ODA BULTUM UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF NATURAL AND COMPUTATIONAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY II

By Berhanu A. (Msc.)
4/24/2020 1
CHAPTER ONE
1. CHEMISTRY OF d-BLOCK ELEMENTS

Introduction :
 Periodic table is the systematic arrangement of elements in the order of increasing
atomic numbers of the elements. On the basis of electronic configuration the periodic
table has been divided into four blocks known as s , p, d and f block.

d – Block Elements
Definition : The elements in which last electrons enters the ‘ d ’ orbital of the penultimate
shell i.e. (n-1) d orbital are cleed as d-block elements.
The d –block elements are called transition elements and consist of elements lying
between s and p –blocks starting from fourth period onwards. These elements have
properties which are transitional between those of s and p block elements. All these
elements
4/24/2020 are metal. 2
 The transition elements may be defined as elements whose atoms or simple ions in their common
oxidation state contain partially filled d- subshell. The general electronic configuration of these
metals is (n-1)d1-10ns1-2

i) The first transition series. (3d-series) involves the filling of 3d- orbitals and has 10 elements from
scandium ( Z = 21 ) to zinc ( Z = 30 ) in the fourth period.
ii) ii) The second transition series ( 4d-series) involves the filling of 4d orbitals and has 10 elements
from ytterium ( Z= 39) to cadmium ( Z= 48 ) in the fifth period.
iii) The third transition series ( 5d-series) involves the filling of 5d-orbitals and has 10 elements. The first
element of this series is lanthanium( Z= 57 ) . it is followed by 14 elements ( lanthanides or lanthanons
involving filling of 4f- orbitals). The next nine elements are from hafnium ( Z =72)to mercury ( Z = 80).
iv) The fourth transition series ( 6d-series) involves the filling of 6d- orbitals and is incomplete starting
from Actinium ( Z= 89 ) and extenedupto element with atomic number 104.
4/24/2020 3
Assignment 1
1. Why are Zn, Cd and Hg Not Considered as the Transition Elements ?
2. Why Cr and Cu show exceptional electron configuration?
3. Why are Zn, Cd and Hg softer and volatile metals?
4. Why is the E° value for Mn3+ /Mn2+ higher than that of Cr3+ /Cr2+ (or Fe3+ /Fe2+)?
5. The number of oxidation states shown by the transition elements increases up to the
middle of the series and then decreases. Why?
6. Explain the following: (a) Why are transition elements metals? (b) Why is radius of Fe2+ less than that of
Mn2+?

1.2 General Characteristics of d- block elements

Their properties are intermediate between s-block elements and p-block elements. The members belonging to a
given transition series do not differ so much from one another as those of representative elements of the same
period.
4/24/2020 4
 It is due to the fact that in a transition series, there is no change in the number of electrons of outermost
shell and only change occurs in the (n- 1)d electrons from member to member in a period.
 They are more electropositive than p-block elements but less electropositive than s-block elements.
 They form ionic compounds in their lower oxidation state and covalent compounds in higher oxidation
states. They are all metals and have electronic configuration ns2, (n-1)d1 to 10 .

There are a number of properties shared by the transition elements that are not found in other elements,
which results from the partially filled d shell. Because of their characteristic electronic configuration, the
properties of transition elements ('d' block elements) in any period do not differ much from each other
(unlike nontransition elements from the same period).

 In addition to the above points transition elements resemble each other in many ways. These
are;
 All transition elements are metals.
 These elements are hard, high melting, and high boiling metals.
 These elements form alloys among themselves and with other metals.
 Many of the transition elements are sufficiently electropositive and get dissolved in mineral acids.
 With very few exceptions, these elements exhibit variable valencies and their ions and compounds are
coloured in one or all the oxidation states.
 Because of the partially-filled shells these elements form paramagnetic compounds.

 As it stated on the above, properties of the transition elements in any period, do not differ much from one
another, unlike those of the non-transition elements of the same period.
 The reason of this fact lies in the characteristic electronic configuration of the transition elements.
 The electronic configuration of transition elements can be written as (n – 1)dx, nsy, where x = 1 to 10 and
y= 0, 1, 2. This indicates that, the electronic configurations of of the (n – 1)th shell and the number of
electrons in the outermost shell ns is invariably 1 or 2.
1.2.1 Physical properties of d- block elements
1.2.1.1 Melting & Boiling points
 The melting and boiling points of transition elements except Zn, Cd and Hg, are very high as compared to
the s-block and p-block elements.
 These higher values are due to small atomic radii of transition elements which provides greater inter
atomic forces of attraction.
 The melting and boiling points first increase, pass through maxima and then steadily decrease across any
transition series.

