2.2 Cryptography................................................................................................... 2 - 4
3 - 23
2.2.1 Linear Cryptanalysis ..................................................................................... 2 - 5
2.2.2 Differential Cryptanalysis ............................................................................. 2 - 6
2.2.3 Difference between Linear and Difference Cryptanalysis ........................... 2 - 7
2.3 Stream Ciphers ................................................................................................ 2 - 7
2.3.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Stream Cipher ....................................... 2 - 8
2.3.2 Comparison between Stream and Block Cipher .......................................... 2 - 8
2.4 Substitution Techniques ................................................................................. 2 - 9
2.4.1 Caesar Cipher .............................................................................................. 2 - 9
2.4.2 Monoalphabetic Cipher ............................................................................. 2 - 10
2.4.3 Playfair Cipher............................................................................................ 2 - 10
2.4.4 Hill Cipher................................................................................................... 2 - 11
2.4.5 Polyalphabetic Substitution ....................................................................... 2 - 12
2.4.6 One Time Pad............................................................................................. 2 - 14
2.4.7 Feistel Cipher ............................................................................................. 2 - 14
2.4.8 Comparison between Monoalphabetic and Polyalphabetic Cipher .......... 2 - 17
2.5 Transposition Techniques ............................................................................. 2 - 20
2.5.1 Comparison of Substitution and Transposition Ciphers ............................. 2 - 21
2.6 Block Ciphers ................................................................................................. 2 - 23
2.6.1 Advantages and Disadvantage of Block Cipher ......................................... 2 - 24
2.7 Block Cipher Modes of Operation................................................................. 2 - 24
2.8 Simple DES .................................................................................................... 2 - 29
2.9 Data Encryption Standard ............................................................................. 2 - 33
2.9.1 Details of Single Round .............................................................................. 2 - 35
2.9.2 Key Generation .......................................................................................... 2 - 39
2.9.3 DES Encryption ........................................................................................... 2 - 39
2.9.4 DES Decryption .......................................................................................... 2 - 41
2.9.5 DES Weak Keys........................................................................................... 2 - 41
2.9.6 Advantages of DES ..................................................................................... 2 - 41
2.9.7 Disadvantages of DES................................................................................. 2 - 42
(vi)
4.4.3 Comparison between MD5 and SHA ......................................................... 4 - 17
4.5 Message Authentication Codes .................................................................... 4 - 18
4.5.1 Message Authentication Requirements .................................................... 4 - 19
4.5.2 Application of MAC .................................................................................... 4 - 19
4.5.3 MAC based on DES..................................................................................... 4 - 20
4.6 Digital Signatures .......................................................................................... 4 - 21
4.6.1 Arbitrated Digital Signatures ..................................................................... 4 - 21
4.6.2 Direct Digital Signature .............................................................................. 4 - 22
4.6.3 Digital Signature Standard ......................................................................... 4 - 23
4.6.4 Digital Signature Algorithm........................................................................ 4 - 24
4.7 PKI ................................................................................................................. 4 - 25
4.7.1 Benefits and Limitation of PKI ..................................................................... 4 - 27
4.7.2 Certificate .................................................................................................... 4 - 27
4.8 X.509 Certificate ............................................................................................ 4 - 29
4.8.1 X.509 Format of Certificate........................................................................ 4 - 30
4.8.2 Obtaining User’s Certificate ....................................................................... 4 - 31
4.8.3 Revocation of Certificates .......................................................................... 4 - 32
4.8.4 Authentication Procedures ........................................................................ 4 - 32
4.8.5 Digital Certificate ....................................................................................... 4 - 33
4.9 Web Security Issues ...................................................................................... 4 - 35
4.9.1 Transport Layer Security (TLS) ................................................................... 4 - 36
4.9.2 Comparison between IPsec and TLS .......................................................... 4 - 38
4.10 HTTPS ............................................................................................................ 4 - 38
4.11 SSH ................................................................................................................ 4 - 40
