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A SYNTHETIC APPROACH
TO METHODS
IN LANGUAGE TEACHING
Majid Elahi Shirvan (Ph.D)

(University of Bojnord)
Tahereh Taherian (M.A)
Parisa Taheri (M.A)
Editors: Mehran Baradran

Mahboobeh khabooshani
‫الهی‪،‬‏مجید‪،‬‏‪۱۴۶۳‬‏ ‏‪-‎‬‏‏‬
‫‏‬ ‫‪:‬‬ ‫‏سرشناسه‬
‫‪Elahi, Majid‬‬
‫‪A synthetic approach to methods in language teaching/ Majid‬‬ ‫‪:‬‬ ‫‏عنوان‏و‏نام‏پدیدآور‬
‫‪Elahi Shirvan, Tahereh Taherian, Parisa Taheri; editors Mehran‬‬
‫‪Baradran, Mahboobeh khabooshani.‬‬
‫‪=۱۴۳۴‬‏‪۵۱۱۲‬م‏‪.‬‬ ‫‏‬ ‫ژرف‪،‬‏‬
‫تهران‪:‬‏ ‏‬ ‫‏‬ ‫‏‬ ‫‪:‬‬ ‫‏مشخصات‏نشر‬
‫بخشیرنگی ‏‬
‫)‪.‬‬ ‫‏‬ ‫‪۵‬‏‪۵۶۳،‬‏ص‏‪:.‬‏مصور(‬ ‫‪:‬‬ ‫‏مشخصات‏ظاهری‬
‫‪-‬‬ ‫‪-‬‬ ‫‏‪- - ‎‬‬ ‫‪:‬‬ ‫‏شابک‬
‫فیپا‬ ‫‏وضعیت‏فهرست‏نویسی ‪:‬‬
‫‏انگلیسی‏‪.‬‬ ‫‪:‬‬ ‫‏یادداشت‬
‫‏سینتتیک‏ ‏‬
‫‪...‬‬ ‫‪:‬‬ ‫‏آوانویسی‏عنوان‬
‫زبانآموزی‬ ‫‏‬ ‫‪:‬‬ ‫‏موضوع‬
‫معلمان‏زبان‏انگلیسی‏–‏آموزش‬ ‫‪:‬‬ ‫‏موضوع‬
‫روششناسی‬
‫زبان‏‪--‬‏راهنمای‏آموزشی‏‪--‬‏تحقیق‏‪--‬‏ ‏‬ ‫‪:‬‬ ‫‏موضوع‬
‫روششناسی‬ ‫تدریس‏دانشگاهی‏‪--‬‏ ‏‬ ‫‪:‬‬ ‫‏موضوع‬
‫طاهریان‪،‬‏طاهره‪،‬‏‪۱۴۶۳‬‏ ‏‪-‬‬
‫‏‬ ‫‪:‬‬ ‫‏شناسه‏افزوده‬
‫‪Taherian, ,Tahereh‬‬ ‫‪:‬‬ ‫‏شناسه‏افزوده‬
‫طاهری‪،‬‏پریسا‪،‬‏‪۱۴۶۳‬‏ ‏‪-‬‬
‫‏‬ ‫‪:‬‬ ‫‏شناسه‏افزوده‬
‫‪Taheri,Parisa‬‬ ‫‪:‬‬ ‫‏شناسه‏افزوده‬
‫برادران‪،‬‏مهران‪،‬‏ویراستار‬ ‫‪:‬‬ ‫‏شناسه‏افزوده‬
‫‪Baradran, ,Mehran‬‬ ‫‪:‬‬ ‫‏شناسه‏افزوده‬
‫وب‏ه‏‪،‬‏‪۱۴۳۲‬‏‪-‬‏‪،‬‏ویراستار‬ ‫ح‏ب ‏‬‫‪،‬‏م ‏‬
‫ی ‏‬ ‫وش‏ان ‏‬
‫خ‏ب ‏‬ ‫‏‬ ‫‪:‬‬ ‫‏شناسه‏افزوده‬
‫‪Khabooshan ,Mahboobeh‬‬ ‫‪:‬‬ ‫‏شناسه‏افزوده‬
‫الف‪۷‬س‪۱۴۳۴ ۳‬‬ ‫‪ ۱۱۸۱۵‬‏‬‫‪‎‬‏‬ ‫‏‪P‬‬ ‫‪:‬‬ ‫‏رده‏بندی‏کنگره‬
‫‏‪۳۱۸‬‬ ‫‪:‬‬ ‫‏رده‏بندی‏دیویی‬
‫‪۴۶۳۳۶۶۶‬‬ ‫‪:‬‬ ‫‏شماره‏کتابشناسی‏ملی‬
‫‪A Synthetic Approach to Methods in Language Teaching‬‬
‫مجید الهی شیروان‪ ،‬طاهره طاهریان‪ ،‬پریسا طاهریان‬