The maximum occurs around middle of the series.

o In each series, the melting points of these metals rise to a maximum value and then decrease with increase
in atomic number.
o However, Manganese and Technetium have abnormally low melting points.
o The melting points of most of the transition elements except Zn, Cd and Hg are above 900°C. Tungsten
has the highest melting point (3410°C) amongst transition elements
 Explanation!
 Atoms of the transition elements are closely packed and held together by strong metallic bonds which have
appreciable covalent character.
 This leads to high melting and boiling points of the transition elements.
 The strength of the metallic bonds depends upon the number of unpaired electrons in the outermost shell of
the atom.
 The presence of one or more unpaired electrons contributes to higher interatomic forces on account of
covalent bonding and therefore, greater is the number of unpaired electrons stronger is the stronger metallic
bonding hence high melting points.
 However, this concept does not explain why manganese having five unpaired d-electrons possesses lower
melting point than that of vanadium or cobalt which has only three unpaired electrons.
 The complex structure is responsible for this abnormal behaviour.
 When no unpaired electrons are present, the melting points are low as in the case of Zn, Cd and Hg. So that,
the low melting points of Zn, Cd, and Hg may be due to the absence of unpaired d-electrons in their atoms.
 In any transition element series, the number of unpaired electrons first increases from 1 to 5 and then
decreases back to zero.
 The maximum five unpaired electrons occur at Cr (3d series).
 As a result, the melting and boiling points first increase and then decrease showing maxima around the
middle of the series. For example,

4/24/2020 9
 The melting point and density of a metal, taken together, can give a useful qualitative guide to the chemical reactivity
of the metal. A high density and high melting point indicate a low reactivity; conversely, low density and low melting
point indicate high reactivity. The melting point is allied to the heat of sublimation; the density gives a guide to the
magnitude of the ionization energy.

1.2.1.2 Density
The atomic volumes of the transition elements are low as compared with elements in neighbouring groups I
and II. This is because the, nuclear charge is poorly screened and so attracts all the electrons more strongly.
 Consequently, the densities of transition metals are high. The densities of second row are high and third
row values are still higher.
 The two elements osmium and iridium have highest densities 22.57 g mL"1 and 22.61 g mL-' respectively.
Practically all the transition elements except scandium, yttrium and titanium possess density higher than 5 g
mL'1.

1.3. Trends in the periodic table

A. Atomic radii: The atomic radii of the elements of a given series decrease with increase in atomic
number but this decrease becomes small after midway. In the first transition series, the atomic radii
gradually decreases from scandium to chromium but from chromium to copper, it is nearly the same.
Similar behavior has been observed in the second and third transition series.
Explanation! The decrease in atomic radii in each series, in the beginning, is due to an increase in nuclear
charge from member to member which tends to pull the ns-electrons inward, i.e., it tends to reduce the size.

The values of atomic radii at the end of each series are bit higher. This is due to electron-electron repulsions among (n-1)d
electrons. These repulsions become predominant at the end of each series and thus size increases. It is evident from
the atomic radii values of coinage and zinc metals. In a vertical row, the atomic radius is expected to increase from top to
bottom. Therefore, the atomic radii of transition metals of second series have larger values than those of the first
transition series.

However, the transition metals of third series except the first member, lanthanum, have nearly the same
radii as metals of second transition series «above them. This is due to Lanthanide contraction. Due to
inclusion of fourteen lanthanides between Lanthanum and Hafnium, [there is continuous decrease in
size from Ce(58) to Lu(71)] Hafnium size becomes nearly equal to the size of Zirconium.
C. Metallic character:
Most of the transition elements of the first row form metallic bonds due to the presence of incomplete
outermost energy level.
So, all the transition elements exhibit metallic characters.
All the transition elements are metals.
 They exhibit most of the properties of metals.
They possess metallic luster, high density, high melting and boiling points, malleability, ductility,
high tensile strength, hardness, brittleness, etc.
They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
They exhibit all the three types of structures: face centred cubic (fee), hexagonal closed packed (hcp)
and body centered cubic (bcc).
These properties reveal that both metallic and covalent bondings are present in the atoms of
transition elements.
The metallic bonding is due to possession of one or two electrons in the outermost energy nshell like alkali and
alkaline earth metals and relatively low ionization energies.
Copper, silver and gold are outstanding in their thermal and electrical conductivities.
The strength of the metallic bond depends upon the number of unpaired d-electrons.
 As the number increases the strength also increases. Due to the absence of unpaired electrons 'Zn' is not a hard
metal.