4.12 Email Security ................................................................................................ 4 - 44
4.12.1 IPv4 Header Format .................................................................................... 4 - 44
4.13 IP Security...................................................................................................... 4 - 47
4.13.1 IP Security Architecture .............................................................................. 4 - 47
4.13.2 IPSec Document .......................................................................................... 4 - 47
4.13.3 IPSec Services.............................................................................................. 4 - 48
(ix)
5.9 Concepts of Trusted System ......................................................................... 5 - 36
5.10 Trusted Computing ....................................................................................... 5 - 37
5.10.1 Software Reverse Engineering .................................................................... 5 - 38
5.10.2 Digital Rights Management ........................................................................ 5 - 39
5.11 Multiple Choice Questions with Answers ..................................................... 5 - 40
Unit VI
Chapter - 6 Cyber Security and Tools (6 - 1) to (6 - 40)
6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 6 - 2
6.1.1 Cybersqatting ................................................................................................ 6 - 3
6.1.2 Cyber Terrorism ............................................................................................ 6 - 4
6.1.3 Cybercrime against Property ........................................................................ 6 - 5
6.2 Cybercrime and Information Security ............................................................. 6 - 7
6.2.1 Types of Cyber Crimes .................................................................................. 6 - 8
6.2.2 Information Security Life Cycles ................................................................... 6 - 9
6.2.3 Botnets........................................................................................................ 6 - 10
6.2.4 Zombie ........................................................................................................ 6 - 12
6.3 Classification of Cybercrimes ........................................................................ 6 - 13
6.4 The Legal Perspectives - Indian Perspective ................................................. 6 - 16
6.4.1 Indian IT Act ................................................................................................ 6 - 17
6.4.2 Cyber Laws and Crimes as per the Indian IT Act ......................................... 6 - 19
6.4.3 Advantages of Cyber Law ........................................................................... 6 - 19
6.4.4 A Global Perspective on Cybercrimes ........................................................ 6 - 20
6.5 Categories of Cybercrime.............................................................................. 6 - 21
6.6 Social Engineering ......................................................................................... 6 - 21
6.7 Cyber Stalking................................................................................................ 6 - 23
6.7.1 Motivates of Cyber Stalker ......................................................................... 6 - 25
6.7.2 Types of Stalkers ......................................................................................... 6 - 25
6.7.3 Typology of Cyber Stalking ......................................................................... 6 - 27
6.7.4 Types of Stalkers ......................................................................................... 6 - 27
(xii)
2.9.8 Block Cipher Design Principles ................................................................... 2 - 42
2.9.9 Double DES ................................................................................................ 2 - 43
2.9.10 Triple DES .................................................................................................... 2 - 44
2.10 Confusion and Diffusion ................................................................................ 2 - 45
2.10.1 Distinguish between Diffusion and Confusion .............................................. 2 - 46
2.11 Advanced Encryption Standard..................................................................... 2 - 46
2.11.1 Evaluation Criteria for AES ............................................................................ 2 - 46
2.11.2 AES Cipher ..................................................................................................... 2 - 47
2.11.3 Comparison between AES and DES ............................................................... 2 - 49
2.12 Multiple Choice Questions with Answers ..................................................... 2 - 50
Unit III
Chapter - 3 Asymmetric Key Cryptography (3 - 1) to (3 - 56)
3.1 Number Theory ............................................................................................... 3 - 2
3.1.1 Divisibility ..................................................................................................... 3 - 2
3.1.2 Prime Number.............................................................................................. 3 - 2
3.1.2.1 Relatively Prime Numbers.............................................................................. 3 - 3
3.1.3 Greatest Common Divisor............................................................................ 3 - 4
3.2 Fermat and Euler Theorems ........................................................................... 3 - 5
3.2.1 Fermat’s and Euler’s Theorems ................................................................... 3 - 5
3.3 Testing for Primality ........................................................................................ 3 - 7
3.4 Chinese Reminder Theorem ........................................................................... 3 - 8
3.5 Euclid's Algorithm ......................................................................................... 3 - 11