‫چاپ اول ‪3131‬‬
‫چاپ دقت‬
‫شمارگان ‪ 0222‬نسخه‬
‫شابک‪378-369-130-812-8 :‬‬
‫قیمت‪ 30222 :‬تومان‬
‫نشر ِژرف‪ :‬تهران خیابان ‪ 30‬فروردین‪ ،‬کوچه بهشت آئین شماره ‪ .19‬تلفن‪66921089 :‬‬
Table of Contents
Preface .................................................................................................................... 1
The Nature Of Approaches And Methods In Language Learning .......................... 3
The Grammar-Translation Method ....................................................................... 11
Language Teaching Innovations In Nineteenth Century ...................................... 16
The Reform Movement ......................................................................................... 20
The Direct Method ................................................................................................ 24
The Oral Approach And Situational Language Teaching ..................................... 32
The Audiolingual Method ..................................................................................... 40
Cognitive-Code Approach .................................................................................... 55
Comprehension Approach..................................................................................... 60
Total Physical Response ....................................................................................... 64
The Silent Way...................................................................................................... 75
Community Language Learning (CLL) ................................................................ 86
Suggestopedia ....................................................................................................... 98
Whole Language ................................................................................................. 111
Multiple-Intelligences (MI)................................................................................. 119
Neurolinguistic Programming ............................................................................. 131
The Lexical Approach ......................................................................................... 136
Competency-Based Language Teaching ............................................................. 141
Communicative Language Teaching................................................................... 148
Natural Approach ................................................................................................ 173
Cooperative Language Learning ......................................................................... 188
Content-Based Instruction................................................................................... 201
Task-Based Language Teaching ......................................................................... 215
Post-Methods Era ................................................................................................ 233
Bibliography…..……………..………………………………………………….250
A Synthetic Approach to Methods in Language Teaching
Preface
English language as an international language is used by almost all people around
the world. Thus, it has turned into a must for almost all people to learn it. For this
purpose, the need for thoughtful, knowledgeable, practical, reflective, and critical
teachers is felt. However, one serious challenge during the long history of English
language teaching and learning has been choosing the right method of teaching.
With the “changing winds and shifting sands” of language teaching, different
methods have been developed based on different paradigms of thinking looking
for the best method of teaching. Knowing this long history of methods with their
approaches of language and learning as well as their procedures can empower
teachers of English language in their profession. This can also bridge the gap
between theory and practice in the classroom.
Several books have been written so far by different authors, i.e. Richards and
Rodgers (2001); Larsen-freeman (2000); Kumaravadivelu (2006) to name a few,
who have covered different aspects of the methods of language teaching since the
beginning of the twentieth century. However, they have used their own
interpretations of these methods and somehow introduced the same concepts to
their readers in different terms. As a result, this has kept English language
teaching students in a state of uncertainty and confusion with regard to the nature,
and the details, of each method. Therefore, a meta-analysis is needed to synthesize
the individual efforts conducted within the realm of English language teaching
methodology. In other words, a synthetic study which integrates the major
concepts of each method raised and explained by each author can provide English
language teachers and teaching students with a comprehensive look towards the
generality of each method. Thus, the purpose of developing this book was to
synthesize the different aspects of each method for English language teachers’
further clarification, understanding, and mastery concerning each method.
Each chapter of the book encompasses the information about one specific
method. Aspects of each method such as approach, design, and procedures are
meticulously considered from the perspective of different authors within the field
of language teaching methodology. Moreover, each part is provided with concept
maps. The use of concept maps for each chapter is to provide the readers with a
firm cognitive structure, visual aid, and meaningful learning.
1
The Nature of Approaches and Methods in Language Learning
A Synthetic Approach to Methods in Language Teaching can be used as a

university course book for the course of methodology in the field of teaching
English as a second or foreign language. University students of English language
teaching are supposed to decide which methods to use considering the
particularities of their classroom situation in the future. They should learn to
“theorize from their practice and practice their own theories” as well. Thus,
gaining a synthetic awareness of the approaches and methods of language
teaching, which is the aim of this book, can contribute to these students’
reflection, practice, and metacognition in the classroom as teachers of English
language.
In addition, the book provides English language teachers with a synthetic set of
criteria for the evaluation of each method. The previous books of language
teaching methods have provided language teachers with some criteria but the
synthetic approach of this book can pave the way for a comprehensive and
thorough image of the evaluation of language teaching methods.
A Synthetic Approach to Methods in Language Teaching can improve English

language teachers' knowledge of methods of language teaching with a higher level
of understanding than before. Furthermore, this book can be used as a
comprehensive source for the preparation of master’s degree university exam in
Iran for the students of teaching English as a foreign language since these students
are supposed to show their peak performance in the exam and organize their
knowledge in an efficient way.
We hope that this book can set the stage for further synthetic efforts in the
future. It is the time to reflect on the past and reach a more comprehensive look
towards the major concepts within the field of language learning and teaching.
.Majid Elahi Shirvan
University of Bojnord
2
THE NATURE OF APPROACHES AND METHODS IN

LANGUAGE LEARNING
Introduction
As the studying of teaching methods and procedures in language teaching
assumed a more central role within applied linguistic from the 1940s on, various
attempts have been made to conceptualize the nature of methods and to explore
more systematically the relationship between theory and practice within a method.
In this chapter the relationship between approach and method will be clarified and
a model for the description, analysis, and comparison of method will be presented.
Approach, Method, and Technique