Explanation!
The properties of hardness and brittleness are associated with covalent bonding.
 The presence of unpaired and unfilled d-orbitals favours covalent bonding.
Greater the number of unpaired d-electrons, greater the number of covalent bonds and therefore, greater
is the strength of these bonds.
Cr, Mo and W are very hard metals as theyhave maximum number of unpaired d-orbitals while Zn, Cd and Hg
are softer in nature as they do not have any unpaired d-orbitals.

D. Ionization potentials
The ionization potential values of majority of d-block elements lie in between those of s- and p-block
elements. The d-block elements are less electropositive than s-block elements and more electropositive than p-
block elements. The transition elements do not form ionic compounds so readily as -s-block elements do. Unlike
s-block metals, transition elements form covalent compounds as well. Generally, lower valencies are ionic
and higher valencies are covalent in nature. The first ionization potential values are tabulated below in 1kJ mol"
Ionization potential values increase in a period from left to right.
The increase, however, is not regular. For example, in the case of first transition series, the
ionization potential values of Sc, Ti, V and Cr are fairly close to one another. Similarly, values of Fe, Co,
Ni and Cu are almost similar.

Activity 1.2
1. Why do the ionization energy in any transition series increases with atomic number? And why the
increase is not smooth and as sharp as seen in the case of s- and p-block elements?
2. Why do the first ionization energies of 5d-series of elements are much higher than those of the 3d- and 4d-
series elements?
3. Why the second ionization potential values of Cu and Cr do are sufficiently higher than those of
neighboring elements?
E. Electro negativity
The electro negativity of d-block elements are higher than those of s-block elements.
It is because the d-block elements have smaller atomic radii and hence the nucleus of the d- block
elements can attract the electrons in a bond more tightly.
Moreover, the electro negativity of d-blocks increase gradually across the series because the increase in
effective nuclear charge.

G. Magnetic properties
Majority of substances show magnetic nature.
These are either paramagnetic or diamagnetic.
A paramagnetic substance is one which is weakly attracted into a magnetic field and a diamagnetic
substance is one which is repelled by a magnetic field.
The paramagnetic behaviour arises due to the presence of one or more singly occupied atomic orbitals, while
diamagnetic behaviour is due to presence of paired electrons in the atomic orbitals.
Most of the transition elements and their compounds show paramagnetism.
The paramagnetism first increases in any transition element series, and then decreases.
 The maximum paramagnetism is seen around the middle of the series.
 The paramagnetism is described in Bohr Magneton (BM) units.
In d-orbitals belonging to a particular energy level, there can be at the maximum five 5unpaired
electrons in d cases.
 Therefore, paramagnetic in any transition series first 5increases and reaches a maximum value for d cases
and then decreases thereafter.
1.4 General chemical properties
Transition elements tend to have high tensile strength, density and melting and boiling points.
As with many properties of transition metals, this is due to d orbital electrons' ability to delocalize
within the metal lattice.
There is a wide variation in the chemical reactivity of transition metals, though as a group they are
not very reactive due to their high ionization energy, high sublimation energy, and low heat of hydration.
There are five common characteristic properties of transition elements:

They form colored compounds

 They can have a variety of different oxidation states
 They are good catalysts
 They are solids at room temperature (except mercury)
 They form complexes, which is described by crystal field theory.
1.4.1. Electronic configuration
Main group elements prior to the appearance of the transition group elements in the periodic chart (ie,
elements number 1 through 20) have no electrons in d orbitals, but only in the s and p orbitals.
The 3rd period p block elements have empty d orbitals.
In the fourth period from scandium to zinc, d-block elements fill up their d orbitals across the period.
With the exception of the copper group and the chromium group, all d-block elements in the ground state
have two electrons in their outer s orbital.
The electronic configuration of 2 1-10the d-block elements is ns (n-1)d , where n is the ground state
principal quantum number.
1.4.2. Variable oxidation states
All transition metals except the first and the last in the series exhibit a great variety of oxidation
states.
The stability of a particular oxidation state depends upon the nature of the element with which the
transition metal forms the compound.
The transition metals show such a range of oxidation states because their partially filled d orbitals can
accept or donate electrons in chemical reactions.
Unlike to s block elements transition metals can lose up to nine electrons.
The reason for this can be obtained by studying the ionization enthalpies of both groups.
Some common oxidation states of the first transition series elements are given below in Table
Properties with respect to the stability of oxidation states:
 Higher oxidation state ions become less stable across the period.
Ions in higher oxidation states tend to make good oxidizing agents, whereas elements in low oxidation
states become reducing agents.
 The 2+ ions across the period start as strong reducing agents, and become more stable.
 The 3+ ions start stable and become more oxidizing across the period
1.4.3. Chemical reactivity
The d-block elements (transition elements) have lesser tendency to react, i.e., these are less reactive as
compared to s-block elements. Low reactivity of transition elements is due to,
(i) Their high ionization energies,
(ii) Low heats of hydration of their ions,
(iii) Their high heats of sublimation.