3.5.1 Extended Euclidean Algorithm................................................................... 3 - 12
3.6 Discrete Logarithm ........................................................................................ 3 - 15
3.6.1 Computing Discrete Logarithm .................................................................. 3 - 16
3.7 Public Key Cryptography .............................................................................. 3 - 17
3.7.1 Advantages and Disadvantages ................................................................. 3 - 20
3.7.2 Comparison between Public Key and Private Key Algorithm .................... 3 - 20
3.8 RSA ................................................................................................................ 3 - 22
(vii)
4.13.4 Security Association .................................................................................... 4 - 49
4.13.5 SA Parameters ............................................................................................ 4 - 50
4.13.6 Transport Mode .......................................................................................... 4 - 50
4.13.7 Tunnel Mode............................................................................................... 4 - 51
4.13.8 Application of IPSec .................................................................................... 4 - 52
4.13.9 Benefits of IPSec ......................................................................................... 4 - 52
4.14 Authentication Header.................................................................................. 4 - 52
4.14.1 AH Transport Mode .................................................................................... 4 - 54
4.14.2 AH Tunnel Mode ......................................................................................... 4 - 54
4.15 ESP ................................................................................................................. 4 - 55
4.15.1 ESP Format .................................................................................................. 4 - 55
4.15.2 Encryption and Authentication Algorithms ................................................ 4 - 55
4.15.3 Padding ....................................................................................................... 4 - 56
4.15.4 Comparison between AH and ESP .............................................................. 4 - 56
4.16 Multiple Choice Questions with Answers ..................................................... 4 - 56
Unit V
Chapter - 5 Network and System Security (5 - 1) to (5 - 42)
5.1 Access Control ................................................................................................. 5 - 2
5.1.1 Discretionary Access Control (DAC) .............................................................. 5 - 2
5.1.1.1 Drawbacks of DAC .......................................................................................... 5 - 2
5.1.2 Mandatory Access Control (MAC) ................................................................ 5 - 3
5.1.2.1 Elements of MAC ........................................................................................... 5 - 3
5.1.2.2 MAC Implementations ................................................................................... 5 - 3
5.1.3 Role-Based Access Control (RBAC) ............................................................... 5 - 4
5.1.3.1 Difference between DAC and RBAC ............................................................... 5 - 5
5.1.4 Access Control Matrix .................................................................................. 5 - 5
5.1.4.1 ACLs and Capabilities Lists ............................................................................. 5 - 5
5.2 Flooding Attacks .............................................................................................. 5 - 6
5.2.1 Distributed DOS Attacks ............................................................................... 5 - 8
(x)
6.7.5 Investigating Cyber Stalking........................................................................ 6 - 28
6.8 Proxy Servers ................................................................................................ 6 - 29
6.9 Anonymizers.................................................................................................. 6 - 30
6.10 Phishing ......................................................................................................... 6 - 30
6.10.1 Phishing Attacks .......................................................................................... 6 - 32
6.10.2 Buffer Overflow .......................................................................................... 6 - 33
6.10.2.1 Exploitation ................................................................................................ 6 - 35
6.11 Password Cracking ........................................................................................ 6 - 35
6.12 Keyloggers and Spywares.............................................................................. 6 - 36
6.13 The Indian IT Act - Amendments................................................................... 6 - 36
6.14 Challenges to Indian Law and Cybercrime Scenario in India ........................ 6 - 37
6.15 IT Act ............................................................................................................. 6 - 37
6.15.1 Aim and Objectives of IT Act, 2000 ............................................................ 6 - 37
6.15.2 Importance of IT Act ................................................................................... 6 - 38
6.16 Multiple Chioce Questions with Answers ..................................................... 6 - 39
Solved Model Question Papers (M - 1) to (M - 4)
(xiii)
3.8.1 Attacks on RSA ...........................................................................................
3.8.1.1 Computing  (n) ....................................................................................... 3 - 23
3.8.1.2 Timing Attacks .......................................................................................... 3 - 24
