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CHƯƠNG 1 + CHƯƠNG 2:
1) Distinguish ethics, moral, law?
 Ethics: professionally accepted standards of personal and business behavior, values and
guiding principles. Ethics is an agreed outcome that identifies right or wrong in particular
circumstances by way of a decision inteded to be achieved in a good way or intending to
achieve good outcomes (social system-external)
Codes of professional ethics are often established by professional organizations to
help guide members in performing their job functions according to sound and consistent
ethical principles
Ex: + Lawyers, policemen, doctors all have to follow an ethical code laid down
by their profession, regardless of their own feelings or preferences.
+ Accountant’s strong work ethic has helped him achieve a number of
successes in this career

+ A very close friend or relative of an interviewer comes for an interview

and without asking a single question, he selects him. This act is unethical because
the selection process must be transparent and unbiased.

 Moral: are personal philosophies on right and wrong which, through common
backgrounds, are often shared by large numbers of people. Ethics are moral guidelines
which govern good behavior, so behaving ethically is doing what is morally right.

 Ex: + Our efforts sometimes produced moral dilemmas. – (Nỗ lực của chúng tôi đôi
khi tạo ra những tình huống tiến thoái lưỡng nan về đạo đức) Diễn đạt quan điểm của
nhóm người này về đạo đức

+ If the son of a big politician has committed a crime and he uses his powers to
free his son from legal consequences. Then this act is immoral because the politician
is trying to save a culprit.

 Law: is about what is lawful and what is unlawful (individual – internal). Laws are
enforced by governments to their people,are codifications of ethics meant to regulate
society. The law will punish anyone who happens to violate it
Ex: + Driving after drinking is prohibited by law. If the one who drunk acohol then
drive car, they are unlawful
 An ethical decision is one that is both legal and meets the shared ethical standards of the
community.

 Ex: + A grocer sells an out of date products to his customers to earn more profit. This act
is neither moral nor ethical because he is cheating his customers and profession at the
same time.

+ One professional example of ethics conflicting with morals is the work of a

defense attorney. A lawyer’s morals may tell her that murder is reprehensible and that
murderers should be punished, but her ethics as a professional lawyer, require her to
defend her client to the best of her abilities, even if she knows that the client is guilty.

2) What is profession, professional, professionalism?

+ Profession:
o High level of competence and skills in a given area
o Specialised training and maintained by continuing professional development
o Focus on intellectual or administrative skills rather than mechanical or physical
actions
o A body of theory and knowledge which is used to support the public interest
+ Professional:
o A person who has significant level of training
o Shows a high level of competence and skills
o Behaves in an ethical and appropriate manner
o Ex: + Only consulting engineers who are basically independent and have freedom
from coercion can be called as professionals.
+ Professionals have to meet the expectations of clients and employers.
Professional restrains are to be imposed by only laws and government regulations
and not by personal conscience
+ Professionalism:
o Taking action to support the public interest

o Members are seen to be acting professionally, or literally having professionalism.

o Professionalism may also be interpreted more as a state of mind, while the
profession provides the rules that members of that profession must follow.
o Ex: + A high level of professionalism is expected when working with clients.
+ She is highly respected for her professionalism

3) Why should an accountant act in a business ethics manner?

+ Ethical issues may be a matter of law and regulation and accountants are expected to
apply them.
 + An accountant’s ethical behavior serves to protect the public interest
+ Accountants’ values and attitude flow through everything they do professionally.
+ They contribute to enhance the trust of community as well as the value of Financial
Statement puts in the profession and the perception it has on it.
+ Business Ethics require accounting professionals to comply with the laws and
regulations that govern their jurisdictions and their bodies of work. Avoiding actions that could
negatively affect the reputation of the profession is a reasonable commitment that business
partners and others should expect.

1. Public Interest: Accountants must behave ethically to provide accurate and transparent
financial information, safeguard investors, and maintain a stable economy.
2. Trust and Reputation: Ethical behavior builds trust and enhances the reputation of the
accounting profession, which is crucial for successful business relationships.
3. Legal and Regulatory Compliance: Accountants are bound by professional codes of
conduct and ethics, and violating them can result in legal consequences and damage to
one's professional standing.
4. Professional Integrity: Ethical behavior reflects an accountant's professional integrity,
encompassing honesty, objectivity, independence, confidentiality, and avoiding conflicts
of interest.
5. Personal Morality: Ethical behavior is a matter of personal morality, aligning with values
such as honesty, fairness, and respect, and contributes to personal satisfaction and self-
respect.