In describing methods, the difference between a philosophy of language teaching
at the level of theory and principles, and a set of derived procedures for teaching a
language is central. In an attempt to clarify this difference, a scheme was proposed
by Edward Anthony in 1963. He identified three levels of conceptualization and
organization, which he termed approach, method and technique (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001, p.19):
The arrangement is hierarchical. The organizational key is that techniques carry

out a method which is consistent with an approach.
 Approach is a set correlative assumption dealing with nature of language

teaching and learning. An approach is axiomatic. It describes the nature of
the subject matter to be taught.
 Method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language
material, no part of which contradicts, and all of which is based upon, the
3
selected approach. A method is procedural. Within one approach, there

can be many methods.
 Technique is implementational- that which actually takes place in a
classroom. It is a particular trick, stratagem, or contrivance used to
accomplish an immediate objective. Techniques must be consistent with a
method, and therefore in harmony with an approach as well.
According to Anthony’s model, approach is the level at which assumptions and

beliefs about language and language learning are specified; method is the level at
which theory is put into practice and at which choices are made about the
particular skills to be taught, the content to be taught, and the order in which the
content will be presented; technique is the level at which classroom procedures
are described (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
4
Figure1: Anthony model
5
Although Anthony’s original proposal has the advantage of simplicity and

comprehensiveness and serves as a useful way of distinguishing the relationship
between underlying theoretical principles and practices derived from them, it fails
to give sufficient attention to the nature of a method itself. Nothing is said about
the role of the teacher and learners assumed in a method, for example, nor about
the role of instructional materials or the form that are expected to be taken. It fails
to account for how an approach may be realized in a method, or for how method
and technique are related.
In order to provide a comprehensive model for analysis of approaches and

methods, the original Anthony model needs to be revised and extended. Approach
and method treated at the level of design, the level in which objectives, syllabus
and content are determined, and in which the roles of the teachers, learners, and
instruction materials are specified (Figure 2). The implementation phase (the level
of technique in Anthony’s model) is referred to more comprehensive term
procedure. Thus a method is theoretically related to an approach is
organizationally determined by design, and is practically realized in procedures
(Figure3)(Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Figure 2: Summery of elements that constituted a method
Figure 2: a model for analysis of approaches and methods(Richards and Rodgers, 2001)
6
Figure 3: the relationship between method with approach, procedure, and design
Approach
An approach is a theoretically well-inform positions and beliefs about the nature
of language, the nature of language learning, and the applicability of both
pedagogical settings (Brown, 2001). The linguistic and psycholinguistic aspect of
approach will be elaborated respectively (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Theory of language
At least three different theoretical views of language and the nature of language
proficiency explicitly or implicitly inform current approaches and methods in
language learning: structural view, functional view, and interactional view. Figure
4 illustrates these three views of language (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
7
Figure 4: Different theoretical views of language Theory
8
Learning theories associated with a method at level of approach may emphasize

either one or both of these dimensions: process-oriented theories and condition-
oriented theories. Figure 5 illustrates these two dimensions (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001).
Figure 5: Theory of language learning
Design
To load an approach to a method, it is necessary to design for an instructional
system. Design is a level of method analysis in which the objectives, the syllabus,
the types of activities, the role of the learners and teachers, and the role of
instruction materials are considered (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Procedure
The last level of conceptualization and organization within a method is what it is
referred to as procedure. This encompasses the actual moment-to-moment techniques,
practices, and behaviors that operate in teaching a language according to a particular
method. It is the level at which the way a method realizes its approach and design in
classroom behavior is described (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
9
Conclusion
The model represented in this chapter demonstrated that any language teaching
method can be described in terms of issues identified here at the levels of
approach, design and procedure. Very few methods are explicit with respect to all
of these dimensions, however (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
10
THE GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD

Introduction
The grammar-translation method has been used for a while by language teachers.
Therefore, it is not new and just possessed different terms during the history. For
example, it was first called as the Prussian Method in the Unites States (Richards
& Rodgers, 2001), and in some other time, when it was used for teaching classical
language (Larsen-Freeman, 2011), it was known as the Classical Method.
Approach
Theory of Language
Based on this method, language constitutes rules of morphology and syntax.
Reading and writing, among the four skills, are mainly focused and speaking and
listening are the peripheral ones or ignored. No attention is given to oral
communication. Accuracy is the main concern, and almost pronunciation is not
taken into consideration. Furthermore, as its name suggests, grammar is primarily
concerned and deductively taught (Richards and Rodgers, 2001). Above all,
sentence is considered as the unit of teaching; translation of which from L2 to L1
makes distinction between this method and the others.
Theory of learning
GMT does not follow any specific theory for learning. In fact, it is related to the
pre-scientific approach. However, faculty psychologists believe that memorizing
and remembering the grammatical rules and the lengthy bilingual vocabulary lists
requires learners’ intellectuality. According to faculty psychology, brain is like a
11
The Grammar-Translation Method
`
muscle which gets stronger by such tough exercises (Rashtchi, M., and keyvanfar,
1999).
GTM, generally, is confined to memorizing rules and facts to understand and

manipulate the morphology and syntax of the target language (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001).
Design
Objectives
GTM was organized in order to develop the ability to read the literature in
learners and to benefit from the mental discipline and intellectual development
which were expected to be gained from foreign language study (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001).
Syllabus
There was no specific syllabus and teachers just referred to literary sources.
However, the main concern of each lesson was one or more grammatical rule(s) as
well as the introduction of new words that did not follow any particular patterns
(Rashtchi, M., and keyvanfar, 1999).
Learning Activity
Some of the activities in GTM course are as follows (Larsen-Freeman, 2011):
1. Translation of a literary passage: students translate a reading passage