1.4.4. Formation of Colored Ions

Most of the compounds of the transition elements are coloured in the solid state and/or in the solution phase.

Because of their structure, transition metals form many different colored ions and complexes.
Color even varies between the different ions of a single element - MnO4 (Mn in oxidation state
7+) is a purple compound, whereas Mn is pale- pink.
Complex formation can play a part in determining color in a transition compound.
This is because of the effect that ligands have on the 3d orbital.
Ligands pull on some of the 3d electrons and split them in to higher and lower (in terms of
energy) groups.
Electromagnetic radiation is only absorbed if its frequency is proportional to the difference in energies
between two energy states present in an atom (through the formula e=hf.)
 When light hits an atom which has had its 3d orbitals split, some of the electrons become promoted to the
higher group.
Compared to an un-complexed ion, different frequencies can be absorbed, hence different colors are observed.
Explanation! This complex formation tendency is due to:
(a) small size and high nuclear charge of the transition metal cations.
(b) the availability of vacant inner d- orbitals of suitable energy.
1.6.2 General group trends in the chemistry of transition elements

The transition elements are located in the periodic table from group 3 to group 12.
These groups are identified and named after the first element of the group.
General trends in the chemical behaviour of these groups of transition elements are described below.
Uses of Tungsten. Tungsten finds the following uses:
 For making filament in electrical bulbs.
 For making steel alloys.
 As a catalyst.
Uses.
Manganese dioxide is used as a catalyst. Manganese and chromium are used in the manufacture of
alloy steel (10 – 18% Mn).
This steel is used for making rails, rock crushers, etc.
Rhenium is used for making electric filaments, high-temperature thermocouples and flash
bulbs.
ii) The elements of the second and third triad – Ruthenium, Rhodium, Palladium, and Osmium, Iridium and
Platinum – are collectively known as Platinum metals. These elements are relatively less abundant.
(a) The lower oxidation states are common in this series of elements.
(b) All these elements have low atomic volumes and high melting and boiling points.
(c) These metals are greyish-white hard metals.

1.6.2.6 The Copper group

 Copper, silver and gold constitute Group 11.
 The most stable oxidation state for copper is + 2, while the monovalent ions of silver and gold are
relatively more stable than Cu+.
 These metals are known as coinage metals.
 These metals form alloys with many other metals. Silver and gold are used in jewellery. Some general
characteristics of this group are:
 CHAPTER TWO
2. CHEMISTRY OF F-BLOCK ELEMENTS

2.1.2 General physical and chemical properties

The Lanthanide series include fifteen elements i.e. lanthanum (57 La) to lutetium (71 Lu).
Lanthanum and Lutetium have no partly filled 4f- subshell but have electrons in 5d- subshell.
 Thus these elements should not be included in this series.
However, all these elements closely resemble lanthanum and hence are considered together.
 The lanthanide series is defined by the progressive filling of the 4f orbitals.
These seven orbitals have the following ml values: ml=0, -1,+ 1, -2,+2, -3,+3 ml=0 are real, all the
others are complex and so linear combinations must be taken to obtain real orbitals.
2.1.2.1 Physical properties of Lanthanides
1. Electronic configuration
The outer-electronic configurations of lanthanides are given in table 2.1.
There is however, some uncertainty about the correctness of these configurations.
The 5d and 4f energy levels are very close-by.
It is not always possible to decide with certainty whether the electron has entered 5d or 4f level.
Due to the extra-stability of half-filled and completely filled 7 14orbitals, there is a tendency to
acquire f and f configurations wherever possible.
The 1–14 0–1 2general electronic configuration of lanthanides may be described as 4f 5d 6s.
.
Names and the outer-electronic configurations of the lanthanides are given in following table .
2. Oxidation States
The common oxidation state exhibited by all the lanthanides is +3 (Ln3+) in aqueous solutions and
in their solid compounds.
Some elements exhibit +2 and +4 states as uncommon oxidation states e.g. La = +3, Ce = +3, +4, +2, Pr
= +3, +4 and Nd = +3, +4, +2. The trivalent state (+ 3) being more stable.