Accountants have a vital role to play in society, as they provide financial information and
uphold the integrity of financial reporting. Ethical behavior is crucial for several reasons.
Firstly, it serves the public interest by ensuring the accuracy, transparency, and reliability
of financial information, which is essential for the functioning of financial markets and
the protection of investors. Secondly, ethical behavior is essential for building and
maintaining trust in the accounting profession. By adhering to ethical standards,
accountants enhance their reputation and that of their profession. Thirdly, accountants are
subject to legal and regulatory frameworks that require ethical conduct. Violations can
lead to disciplinary actions and legal consequences. Fourthly, ethical behavior reflects
professional integrity, encompassing values such as honesty, objectivity, independence,
confidentiality, and the avoidance of conflicts of interest. Lastly, behaving ethically is not
only a professional obligation but also a matter of personal morality. It aligns with
fundamental values such as honesty, fairness, and respect and contributes to personal
satisfaction and self-respect. In summary, ethical behavior is the cornerstone of the
accounting profession, ensuring the provision of accurate information, building trust,
complying with legal obligations, upholding professional integrity, and embodying
personal values.
4) Describe 5 steps of Professional Judgement?

o Identify and define the issue. This is not always as easy as it sounds, and it depends on
the ability to consider multiple perspectives, including information that contradicts
management’s assertions, according to the CAQ.
o Gather the facts and information, and identify the relevant literature. This is not
limited to learning the company’s version of events through discussion. Critical
assessment of evidence such as contracts, memoranda, calculations, meeting minutes, and
external information is also part of the process, the resource says.
o Perform the analysis and identify alternatives. Auditors need to be thorough while
examining potential alternatives, and they should be vigilant in identifying information
that could disconfirm expectations or management’s position, the CAQ says.
o Make the decision. If a supportable judgment process has not been followed, the auditor
might need to reconsider the process and the evidence obtained, according to the
resource.
o Review and complete the documentation and rationale for the
conclusion. Documentation should be performed throughout the judgment process, as it
can enable a more objective and complete assessment, according to the CAQ.

5) Describe 5 personal qualities of professional accountant?

+ Five personal qualities:

+ Four professional qualities:

o Independence
o Professional skepticism: An attitude that includes a questioning mind, being
alert to conditions which may indicate possible misstatement due to fraud or
error, and a critical assessment of audit evidence
o Accountability
 o Social responsibility

6) Describe 5 fundamental ethical principle?

Integrity
Integrity implies fair dealing and truthfulness.
Members are also required not to be associated with any form of communication or report where
the information is considered to be:
 materially false or to contain misleading statements
 provided recklessly
 incomplete such that the report or communication becomes misleading by this omission.

Objectivity
Accountants need to ensure that their business/professional judgement is not compromised
because of bias or conflict of interest.
However, there are many situations where objectivity can be compromised, so a full list cannot
be provided. Accountants are warned to always ensure that their objectivity is intact in any
business/professional relationship.
Professional competence and due care
There are two main considerations under this heading:
(1) Accountants are required to have the necessary professional knowledge and skill to carry out
work for clients.
(2) Accountants must follow applicable technical and professional standards when providing
professional services.
Appropriate levels of professional competence must first be attained and then maintained.
Maintenance implies keeping up to date with business and professional developments, and in
many institutes completion of an annual return confirming that continued professional
development (CPD) requirements have been met.
Where provision of a professional service has inherent limitations (e.g. reliance on client
information) then the client must be made aware of this.
Confidentiality
The principle of confidentiality implies two key considerations for accountants:
(1) Information obtained in a business relationship is not disclosed outside the firm unless there
is a proper and specific authority or unless there is a professional right or duty to disclose.
(2) Confidential information acquired during the provision of professional services is not used to
personal advantage.
The need to maintain confidentiality is normally extended to cover the accountants' social
environment, information about prospective clients and employers, and where business
relationships have terminated. Basically there must always be a reason for disclosure before
confidential information is provided to a third party.
The main reasons for disclosure are when it is:
(1) permitted by law and authorised by the client
(2) required by law, e.g. during legal proceedings or disclosing information regarding
infringements of law
(3) there is professional duty or right to disclose (when not barred by law), e.g. provision of
information to the professional institute or compliance with ethical requirements.
Ethical considerations on disclosure
The accountant needs to consider the extent to which third parties may be adversely affected by
any disclosure.
The amount of uncertainty inherent in the situation may affect the extent of disclosure - more
uncertainty may mean disclosure is limited or not made at all.
The accountant needs to ensure that disclosure is made to the correct person or persons.
Professional behaviour
Accountants must comply with all relevant laws and regulations.
There is also a test whereby actions suggested by a third party which would bring discredit to the
profession should also be avoided.
An accountant is required to treat all people contacted in a professional capacity with courtesy
and consideration. Similarly, any marketing activities should not bring the profession into
disrepute.