from L2 to L1. The reading passage takes several classes into
consideration. Vocabulary and grammatical structures in the passage are
studied in subsequent lessons. The translation may be either written or
spoken or even both. Students should not translate literary expressions,
like idioms, but rather translation takes place in a way that shows students
have already understood the texts.
2. Reading comprehension questions: finding information from the
passage, making inferences based on their understanding of the passage
and relating passage to their own experiences.
3. Antonyms/synonyms: students are given one set of words and are asked
to find antonyms and synonyms in the reading passage.
4. Cognates: recognizing, learning, and spelling of cognates.
12
Cognate: a word in one language which is similar in form and meaning to

a word in another language because both languages are related (Jack C.
Richards, &Richard Schmidt, 2010).
5. Deductive application of rules: Firstly, grammatical rules are explained
out of context, then some sentences are given as examples to illustrate the
rules.
6. Fill-in-the-blanks exercises: students are given a series of sentences with
some words missing. They fill in the blanks with new words or particular
grammar types.
7. Memorization: students are asked to memorize new words and grammar
rules.
8. Composition: Some topics are given to the students and they are asked to
write a text about them in target language (L2).
The Role of Students

In GTM class, students follow their teacher and learn what he/she knows.
Teachers encourage them to do translation from one language to another (Larsen-
Freeman, 2011). Students are quite passive in these classes, to the extent language
creativity is concerned, although they are involved in classroom activities and
they deal with reading and writing during the entire session (Rashtchi, M., and
keyvanfar, 1999).
The Role of Teacher

Teachers are the authorities of the classroom who correct students immediately
because accuracy is the main concern. Getting the correct answer by the students
is very important (Larsen-Freeman, 2001).
The Role of Student’s Native Language

The meaning of the target language is made clear by translating it into the
students’ native language. Students’ native language is mostly used in the
classroom (Larsen-Freeman, 2001) and concerned as the reference (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001).
The Role of Materials

In a typical GTM text, the rules of grammar as well as a list of vocabulary items
with their translation equivalence in students’ L1 are presented and illustrated out
of context. Finally, some translation exercises are prescribed.
13
The Grammar-Translation Method
`
Materials of GTM class are comprised of literature, fine arts and religious text
(Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Conclusion
Grammar Translation was the dominating method for European and foreign
language teaching from the 1840s to the 1940s. Therefore, the aims of foreign
language learning were summarized to a very boring experience of memorizing
endless lists of useless grammar rules and vocabulary items as well as making an
effort to produce perfect translations of literary process. Although the GTM often
makes students frustrated, it is less demanding for language teachers (Richards
and Rodgers, 2001).
In a Nutshell:
1. The grammar-translation has had different names: the Classical Method,
the Prussian Method.
2. This method is based on faculty psychology which believes that the brain
is like a muscle that needed to be exercised, the tougher the exercise the
better.
3. Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target
language.
4. Much vocabulary is taught in the form of list of isolated words.
5. Long, elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given.
6. Grammar provides the roles for putting words together, and instruction
often focuses on the form and inflection of words.
7. Grammar is thought deductively.
8. Accuracy is emphasized
9. Reading of difficult classical text is begun early.
10. Little attention is paid to the content of text.
11. No attention is given to pronunciation.
12. The fundamental of learning a language is to be able to read literature
written in it.
13. Student’s study of the target culture is limited to its literature and fine arts.
14. Teacher corrects students immediately because it is very important that
students get the correct answer.
15. In GTM, it is possible to find native language equivalence for all target
language words.
14
GTM
Approach Theory of language Design Objectives:
According to this - To read the literature
method, language - To benefit from the mental
consists of frozen discipline and intellectual
rules of morphology development
and syntax. Reading
and writing are the
major focus; little or Syllabus:
no systematic each lesson centered around
attention is paid to one or more grammatical
speaking or listening. rule(s) and the introduction of
new words does not follow by
a particular pattern.
Learning Activity:
Theory of
translation of a literary
learning passage, reading
GMT does not comprehention,
anonyms,synonyms, cognates,
have a specific deductive, fill-in-the-blank
theory for drills, momerization, and
learning. composition
The Role of Students
They are encouraged to
translate from one language
to another.
they are quite passive as far
as language creativity is
concerned.
The Role of Teacher

The teacher is authority in the
classroom.
He/she corrects students
immediately

In a typical GTM text, the
grammar rules are presented
and illustrated, a list of
vocabulary items is presented
with their translation
equivalence and translation
exercises are prescribed.
15
Language Teaching Innovations in Nineteenth Century
LANGUAGE TEACHING INNOVATIONS IN

NINETEENTH CENTURY
Introduction
Towards the mid-nineteenth century, due to the increased opportunities for
communication and needs for oral proficiency, the Grammar-Translation Method
was not firm favorite with teachers and learners. Consequently, individual
language teaching specialists attempted to develop new approaches and specific
methods to language teaching in order to reconceptualize the teaching of modern
languages. Some of these specialists, such as C. Marcel, T. Prendergast, and F.
Gouin, did not achieve any long-lasting effect, though their ideas are of great
interest through the history (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
C. Marcel’s Method
The Frenchman C. Marcel (1793-1896) referred to the child language as a model
for language teaching. He emphasized the importance of meaning in learning and
proposed that reading should be taught before other skills. He located language
teaching within a broader educational framework (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
T. Prendergast
The Englishman T. Prendergast (1806-1886) was one of the first experts who
recorded the observation of language learning in children and came to the fact that
contextual and situational cues for utterances interpretation are used in language
learning and that children use memorized phrases and routines in speaking. He
proposed the first structural syllabus which advocates learning the most basic
structural patterns occurring in the language (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
16
F. Gouin and the Series Method