3.8.1.3 Mathematical Attacks .............................................................................. 3 - 24
3.8.1.4 Adaptive Chosen Cipher-text Attacks ...................................................... 3 - 25
3.9 Key Distribution............................................................................................. 3 - 32
3.9.1 Distribution of Public Keys ......................................................................... 3 - 32
3.9.2 Distribution of Secret Keys using Public Key Cryptography ....................... 3 - 35
3.9.3 Key Distribution and Certification.............................................................. 3 - 37
3.9.4 Key Distribution ......................................................................................... 3 - 41
3.10 Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange ........................................................................ 3 - 45
3.11 El Gamal Algorithm ....................................................................................... 3 - 50
3.12 Elliptic Curve Cryptography........................................................................... 3 - 52
3.13 Multiple Choice Questions with Answers ..................................................... 3 - 54
Unit IV
Chapter - 4 Data Integrity Algorithms and Web Security
(4 - 1) to (4 - 60)
4.1 Cryptographic Hash Functions ........................................................................ 4 - 2
4.1.1 Requirement and Security ............................................................................ 4 - 3
4.1.2 Applications of Cryptographic Hash Functions ............................................ 4 - 3
4.1.3 Two Simple Hash Functions ......................................................................... 4 - 4
4.1.4 Birthday Attack ............................................................................................ 4 - 5
4.2 Hash Functions Based on Cipher Block Chaining ............................................ 4 - 6
4.3 Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA).......................................................................... 4 - 7
4.3.1 Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA-512) ................................................................ 4 - 8
4.3.2 SHA-3 .......................................................................................................... 4 - 13
4.4 Message Digest ............................................................................................. 4 - 15
4.4.1 MD5 Description ......................................................................................... 4 - 15
4.4.2 Differences between MD4 and MD5 ......................................................... 4 - 17
(viii)
5.3 Intrusion Detection ......................................................................................... 5 - 9
5.3.1 Prevention ................................................................................................. 5 - 10
5.3.2 Detection .................................................................................................... 5 - 11
5.3.3 Function and Strength of IDS ...................................................................... 5 - 11
5.3.4 Types of IDS ................................................................................................ 5 - 12
5.3.4.1 Anomaly Detection ...................................................................................... 5 - 12
5.3.4.2 Signature-based Detection .......................................................................... 5 - 13
5.3.4.3 Comparison between Signature-based and Anomaly Detection ................. 5 - 13
5.3.4.4 Network based System ................................................................................ 5 - 13
5.3.4.5 Host-based IDSs (HIDS) ................................................................................ 5 - 14
5.3.4.6 Differences between HIDS and NIDS............................................................ 5 - 15
5.3.5 Limitation of IDS ......................................................................................... 5 - 16
5.3.6 Difference between IDS and IPS ................................................................. 5 - 16
5.3.7 Intrusion Detection Techniques ................................................................. 5 - 17
5.3.8 Tools for Intrusion Detection ...................................................................... 5 - 17
5.3.9 Distributed IDS ............................................................................................ 5 - 18
5.4 Honeypot....................................................................................................... 5 - 19
5.5 Firewall .......................................................................................................... 5 - 19
5.5.1 Types of Firewall ......................................................................................... 5 - 22
5.5.1.1 Packet Filtering Router................................................................................. 5 - 22
5.5.1.2 Application Level Gateways ......................................................................... 5 - 26
5.5.1.3 Circuit Level Gateways ................................................................................. 5 - 27
5.5.1.4 Comparison between Packet Filter and Proxies........................................... 5 - 27
5.5.2 Firewall Location ......................................................................................... 5 - 28
5.5.3 Firewall Configuration ................................................................................ 5 - 30
5.6 Intrusion Prevention System......................................................................... 5 - 32
5.7 Operating System Security ............................................................................ 5 - 33
5.7.1 Application Security .................................................................................... 5 - 34
5.7.2 Security Maintenance ................................................................................. 5 - 35
5.8 Multilevel Security ........................................................................................ 5 - 35
(xi)
Notes
(xiv)
 TM