7) Public interest là gì – lợi ích công chúng?

+ The public interest can be defined as that which supports the good of society as a whole (as
opposed to what serves the interests of individual members of society or of specific sectional
interest groups).
 For an accountant, acting in the public interest is acting for the collective well-being of
the community of people and institutions that it serves.

+ Public interest and companies:

The concept of public interest may affect the working of an organisation in a number of ways:
 The actions of a majority of the shareholders may adversely affect the minority
shareholders. Protection of minority rights, in the public interest, may be required where
the minority are denied certain rights such as access to dividends or decision-making
processes.
 The actions of the organisation itself may be harmful to society, e.g. from excessive
pollution or poor treatment of the labour force. The government may then decide, in the
public interest, to limit the actions of that organisation for the greater good of society as a
whole.

+ Accountants and the public interest:

Accountants do not generally act against the public interest.
 The ethical code applicable to most accountants confirms that such action is not normally
appropriate.
An area of particular relevance to accountants will be that of disclosure of information:
 The concept of acting in the public interest tends to apply to providing information that
society as a whole should be aware of.
 In many cases 'public interest' disclosure is used to establish that disclosure is needed
although there is no law to confirm this action.
 This can affect companies where they are acting against the public interest as disclosure
may well be expected.
Disclose or not ?
The accountant will need to evaluate each situation on its merits and then justify the outcome
taken:
 In some situations lack of disclosure may be against the public interest.
 In other situations, disclosing information may be against the public interest, and such
information should be kept confidential to avoid harm to society.

8) What is the accountant’s role and their influence on organisation?

Influence on organisations:
The influence of the accountancy profession on organisations is potentially very significant.
 This is largely due to the range of services that accountants can provide, including:
o financial accounting
o audit
o management accounting
o taxation advice
o consultancy.
Limitations on influence
The influence of accountants is limited regarding ethical and other areas by the following factors:
 the extent of organisational reporting, particularly with regards to organisations in
financial difficulties
 conflicts of interest in selling additional services
 long-term relationship with clients
 overall size of accountancy firms
 focus on growth and profit.
Limitations on influence on organisations
Accountants provide various services to organisations, audit being one of the most significant.
 Provision of services can result in various ethical challenges for the accountant.
 While the profession may be seen as influential in terms of setting standards for audit and
regulating its members, there are still difficulties in actually providing those services.
Auditing organisations in difficulties
One role of auditors is to check whether an organisation is preparing accounts that show a true
and fair view.
 If that organisation is in financial difficulties, then the auditor needs to ensure that the
accounts do not show too favourable a picture of that organisation.
 Reporting adversely on the accounts may have the effect of pushing the organisation into
insolvency.
 Conversely, keeping quiet about difficulties may have the effect of auditors being
adversely criticised should the organisation go into insolvency in any event.
 Other clients may lose confidence and ultimately change auditors if the audit reports
adversely on a company.
 Deciding on the appropriate report can be difficult and in effect involves a judgement
between the public interest of society to be informed about the organisation and allowing
the organisation time to resolve its difficulties.
Selling of additional services
Audit firms obtain a significant amount of knowledge about their clients as well as attracting
staff with specialist skills in finance, systems, consultancy, etc.
 It is logical that accountancy firms provide additional services to the client over and
above the audit, as the firm is in an excellent position to provide those services.
 Providing additional services may undermine the position of independence of the auditor
– with the accountancy firm becoming too dependent on the organisation in terms of
fees from other sources (for example Arthur Andersen and Enron).
 In terms of society as a whole it is cost-beneficial for the auditor to provide additional
services, but the lack of independence implies that those services should be provided by
another firm.
Relationships with clients
Accountancy firms provide relatively personal and confidential services to their accounting and
audit clients.
 The firm and the organisation may favour longer-term relationships as this limits the
costs in terms of information transfer, and the number of people privy to that confidential
information.
 Long-term relationships may cause the auditing firm to be too familiar with the
organisation, and therefore lose independence in terms of making adverse audit reports
on their clients.
 Public interest is therefore not served by the longer-term arrangement.
 Many countries do limit the length of time an audit partner can provide services to a
specific client (e.g. five years in the US and seven years in the UK) to mitigate this risk.
Size of accountancy firms
Provision of audit services by large firms can be argued to be in the public interest because a
larger firm gains economies of scale.
 Costs are reduced in terms of staff training and the implementation and standardisation of
auditing procedures.
 Large firms can affect individuals adversely in terms of loss of personal service and
responsibility for tasks carried out.
 The actual quality of service may fall due to this distancing effect of bureaucracy.
 Conversely, it can be argued that large firms are essential because it is only these firms
that can effectively audit multinational companies.
Competition
The 'big 4' auditing firms are competitive, which could imply cutting costs in an attempt to
increase market share.
 This would not be in the public interest as it can be argued that the standard of audits will
fall. However, it is not in the interests of audit firms themselves to provide poor quality
audits. The possibility of legal action for negligence serves to limit cost cutting.