The Frenchman F. Gouin (1831-1896) is perhaps the best known of these mid-
nineteenth century reformers since he developed an approach to teaching based on
his observations of children’s use of language. He claimed that using language to
accomplish events consisting of a sequence of related actions facilitates language
learning. According to his method, situations and themes are used as ways of
organizing and presenting oral language (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
He asserted that language learning is primarily a matter of changing perceptions

into conceptions and, in fact, children use language as a representation of their
conceptions. In the words of Brown (2001), language is a means of thinking, of
representing the words to oneself.
Figure 1: Principles of Series Method
17
Language Teaching Innovations in Nineteenth Century
Sample of series method (Titone, 1968):
1. I walk near the door.

2. I draw near to the door.
3. I draw nearer o the door.
4. I get to the door.
5. I stop at the door.
6. …
18
19
The Reform Movement
THE REFORM MOVEMENT

Introduction
Language teaching specialists such as Marcel, Prendergast, and Gouin had made
an effort to promote alternative approaches to language teaching, but their ideas
did not meet the widespread acceptance. From the 1880s, however, the required
intellectuality was begun under the practical-minded linguists’, such as Henry
Sweet in England and Paul Passy in France. These reformist ideas were given
greater support, so the discipline of linguistics was revitalized. Phonetics was
established and a new insight went into speech process. Consequently, linguists
emphasized that speech, rather than the written words, was the major form of
language (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
The International Phonetic Association was established in1886, and its

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) was designed to enable the sounds of any
language to be accurately transcribed. One of the earliest goals of this association
was to improve the teaching of modern language (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
20
Figure1: principles of IPA
Linguistics became interested in conversation as well. The related issues were

fiercely discussed and defended in books, articles, and pamphlets to find the best
way for teaching foreign languages. Henry Sweet (1845-1912) discussed that
sound methodological principles should be based on a scientific analysis of
language and a study of psychology. He set four principles for the development of
teaching methodology. These included (Sweet, 1899):
1. Careful selection of what is to be taught.

2. Imposing limit on what is to be taught.
3. Arranging what is to be taught.
4. Grading materials from simple to complex.
Linguistic Theory of Reform Movement

Wilhelm Vietor (1850-1918) argued that teachers would acquire perfect and
accurate pronunciation through educating in phonetics. Therefore, speech patterns,
rather than grammar, were considered as the fundamental elements of language.
21
The Reform Movement
He strongly criticized the drawbacks of grammar translation method and stressed

the value and importance of training teachers in a new science of phonetics.
Learning Theory of Reform Movement

Reformers believed that (Richards and Rodgers, 2001):
1. The spoken language is primary and that this should be reflected in an oral
based methodology.
2. The finding of phonetics should be applied to teaching and teacher
training.
3. Learners should hear the language first, before seeing it in a written form.
4. Words should be presented in sentences, and sentences should be practiced
in a meaningful context and not to be taught as isolated elements.
5. The rule of grammar should be taught only after the students have
practiced the grammar point in a context- that is grammar should be taught
inductively.
6. Translation should be avoided, although the native language could be used
in order to explain new word or to check comprehension.
Conclusion
The above principles provided the theoretical foundations and paved the way for a
principled approach to language teaching based on scientific approach to the study
of language and language learning. They also set the scene for the discipline of
applied linguistic – the branch of language study deals with the scientific study of
second language and foreign language teaching and learning. In fact, their
writings provided suggestion on how to put these applied linguistic principles into
practice. However, Richards and Rodgers believe that none of these proposals are
considered as a method. Indeed, the statues of a method should be a widely
recognized and uniformly implemented design for teaching a language which was
not met by the mentioned principles (2001).
22
23
The Direct Method
THE DIRECT METHOD

Introduction
Gouin had been one of the first 19th-century-reformers who attempted to build a
methodology around observations of child language learning. Other reformers
towards the end of century likewise turned their attention to the naturalistic
principles of language learning; that is why they are sometimes referred to as
advocators of a natural method. In fact, various times throughout the history of
language teaching, attempts have been made to make second language learning
like first language learning (L1=L2). Among those who tried to apply natural
principles to language classes in the 19th century was L. Sauveur (1826-1907),
who used intensive oral interaction in the target language. He opened a language
school in Boston, and his method was named Natural Method (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001).
The natural language learning principles provided the foundation for what come
to be known as a Direct Method, which refers to the most widely known of the
natural method. Direct Method became widely known in the United State through
its use by Sauveur and Maximilian Berlitz in successful commercial language
schools (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Since DM’s principles are based on Natural Method, before studying the
principles of DM, we will review the Natural Method' principles.
24
Natural Method
Believers in Natural Method discussed that a foreign language could be taught
without translation or the use of the learner’s native language in case meaning was
conveyed directly through demonstration and action. The German scholar F.
Franke (1884) wrote on the psychological principles of direct association between
forms and meaning in the target language and made a theoretical justification
available for a monolingual approach to teaching. According to Franke, a
language could best be taught by using it actively in the classroom rather than
using analytical procedures that focus on explanation of grammar rules in
classroom teaching. Teachers must encourage direct and spontaneous use of
foreign language in classroom. Learner, then, would be able to induce rules of
grammar.
The teacher replaced the textbook in the early stages of learning. Speaking began
with systematic attention to pronunciation. Known words could be used to teach
new vocabulary items as well as using mime, demonstration, and pictures
25
The Direct Method
Figure1: Natural Method’s principles
Direct Method
The Direct Method has a very fundamental rule: No translation is permitted. In
fact, the DM was named due to the fact that meaning is to be conveyed directly in
the target language through the use of demonstration and visual aids, without
using students’ native language (Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
In practice the Direct Method is set for following principles and procedures
(Richards and Rodgers, 2001):
26
1. Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target language.

2. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught.
3. Oral communication skills were built up in a carefully graded progression
organized around question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and
students in a small class.
4. Grammar was taught inductively.
5. New teaching points were introduced orally.
6. Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects, and
pictures; abstract vocabulary was taught by association of ideas.
7. Both speech and listening comprehension were taught.
8. Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized.
These principles are seen in the following guidelines for teaching oral language
1. Never translate: demonstrate

2. Never explain: act
3. Never make speech: ask question
4. Never imitate mistake: correct
5. Never speak with single word: use sentence
6. Never speak too much: make students speak much
7. Never use the book: use your lesson plan
8. Never speak too fast/slowly/loudly: speak normally
27
The Direct Method
Figure 2: the principles of Direct Method
The View of Language

Language is primarily spoken, not written. Therefore, students study common,
everyday speech in the target language (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Some areas of language that are emphasized:
Vocabulary is emphasized over grammar. Although work on all four skills

happens from beginning, oral communication is seen as basic. Thus the reading
and writing exercises are based on what the students practice orally first.
28
Pronunciation also receives attention right from the beginning of a course

(Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
Objectives
Teacher who uses the DM focused on the fact that how students learn to
communicate in the target language. To this end, students should learn to think in
the target language (Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
Syllabus
The syllabus used in DM is based upon situations, for example, one unit consists
of language that people would use at the bank, another includes the language that
they use when they go shopping and also topics such as geography, money, or the
weather are dealt with in the classroom (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Activities
There are several activities in DM that include (Larsen-Freeman, 2011):
1. Reading aloud.
2. Question and answer exercise.
3. Getting students to self-correct.
4. Conversation practice.
5. Fill-in-the-blank exercise.
6. Dictation.
7. Map drawing.
8. Paragraph writing.
The Role of the Teacher and Students

Although the teacher directs the class activities, the students’ role is less passive
than in the Grammar-Translation Method. Teachers and students are more like
partners in the teaching-learning process. (Larsen-Freeman, 2011)
Responding to the Errors in DM

The teacher, who employs various techniques, tries to get students to do self-
correction whenever possible (Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
29
The Direct Method
Conclusion
The DM was quite successful in private language schools, such as those of the
Berlitz chain. But despite pressure from proponents of the method, it was difficult
to be implemented in public secondary school education. The DM method can be
regarded as the first language teaching method that have caught teachers’ and
language teaching specialist’ attention (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Drawbacks of DM
1. It overemphasized and distorted the similarities between naturalistic and
first language learning and classroom foreign language learning and
failed to consider the practical realities of the classroom.
2. It lacked a rigorous basis in applied linguistic theory.
3. It required teachers who were native speakers or who had native like
fluency.
4. It was largely depended on the teacher’s skill, rather than on textbook,
and not all the teachers were proficient enough in the foreign language to
adherence of the method.
5. DM principles were counterproductive, since teachers were required to
go to great length to avoid using the native language, when sometimes a
simple, brief explanation in the students’ native language would have
been a more efficient route to comprehension. (Richards and Rodgers,
2001)
30
31
The Oral Approach and Situational Language Teaching
THE ORAL APPROACH AND SITUATIONAL

LANGUAGE TEACHING
Background
Oral Approach or Situational Language Teaching refers to an approach to
language teaching developed by British applied linguists from the 1930s to
1960s. Two of the leaders of this approach were Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornby
both of whom were familiar with the Direct Method. They attempted to develop a
more scientific foundation for an oral approach to teach English than the one was
clarified in Direct Method. The consequence of their efforts led them into a
systematic study of the principles that could be applied to the selection and
organization of the content of language course (Palmer, 1917; 1921).
Vocabulary control
One of the first aspects of method design that receives attention is the role of
vocabulary, which is, according to Palmer (1936), considered as one of the most
important aspects of foreign language learning. To him, the increase emphasis on
reading skills as the goal of foreign language study leads to attention to
vocabulary.
Grammar control
With regard to the interest in the developing rational principles for vocabulary
selection, the grammatical content of a language course needed to receive
attention as well. Palmer (1936), in fact, viewed grammar as the underlying
pattern for the sentences of the spoken language.
Parallel to the development of systematic approaches to the lexical and

grammatical content of a language course and with respect to the efforts of the
32
specialists such as Palmer, West, and Hornby in using these resources as a part of
comprehensive methodological framework for the teaching of English as a foreign
language, the foundations for British approach in TEFL/TESL-the Oral Approach-
were firmly established.
The main characteristics of oral approach were as follow(Richards and Rodgers,