3. Melting, boiling and density

Lanthanides have fairly high melting points.
However, no definite trend is observed in melting and boiling points from La to Lu.
Lanthanides have high densities ranging –3 between 6.77 to 9.74 g cm .
The densities, in general, increase with increase in atomic number.
4. Magnetic properties:
La 3+ and Lu3+ are diamagnetic, while the trivalent ions of the rest of the lanthanides are
paramagnetic in nature.
In other word, all lanthanide ions with the exception of Lu , Yb and Ce 4+ are paramagnetic because they
contain unpaired electrons in the 4 f orbitals.
These elements differ from the transition elements in that their magnetic moments do not
obey the simple “spin only” formula µeff= √n(n+2) B.M. where n is equal to the number of
unpaired electrons.
 La and Lu are diamagnetic, while the trivalent ions of the rest of the lanthanides are
La3+ Lu 3+paramagnetic in nature.
 In other word, all lanthanide ions with the exception of Lu , Yb 4+and Ce are paramagnetic because they
contain unpaired electrons in the 4 f orbitals.
These elements differ from the transition elements in that their magnetic moments do not obey the simple
“spin only” formula µeff= √n(n+2) B.M. where n is equal to the number of unpaired electrons.
Cause of Lanthanide Contraction:
The lanthanide contraction is due to the imperfect shielding of one 4f electron by another in the same sub
shell.
As we move along the lanthanide series, the nuclear charge and the number of 4f electrons increase by
one unit at each step.
However, due to imperfect shielding, the effective nuclear charge increases causing a contraction in
electron cloud of 4f-subshell.

4/24/2020 57
4/24/2020 58
 2.1.3 Chemical properties of lanthanides
1. Reactivity of lanthanides

4/24/2020 59
 Oxidize rapidly in moist air
 Dissolve quickly in acids
 Reaction with oxygen is slow at room temperature, but they can ignite around 150-200 °C
 React with halogens upon heating
 Upon heating, react with S, H, C and N
 3. Colour formation

2.1.4 Occurrence and Abundance of the Lanthanides

Each known Lanthanide mineral contains all the members of the series.
 However, each mineral contains different concentrations of the individual Lanthanides.
The three main mineral sources are the following:
Monazite: contains mostly the lighter Lanthanides.
The commercial mining of monazite sands in the United States is centered in Florida and the Carolinas.
Xenotime: contains mostly the heavier Lanthanides.
 Euxenite: contains a fairly even distribution of the Lanthanides.

The table below presents the abundance of the lanthanides in the earth’s crust.
Two patterns emerge from these data.
 First, that the lighter lanthanides are more abundant than the heavier ones; secondly, that the elements with
even atomic number are more abundant than those with odd atomic number.
 Overall, cerium is the most abundant lanthanide.
2.1.5 Uses of Lanthanides and its Compounds
(A) Uses of the Elements:
Lanthanides are used in metallothermic reactions due to their extraordinary reducing
property (Ce is a stronger reducing agent than Al).
These metals are also used as de-oxidising agents particularly in the manufacture of Cu and its alloys.
Alloys of lanthanides are known as misch-metals, which are used for the production of different brands
of steel like heat resistant, stainless and instrumental steels.
2.2 Actinides
Introduction
These are called second inner transition series.
The elements in which the last electron enters one of the 5f-orbitals are called as actinides (or) 5f-block
elements.
 They include the elements from actinium (Ac) to Lawrencium (Lr).
 All these elements are radioactive and the elements beyond uranium are all man-made elements.
 2.2.1Physical and chemical properties of actinides
2.2.1.1 Physical property

Since both the lanthanides and actinides exhibit common oxidation state of +3 and are
electropositive the actinides have the similar physical properties such as Melting, boiling point,
ionization energy etc… Actinide 3+ or 4+ ions with similar radii to their Lanthanide counterparts show
similarities in properties that depend upon ionic radius.
II. Oxidation states.
The oxidation states commonly exhibited by actinides are given in Table below. The most stable state
is indicated by bold letter.
The + 3 state becomes more stable as the atomic number increases.
Actinide contraction.
The size of atom/cation decreases regularly along the actinides series.
The steady decrease in ionic radii with increase in atomic number is referred to as actinide contraction.
This is due to poor shielding of 5f-electrons.