CHƯƠNG 3:
9) What is ethical decision making?
 Decision making is the thorough process of selecting a course of action to achieve a
desired result from among two or more alternatives.

10) Describe 4 stages process of ethical decision making?

Ethical decision making involves:
 a 4-stage process
 is influenced by individual and situational factors
  The four stages of ethical decision making can be summarised as follows:

+ The model distinguishes between

 knowing what is the correct thing to do (recognising the moral issue) and
 the actual action taken (the moral behaviour - or lack of it).
So the salesperson could still lie about the cars being sold even though this had been recognised
as immoral behaviour.

CHƯƠNG 4:
11) State agency theory, transaction cost and stakeholder theory?
 Agency Theory: is a group of concepts describing the nature of agency relationship
deriving from the separation between ownership and control. When a company is first
established, its owners are usually also its managers. As a company grows, the owners
appoint managers to run the company. The owners expect the managers to run the
company in the best interests of the owners; therefore a form of agency relationship exists
between the owners and the managers.

 Agency cost is a type of internal company expense which comes from the actions of an
agent acting on behalf of a principal. Agency costs typically arise in the wake of core
inefficiencies, dissatisfactions and disruptions, such as conflicts of interest between
shareholders and management.
 Transaction cost is an alternative variant of the agency understanding of governance
assumptions. It describes governance frameworks as being based on the net effect of
internal and external transactions, rather than contractual relationships outside the firm.
 Stakeholder theory: It is a theory of organizational management and business ethics that
addresses morals and values in managing an organization, such as those related to
corporate social responsibility, market economy, and social contract theory.

Company should fulfill accountability to many more sectors of society than solely their
shareholders
Agency theory is a narrow form of stakeholder theory
 Link between transaction cost theory and agency theory:
 12) Vẽ đồ thị minh họa mối quan hệ của BOD, SHAREHOLDERS?

CHƯƠNG 5:
 13) Present 4 reports of corporate governance?

Cadbury report (1992): The board required constant monitoring and assessment.
Recommendations:
• There was a need to split the chairman/CEO role
• Necessary to ensure the chairman is an independent person at the time of appointment.

Higgs report (2003): It is the role of NEDs to represent the needs of shareholders and operate as
cautionary voice of the board
Conclusions:
• At least half of the board should be made up of NEDs
• They should be remunerated appropriately
• They should act as a link between the board and shareholders to reduce agency problem
• They should communicate regularly to important shareholders

Tyson report (2003): Developed from the Higgs report. It dealt with recruitment and
development of NEDs
Conclusions:
• Diversity in background, skills and experience enhances board effectiveness
• Diversity improves communication and relationships with stakeholders and shareholders

Financial Reporting Council FRC (2010):

4 revisions of the Code
 Announced that the Code would in future be known as the UK CG Code
 Section A in 2008 code has been divided into two new sessions called “Leadership” and
“Effectiveness”.
Four new principles:
 The chairman’s responsibility for leading the board
 The non-executive directors’ role in challenging and developing strategy
 The need for the board to have balance of skills, experience, independence, knowledge of
the company
 The need for all directors to have sufficient time to discharge their responsibilities
effectively