2001):
1. Language teaching begins with the spoken language. Material is taught

orally before it is presented in the written form.
2. The target language is the language of the classroom.
3. New language points are introduced and practiced situationally.
4. Vocabulary selection procedures are followed to ensure that an essential
general service vocabulary is covered.
5. Items of grammar are graded following the principle that simple forms
should be taught before complex ones.
6. Reading and writing are introduced once a sufficient lexical and
grammatical basis is established.
Approach
Theory of Language
The underlying theory of language for Situational Language Teaching can be
characterized as structuralism. Since speech was regarded as the basis of
language, and structure was located at the heart of speaking skill (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001).
However, the notion of situation, made a difference in the focus of structuralism

for the British and American theoreticians. Pitman states that "Our principal
classroom activity in the teaching of English structure will be the oral practice of
structures. This oral practice should be given in situations designed to give a
greatest amount of practice in English speech to the pupil" (1963, p.38).
The developers put an emphasis on the close relationship between the structure of
language and the context and situation in which language is used. Thus, in
contrast to American structuralist’s viewpoint (ALM), language was considered as
a purposeful activity related to goals and situations in the real world. Figure 1
33
shows the differences between Situational Language Teaching (SLT) and Audio-
Lingual Method (ALM). (Richards and Rodgers, 2001)
Figure 1: the differences between Situational Language Teaching (SLT) and Audio-Lingual
Method (ALM).
Theory of Learning
The underlying learning theory of Situational Language Teaching concerns
primarily the process rather than the condition of learning. Palmer (1957) pointed
out that there exist three processes of language learning (figure 2).
Figure 2: three processes of language learning
34
French (1950), likewise, saw language learning as habit formation which turns
over correct speech habits. That is, pupils should be able to put the words, without
hesitation and almost without thought, into sentence patterns which are correct.
Such speech habits can be cultivated blindly through imitative drills.
Situational Language Teaching adopts an inductive approach to the teaching of

grammar. Therefore, explanation is discouraged, and the learner is expected to use
the available situational information to understand the meaning of a particular
structure of vocabulary item.
In SLT, structure and vocabulary are extended to new situations via

generalization. Consequently, learner should be able to apply the language learned
in a classroom to situation outside of the class (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Figure 3: theory of learning in Situational Language Teaching
Design
Objectives
The objectives of Situational Language Teaching method are (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001):
1. To teach a practical command of four basic skills of language.
35
2. Accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar is regarded as crucial, and

errors are to be avoided at all costs.
3. Automatic control of basic structures and sentence patterns is fundamental
to reading and writing skills.
The Syllabus
Structural syllabus and word list is used as the basis of English teaching for
Situational Language Teaching method. Due to the definition of structural
syllabus which refers to a list of the basic structures and sentence patterns of
English, arranged according to their order of presentation, structures are always
taught within sentences, and vocabulary is chosen according to how well it
enables sentence patterns to be taught. Therefore, it is implied that the syllabus of
SLT is not a situational one and mistakenly these two terms are sometimes used
interchangeably. In fact, as Richards and Rodgers (2001) declare, situation refers
to the manner of presenting and practicing sentence pattern.
Types of learning and Teaching Activities

Situational Language Teaching employs a situational approach for presenting new
patterns for sentences and a drill-based manner is suggested for practicing them.
By situation, it is implied that concrete objects, pictures, and realia as well as
actions and gesture are used to demonstrate the meanings of new language items.
The techniques used for practice are generally composed of guided repetition and
substitution activities, such as chorus repetition, dictation, drills and controlled
oral-based reading and writing tasks. The oral practice techniques are sometimes
used, including pair practice and group work (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Learner Roles
In the initial stages of learning, the learner is required simply to listen and repeat
what the teacher says and to respond to questions and commands. Later, they are
encouraged in more active participation which includes learners initiating
responses and asking each other questions; however, this new practice of English
is also controlled by teacher (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Teacher Roles
The teacher’s function is threefold. In the presentation stage of the lesson, the
teacher acts as a model, creating situations in which the need for the target
structure is set up and then modeling the new structure for students to repeat.
36
Then the teacher becomes more like the skillful conductor of an orchestra,
drawing the music out of the performer. The teacher is required to be skillful
manipulator, using questions, commands, and other cues to elicit correct sentences
from learners. Lessons are hence teacher-directed, and the teacher paves the
way.
During the practice phase of lesson, students are given more of an opportunity to
use the language in less controlled situations, but the teacher is even on the
lookout for grammatical and structural errors that can form the basis of
subsequent lessons. Organizing review is a primary task of teacher’s
responsibilities as dealing with (Richards and Rodgers, 2001):
1. Timing
2. Oral practice
3. Revision
4. Adjustment to special needs of individuals
5. Testing
6. Developing language activities other than those arising from the textbook
The Role of Instructional Materials