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

Confidentiality

Secure
Integrity
Availability
 hp

Opponent Message from opponent

Opponent Read content of that appears to be from sender
message from sender
to receiver
hp hp

nternet
nternet

Sender Receiver Sender Receiver

hp

Opponent Observe pattern of

messages from sender
to receiver
hp hp

nternet

Sender
Receiver

hp

hp

Capture message from

Opponent sender to receiver, later Disrupts service
replay message to receiver provided by server
hp hp

hp hp

nternet nternet

Sender Receiver

hp

Source Server
system
Opponent modifies
hp

Target
Opponent message from sender system
to receiver
hp hp

Legitimate connection attempt

TCP SYN packet
nternet
TCP SYN ACK packet
Sender Receiver
TCP ACK packet

Syn flood DOS attack

TCP SYN packet

TCP SYN ACK packet

The final TCP ACK packet is never sent

 Trusted third
party

Sender Receiver

Transformation Transformation

Message + Secret nformation Secret + Message

message Channel message

Secret Opponent Secret

information information

Secret key
shared by
sender and recipients

Plaintext Encryption Decryption Plaintext

input algorithm algorithm output

TM

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

^
X
Cryptanalyst ^
K

Message X Encryption Y Decryption X

algorithm algorithm Destination
source

K
Secure channel

Key
source
 K 1 , K 2 , K 3 ....... Ki

P1 , P2 , P 3 ....... Pi

Ci Pi  Ki

Pi Ci  Ki

 P1  P2  C1  C2 Key stream

 
Ciphertext

Plaintext

2 38 Pay 150/-

2 47

 C1   K 11 K 12 K 13   P1 
    
 C2   K 21 K 22 K 23   P2 
C  K K 32 K 33   P3 
 3   31 


 17 17 5 
 
 21 18 21 
 2 2 19 
 

 17 17 5   15 
   
 21 18 21   0 
 2 2 19   24 
   

 375   11 
   
 819   13 
 486   18 
   
 RE 0 LE 0

Plaintext (2w bits)

Key

Round 1 L0 w bits w bits R0 K1 Subkey

generation
algorithm
F

L1 R1
ki ki

Round i Ki

 17 17 5 
Li Ri  
 21 18 21 
 2 2 19 
 
Round n Kn  17 17 5 
 
 21 18 21 
LD 0  F( RD 0 , K 16 )  2 2 19 
F  

 15   15   375   11 
        
Ln Rn  0   0   819   13 
 24   24   486   18 
       

Ln+1 Rn+1

Plaintext (2w bits)

 0 13 14 
19 6 4 
 
17 1 25

 2  4 4 8 
  18 13 0 
 14   
 4  18 19 11
 
K  P mod 26
 0 13 14   4 4 8 
19 6 4  18 13 0  mod 26
 0 13 14     
  17 1 25 18 19 11
 19 6 4 
 17 1 25 
  486 435 154 
256 230 196  mod 26
 
536 556 411

 0 13 14   2  18 19 24 
    22 22 14  mod 26
 19 6 4   14  mod 26  
 17 1 25   4  16 10 21 
   

 238  4  S T Y
    W W D  mod 26
 138  mod 26  8  
 148   18   Q K V 
   


227
16


 Time = 1 Time = 2 Time = N
P1 P2 PN

K K K
Encrypt Encrypt Encrypt

C1 C2 Encryption CN

EK
C1 C2 CN
Ci E k (Pi  C i  1 )

Co EK ( m o  I ) Pi C i  1  D k (C i )
K K K
Decrypt Decrypt Decrypt
Ci E K ( mi  C i  1 )

P1 P2 Decryption PN

P0 P1 P2 C0 C1 C2

IV + + +

Key D D D Decryption
Encryption box
Key E E E box
+ + + Exclusive
IV
OR

C0 C1 C2 P0 P1 P2

Encryption Decryption

Plaintext
Ciphertext

Shift register Shift register

K
Key Encrypt Decrypt

Counter Counter 1
Ki Select discard

Key Encrypt Key Encrypt

P1 + +

P1 + P2 +
Ciphertext Plaintext

C1 C2
(a) Encryption
Counter Counter 1
b 1 b 2 b3 b 4 b 5 b 6 b7 b 8
k 1 k 2 k 3 k 4 k 5 k 6 k 7 k 8 k 9 k 10
Key Encrypt Key Encrypt