14) Phân biệt NED/ED? Ở VN, có bắt buộc trong 1 BOD phải có cả 2 thành viên hay ko?
Executive direstors ( EDs):
- They are a member of the board and at the same time full time employees of
the company. They manage the everyday operations of the company and deal
with the implementation of the business and strategic plans of the complany
- The EDs may be elected by shareholders and employees or they might also be
the company’s employee, officer or stakeholder.
Non-executive directors (NEDs):
- They are board members who are not employees of the company and without
responsibilities for daily management of the company
- NEDs are normally picked by the company for their specialised skills,
personal qualitites and relevant experien
The key roles of NEDs:

 Strategy role: this recognises that NEDs have the right and responsibility to contribute to
strategic success, challenging strategy and offering advice on direction.
 Scrutinising role: NEDs are required to hold executive colleagues to account for
decisions taken and results obtained.
 Risk role: NEDs ensure the company has an adequate system of internal controls and
systems of risk management in place.
 People role: NEDs oversee a range of responsibilities with regard to the appointment and
remuneration of executives and will be involved in contractual and disciplinary issues.

An affective NED:
To be effective, a NED needs to:
 build a recognition by executives of their contribution in order to promote openness and
trust
 be well-informed about the company and the external environment in which it operates
 have a strong command of issues relevant to the business
 insist on a comprehensive, formal and tailored induction, continually develop and refresh
their knowledge and skills to ensure that their contribution to the board remains informed
and relevant
 ensure that information is provided sufficiently in advance of meetings to enable
thorough consideration of the issues facing the board
 insist that information is sufficient, accurate, clear and timely
 uphold the highest ethical standards of integrity and probity
 question intelligently, debate constructively, challenge rigorously and decide
dispassionately
 promote the highest standards of corporate governance and seek compliance with the
provisions of the Combined Code wherever possible.

Advantages:
 Monitoring: they offer a clear monitoring role, particularly on remuneration committees
to dampen the excesses of executives.
 Expertise: to expand this resource available for management to use.
 Perception: institutional and watchdog perception is enhanced because of their presence.
  Communication: the implied improvement in communication between shareholders'
interests and the company.
 Discipline: NEDs may have a positive influence on the success or otherwise of takeovers.

Disadvantages:
 Unity: lack of trust and needless input can affect board operations.
 Quality: there may be a poor gene pool of NEDs willing to serve.
 Liability: the poor remuneration with the suggested (Higgs) removal of stock options
from the package coupled with the equal liability in law for company operations might
lead some to question whether they want the job or not.

15) Phân biệt vai trò của Chairman và CEO?

Chairman:
+ Ensure that the board sets and implements the company’s direction and strategy effectively
+ Act as the company’s lead representative, explaining aims and policies to the shareholders
CEO:
+ Take responsibility for the performance of the company as the determne by the board’s strategy
+ Report to the chairman and board of directors.

Comparision between Chairan and CEO’s ROLES:

CHƯƠNG 6:
16) Phân biệt rule và principle base approach?

Rule-based approach:
 Is based on the view that companies must be required by law to comply with established
principles of good corporate governance
 Companies do not have the choice of ignoring the rules
 All companies are required to meet the same minimum standard of Corporate governance
 US

Principle-based approach:
 Requires the company to adhere to the spirit rather than the letter of the code. The
company must either comply with the code or explain why it has not through the reports
to the appropriate body and its shareholders
 Shareholders and other interested parties can then form their own opinions and decide on
their next course of action
 Based on the view that a single set of rules is inapproriate for every company
  Circumstances and situation differ between companies
 Circumstances of the same company can change overtime
 UK and common wealth countries
 A corporate governance should be applied to all major companies but this code
should consist of principles not rules

17) Đạo luật SOX là gì, ra đời khi nào, ở đâu, mục đích, thuận lợi và bất lợi?
In 2002, following a number of corporate governance scandals such as Enron and WorldCom,
tough new corporate governance regulations were introduced in the US by SOX.
 Sarbanes-Oxley (SOX) is a rule-based approach.
 SOX is extremely detailed and carries the full force of the law.
 SOX includes requirements for the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) to issue
certain rules on corporate governance.
 It is relevant to US companies.
 Key effects of SOX:
 Personal liability of directors for mismanagement and criminal punishment.
 Improved investor and public confidence in corporate US.
 Improve internal control and external audits companies.
 Improve governance through audit committee.
 Improve comunication of material issues to shareholders