4/24/2020 78
4/24/2020 79
4/24/2020 80
b. Oxides
All Actinides form oxides with different oxidation states.
 3. Co-ordination chemistry of transition metals

3.1 Definition, Nomenclature and Isomerism of Coordination Chemistry

In general the term coordination chemistry describes the chemistry of metals and metal ions in
their interaction with other molecules or ions.
Compounds that contain a coordination complex are called coordination compounds.

What is a Coordination Compound?

A coordination complex is the product of a Lewis acid-base reaction in which neutral molecules
or anions (called ligands) bond to a central metal atom (or ion) by coordinate covalent bonds.
In chemistry, a coordination complex or metal complex is a structure consisting of a central atom
or ion (usually metallic), bonded to a surrounding array of molecules or anions (ligands, complexing
agents).
A metal cation acts as a Lewis acid.
A Lewis acid is a substance that can accept a pair of electrons from another atom to form a new bond.
The atom within a ligand that is directly bonded to the central atom or ion is called the donor atom.
 Polydentate (multiple bonded) ligands can form a chelate complex.
 The electron pairs which are received come from surrounding groups which are called ligands.
Ligands are typically either neutral or anionic atoms or molecules.
Ligands act as Lewis bases.
 A Lewis base is a substance that can donate a pair of electrons to another atom to form a new bond.
 A ligand donates at least one pair of electrons to the central atom/ion.
Shortly,
 Ligands are Lewis bases - they contain at least one pair of electrons to donate to a metal atom/ion.
Ligands are also called complexing agents.
 Metal atoms/ions are Lewis acids - they can accept pairs of electrons from Lewis bases.
 Within a ligand, the atom that is directly bonded to the metal atom/ion is called the donor atom.

A coordinate covalent bond is a covalent bond in which one atom (i.e., the donor atom)
supplies both electrons.
This type of bonding is different from a normal covalent bond in which each atom supplies one
electron. If the coordination complex carries a net charge, the complex is called a complex ion.
Coordination compounds and complexes are distinct chemical species - their properties and behavior
are different from the metal atom/ion and ligands from which they are composed.
In coordination chemistry, the coordination sphere refers to a central atom or ion and an array
of molecules or anions, the ligands, around.
Molecules that are attached noncovalently to the ligands are called the second coordination
sphere.

•In other word, the central atom and the ligands which are directly attached are enclosed in square
brackets called the coordination sphere.
The ionizable groups are written outside the brackets.
The coordination sphere of a coordination compound or complex consists of the central metal
atom/ion plus its attached ligands.
The coordination sphere is usually enclosed in brackets when written in a formula.
Co-ordination Number
It is the total number of ligands attached to the central metal atom through co-ordinate bonds or
the number of atoms of a ligand attached to the same central atom, e.g. hexadentate ligand should
be counted as forming six co-ordinate bonds.
Transition metal ions usually form complexes with a well defined number of ligands.
 Complex with coordination numbers four and six are the most common, although two and five
coordination are also very well established.
Ligands
Ligands are species (neutral or anionic) bonded to the metal ion.
 There are literally thousands of ligands which have at times been used towards metals to form coordination
complexes.
Some are just common small molecules or ions, such as water, ammonia and the halogen and pseudo-
halogen ions.
 Such species typically have a single donor atom available, and even if this donor has more than one
electron lone pair, it is rare for one atom to donate more than once to a given metal.
Chelating agent:
 When a bi- or polydentate ligand uses two or more donor atoms to bind to a single metal ion, it is said to
form a chelate complex.
Such complexes tend to be more stable than similar complexes containing unidentate ligands.
Any of a variety of elements may function as donor atoms towards metal ions, but the most commonly
encountered are probably nitrogen, phosphorus, oxygen, sulfur and the halides.

4/24/2020 110
4/24/2020 111
4/24/2020 112
4/24/2020 113
4/24/2020 114
4/24/2020 115
4/24/2020 116
4/24/2020 117
3.1.3.2 Isomerism
3.1.3.2 A Stereoisomers
The square planar and octahedral structures can have different arrangements of ligands called
stereoisomers.
Stereoisomers are compounds having the same number and types of atoms bonded together but in different
spatial arrangements.
Stereoisomers have the same molecular formulas but can have very different chemical and physical
properties.
Two types of stereoisomers exist, geometric isomers and optical isomers.
II. Optical Isomers
4/24/2020 171