C1 C2
K1 K2
+ +
K1 S1

P1 P2 K2 S2 S1

(b) Decryption LS 1 LS 2

k 1 k 2 k 3 k 4 k 5 k 6 k 7 k 8 k 9 k 10 k 3 k 5 k 2 k 7 k 4 k 10 k 1 k 9 k 8 k 6

i th
Li Ri 1 R i  L i  1  f(R i  1 , K i )

LS 1
Ln Rn
Rn Ln
LS 2
b1 b2 b 3b4 b 1b 4 , b 2 b 3

K1 , K 2 Kn
Kn Kn1 K1

K1 K2 f(R i  1 , K i ) f(Ri 1 , Ki )

IP 1 fK 2 fK 1 Ri–1

E(Ri–1)

Ki
1
IP

4 bits 4 bits

S1 S2
L 0 R0 L0
R0 i th f(Ri–1, Ki)
fK
L i1 Ri1 L i Ri Ki
f (R i  1, k i)

fK FK
Li–1 Ri–1
FK

f Ki 1 2 3 4 5 6

1 2 4 3 4 3 5 6

E(Ri 1 )

Ki
Li Ri
 Plain text (64 bit) Key (64 bit)

nitial permutation Permuted

choice 1

64 56

f(Ri 1 , Ki ) 48
Permuted
56
Left circular
Round 1
choice 2 shift
K1
64 56

48 56
Permuted Left circular
6 th Round 2
choice 2 shift
K2

f ( R i 1 , K i )

48 56
Permuted Left circular
Round 16
choice 2 shift
K16

32 bit swap

64

Inverse initial
permutation

Ciphertext (64 bit)

32 bits 32 bits 28 bits 28 bits R (32 bits)

Li – 1 Ri – 1 Ci – 1 Di – 1
E

Left shift Left shift

Expansion / 48 bits K(48 bits)
permutation

+
F 48

Permutation /
XOR Ki
contraction
48
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8

Substitution / choice
(S-box)
P
32

Permutation 32 bits
(P)

32

XOR

Li Ri Ci Di

b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 L  R 

R  L ( ) f (R, K)  Kn

Kn
4 bit column L0 R0
number Kn

2 bit row
L n 1 R n 1 Kn n
number
Ln R n 1
Rn L n 1 R n 1 K n

R 16 L 16

Key

R 10 L 10 K 10
Permuted
choice 1 K 10

C0 D0

Left Left
shift shift

C1 D1
Permuted K1
choice 2
Left Left
shifts shifts

CN DN
Permuted KN
choice 2
Left Left
shifts shifts

C16 D16
Permuted K16
choice 2
 E K 2 (E K 1 (P))

D K 1 (D K 2 (C)) K1 (K 2 )
K3

E K 2 (E K 1 (P))

C = E K 3 [D K 2 [E K 1 [P]]]

Encryption Decryption Plaintext

DES Encryption Key 1

64-bit 64-bit
plaintext (P) plaintext (P)
DES Encryption Key 2

K1
DES reverse DES Encryption Key 3
DES cipher
cipher

Ciphertext

64-bit middle 64-bit middle

text text

K2
DES reverse
DES cipher
cipher

64-bit cipher 64-bit cipher

text (C) text (C)

Plaintext Plaintext
Key

Add round key w[0, 3] Add round key

Round 10

Substitute bytes Expand key nverse sub bytes

Shift rows nverse shift rows

Round 1

Mix columns nverse mix columns

Add round key w[4, 7] Add round key

Round 9

nverse sub bytes

nverse shift rows

Substitute bytes
Round 9

Shift rows

Mix columns nverse mix columns

Add round key w[36, 39] Add round key

Substitute bytes nverse sub bytes

Round 1
Round 10

Shift rows nverse shift rows

Add round key w[40, 43] Add round key

Ciphertext Ciphertext
(a) Encryption (b) Decryption