 Negative reaction to SOX:

 Doubling of audit fee costs to organizations.
 Onerous documentation and internal control costs.
 Reduced flexibility and responsiveness of the companies.
 Reduce risk taking and competitiveness of organizations.
 Limited impact on the ability to stop corporate abuse
CHƯƠNG 7:
18) Trình bày CSR là gì, có mấy thành phần, cái nào quan trọng nhất, thuận lợi và bất
lợi?
 CSR – Cosporate Social Responsibility refers to the responsibilities that a company has
towards society: environment, employee, local community, customers, suppliers,
shareholders.
Advantage and disadvantage of CSR:
Advantage Disadvantage
- It helps to avoid the excessive exploitation of labour, - Additional bureaucracy, with rising
bribery and corruption. costs for observance.
- Companies would know what is expected of them, - Costs of operation could rise above
thereby promoting a level playing field. those required for continued
- Many aspects of CSR behaviour are good for profitability and sustainability.
business (such as reputation, human resources, - Critics already argue that the CSR of
branding and making it easier to locate in new companies is simply to make a profit,
communities) and legislation It could help to improve and legislation would increase the
profitability, growth and sustainability. vocalization of these concerns
- Some areas, such as downsizing, could help to - Reporting criteria vary so much by
redress the balance between companies and their company, sector and country, and they
employees. are in constant evolution.

19) Vẽ ma trận 1991 Mendelow?

o Mendelow suggests we analyze our stakeholder groups based on Power (the ability to
influence our organization strategy or project resources) and Interest (how interested they
are in the organization or project succeeding).
o High power, highly interested people (Manage Closely): aim to fully engage these
people, making the greatest efforts to satisfy them.
o High power, less interested people (Keep Satisfied): put enough work in with these
people to keep them satisfied, but not so much that they become bored with your
message.
o Low power, highly interested people (Keep Informed): adequately inform these
people, and talk to them to ensure that no major issues are arising. These audiences can
also help point out any areas that could be improved or have been overlooked.
o Low power, less interested people (Monitor): don’t bore these stakeholder groups with
excessive communication, keep an eye to check if their levels of interest or power
change.
o Example

High Power, High Interest: These are important stakeholders that can exert major influence
over your project on a regular basis. These folks include funding agencies, upper
management, and (often) your customer base. Therefore, it is necessary to keep them
informed about each phase of the project and to review their views regularly to meet the
needs of the parties.

High Power, Low Interest: Examples of this type of stakeholder includes such entities as
building plans department that have to issue construction permits and perform inspections;
they aren’t particularly interested in the outcome of your project one way or another, but still
wield significant power over your ability to execute on time and budget.

Low Power, High Interest. Examples of these stakeholders include community groups and
others that may be affected by the outcome of your project, so ensuring they have access to a
public page of your website—and then updating that page regularly—is enough interaction.
 You can also periodically send out newsletters or press releases to these types of
stakeholders.

Low Power, Low Interest. Examples of these stakeholders include members of the general
public, who often aren’t even necessarily aware of your project. However, you should not
spend inordinate amounts of time communicating with them. Often, simply periodically
monitoring them is sufficient; i.e., primarily to ensure that neither their power nor interest
levels have materially changed.

High power, highly interested people (Manage Closely):

o For example, high-power, high-interest individuals would involve executives and
department heads.
High power, less interested people (Keep Satisfied):
o Examples of this type of stakeholder includes such entities as building plans department
that have to issue construction permits and perform inspections; they aren’t particularly
interested in the outcome of your project one way or another, but still wield significant
power over your ability to execute on time and budget.
Low power, highly interested people (Keep Informed):
o Examples of these stakeholders include community groups and others that may be
affected by the outcome of your project.
Low power, less interested people (Monitor):
o Examples of these stakeholders include members of the general public, who often aren’t
even necessarily aware of your project.

Nguồn:
https://kfknowledgebank.kaplan.co.uk/acca/chapter-13-professional-and-corporate-ethics
https://kfknowledgebank.kaplan.co.uk/risk-ethics-and-governance/ethics/professional-and-
corporate-ethics