, explosion, etc. there could be loss of strength
and reduction in area of cross section due to fire depending on intensity of fire, temperature, duration of fire
and size of the structural member. Stability of such member becomes critical. It is imperative to measure
residual strength and assess stability by NDT means.
Earthquake effects could prevail on all members calling resistance to deformation and distortions by
way of ductility and toughness available with them. The resulting distress is more pronounced at beam column
junction, shear and flexural zones due to excessive deflection and deformations exhibited by way of surface and
deeper penetrated cracks. In such cases there is a loss of integrity and stability of the structure. NDT is the only
means to assess the extent of cracks and to decide weather any structural damage has occurred. This decision
helps to undertake appropriate restoration or improvement strategy i.e., whether to go for grouting or
strengthening of the member.
Due to explosion, structure is suddenly loaded by way of impact forces. The structure may get heated
up under high temperature generated by explosion and burn partially and deform when it is under loads. Visible
damage may immediately help to decide for replacement of the member. But an invisible damage, which has
distressed the structure, needs assessment for integrity, loss of strength and stability. Assessment through NDT
can guide for reuse of the structure.
NDT being fast, easy to use at site and relatively less expensive can be used for the following:
1. To test actual structure instead of representative cube samples.
2. To test any number of points and at any location.
3. Quality control and quality assurance management tool
4. To assess the structure for various distressed conditions
5. Damage assessment due to fire, chemical attack, impact, age etc.
6. To detect cracks, voids, fractures, honeycombs and week locations
7. To monitor progressive changes in properties of concrete & reinforcement.
8. To assess overall stability of the structure
9. Monitoring repairs and rehabilitation systems
10. Scanning for reinforcement location, stress locations.

Variables Involved
When considering the variables of the test material that affect test results, we can group them into three areas
of concern:
1. Entry surface
2. Part size and geometry
3. Internal structure

1. Entry surface variables include:

a. surface roughness
b. surface coatings
c. couplant condition

a. Surface Roughness
Surface roughness have several possible effects on the inspection of a test piece. In contact testing roughness
on a gross scale result from weld spatter, plate scale, dirt (sand) and rough cast surfaces from sand casting.
These irregularities cause some points of contact to push away the couplant and force it into the lower areas
around the probe. If the couplant is not sufficiently viscous it drains away quickly and fail to couple the probe
to the test piece (ref. fig. below).

2
 Class notes on Non-Destructive Testing of Structures

In addition to reduced coupling, which reduces signal amplitudes, the rough surface increases the rate of wear
on the probe. On an otherwise smooth surface isolated protrusions such as weld spatter can hinder or stop probe
motion or in the case of mechanized systems there may be sufficient force to move the probe past the obstruction
but this could result in damaging the probe by either tearing it from its mounting or severely scoring the plastic
wedge. When the dirt on the test piece is very fine (similar to a flour texture) coupling can be prevented due to
surface tension preventing the liquid couplant penetrating to the metal. Unless a transfer value has been
established between test piece and calibration piece, this could go undetected.
b. Surface Coatings
Surface coatings are added to protect a surface from corrosion or to enhance its appearance. Thin films, such as
oxide layers, anodizing layers or electroplated finishes, and the slightly thicker coatings of paint or lacquer are
usually well bonded to the surface. Quality of bond may be compared to the uncoated reference block by a
simple transfer value. Even a slight loss due to the coating may be preferable to removing the coating and trying
to inspect on the rough surface it hides. When thickness testing is done on a painted surface the paint thickness
can add error to the reading.
c. Couplant Condition
Both contact and immersion methods utilize intervening media to transfer sound from the probe into the test
piece and back to the receiver. With immersion methods it is accomplished by a single fluid medium. In contact
testing there are nearly always at least two intervening media; the delay-line or protective face and the thin film
of coupling fluid or grease. Attenuation and acoustic velocity are the two main properties that dictate the
performance of a couplant. Attenuation affects amplitude of the signal and velocity will determine both transit
time and refracted angles.
But attenuation and velocity of couplants are not independent properties. Each is a function of other parameters.
Unless these parameters are controlled or in some way compensated for, gross variations from the reference
value or calibration conditions can result.

2. Part Size and Geometry

Test results may vary if the test piece differs from the calibration or reference piece. In this way both shape and
size contribute to potential variation in test results. Particular interest in this variable exists for contact testing
on curved surfaces. When a flat probe is used on a convex curved surface only a portion of the probe makes
contact. This reduces the amount of sound that can be transferred to and from the test piece. As a result,
sensitivity compared to coupling to a flat piece is reduced. The proportion of sound reduction compared to a
flat piece is a function of the curvature of the part, the crystal diameter and the coupling ability of the couplant
via its viscosity.
Some sources also consider the relative hardness of the probe face with a greater coupling or contouring
available from softer material such as plastics and virtually no contouring available.

3. Internal Structure
The final aspect of material variations affecting test results is the structure of material under test. Material
parameters are a function of makeup and environmental conditions. Makeup is determined by design and
processing. Whether the material under test is steel, aluminium or fibre-composite, variations can occur by
design. Proportion of resin to fibre vary in composites and metals may have many alloying variations. In
addition, metal grain structure can be varied by alloy, heat treatment and working. All these factors provide
differences in the results of ultrasonic tests manifested as variations in velocity or attenuation. Also, just as
temperature and pressures were noted to change velocity and attenuation in couplants so too will the material
under test be similarly affected by these externally controlled conditions.