Both textbook and visual aids are used in this method. The textbook involves
organized lessons which are planned around different grammatical structures.
Visual aids include wall charts, flashcards, pictures, stick figures, and the like
Procedure
Davieset al. (1975) likewise give information about teaching procedures to be
used with Situational Language Teaching as follow (p.44):
1. Listening practice
2. Choral imitation
3. Individual imitation
4. Isolation of sounds, words, or group of words
5. Building up to a new model
6. Elicitation
7. Substitution drills
8. Question-answer drills
9. Correction
37
Conclusion
The essential features of SLT are seen in the "P-P-P" lesson model that thousands
of teachers are required to master within three phases as clarified below (Richards
and Rodgers, 2001):
I. Presentation phase: introduction of a new teaching item in the context

II. Practice phase: controlled practice of the items
III. Production phase: a freer practice phase.
In the mid-1960s, however, the view of language, language teaching and language
learning underlying Situational Language Teaching were called into question
which will be discussed later, after illustrating the American version of
structuralism named as Audio-Lingual method, in more detail in the following
sections to shed further lights on the reaction that led to Communicative Language
Learning (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
38
39
The Audiolingual Method
THE AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD

Background
The entry of the U.S. into the World War ІІ had a significant effect on language
teaching in America. In fact, U.S. government to provide their necessities required
to set up a special language training program. To this end, the American
universities were commissioned to develop foreign language programs for
military personnel. Consequently, the Army Specialized Training Program
(ASTP) was established in 1942 (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
According to the goal of this program, students were required to attain

conversational proficiency in a variety of foreign languages which was against the
objectives of conventional foreign language courses in the U.S. Therefore, new
approaches were felt necessary. Within the same vein, some of the linguists, such
as Bloomfield, used some techniques for teaching foreign language, known as the
informant method; they supervised the learning experience via studying a native
speaker –the informant- who served as a source of phrases and vocabulary and
who provided sentences for imitation. The linguist was not necessarily expected to
know the language but they were trained in eliciting the basic structure of
language from the informant. Nonetheless, the methodology of the Army Method,
like Direct Method, is taken from the intensity of contact with the target language
rather than from any well-developed methodological basis (Richards and Rodgers,
2001).
In 1939, the first English Language Institute was developed by Michigan

University in the U.S. Fries, director of institute, was trained in structuralism. He
then applied the principles of structural linguistics to language teaching.
Therefore, some approaches such as Direct Method, in which learners were
40
exposed to the language in order to use it and gradually absorb its grammatical
patterns, was rejected by him. For Fries, ‘grammar’ was the starting point.
Because he believed that the structure of language provided the basic sentence
patterns and grammatical structure. Moreover, systematic attention was given to
pronunciation for language teaching and also intensive oral drilling of its basic
sentence patterns was taken admittedly. Pattern practice that constituted the
learners’ task was used as the classroom techniques. Therefore, dill was the main
concern, and only enough vocabulary to make such drills possible was required
(Hockett, 1959).
In 1950, the American Council of learned Societies was commissioned to

develop textbooks for teaching English to speakers of a wide number of foreign
languages. The linguistic format involved in this project was known as the
general form in which a lesson began with work on pronunciation, morphology,
and grammar, followed by drills and exercises.
From many perspectives, the methodology used by U.S. linguists and language
teaching experts during this period was similar to oral approach used by British,
although the two traditions were developed independently. However, the
American approach was different in the sense of its strong consensus with
American structural linguistics and its applied linguistic applications, and
particularly in contrastive analysis. Fries believed that problem of learning a
foreign language were attributed to the conflict between different structural
systems (i.e. differences between the grammatical and phonological patterns of
the native language and target language).Contrastive analysis of two languages
would lead potential problem of interference that can be predicted and addressed
through carefully prepared teaching materials. These linguistic principles came to
be known as Audiolingualism method (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
41
Figure 1: Oral Approach vs. Audiolingual Method
Based on Audiolingualism (the term was coined by Professor Nelson Brooks in

1964),it was claimed that language teaching was transformed from an art into
science, which enabled learners to achieve mastery of foreign language
effectively. In s
um, ALM is a combination of structural linguistic theory, contrastive analysis,

aural-oral procedures, and behavioristic psychology, as it is shown in figure2.
Figure 2: Theories that construct ALM
42
Approach
Theory of Language
The theory of language underling ALM was derived from structural linguistics
which was developed in part as a reaction to the traditional grammar. Traditional
approaches that were used for the study of language had linked the study of
language to philosophy and applied a mentalistic approach towards grammar. In
fact, grammar was considered as a branch of logic, and the grammatical categories
of Indo-European languages, which were considered as the ideal ones, were
taught.
By the 1930s, the scientific approach to the study of language came into
consideration which consisted of collecting examples of what speakers said and
analyzing them according to different level of structural organization rather than
categories of Latin grammar. By this approach, language was viewed as a system
of structurally related elements (i.e., phonemes, morphemes, words, structures,
and sentence types) in order to encode the meanings (Richards and Rodgers,
2001). A central and fundamental tenet of structural linguistics was the primary
concern attended to oral language. In Brooks’ words, language is primarily what
is spoken and only secondarily what is written (1964).
43
Figure 3: traditional approach vs. structural approach
According to the proponents of structural linguistics, the linguistic principles on

which language teaching methodology should be based are the ones shown in
Figure 4 (Rivers, 1964):
44
Figure 4: Linguistic principles of structural approach
It is nice to add that the view of language in ALM was also influenced by
descriptive linguistics; according to which every language is seen as a unique
system comprising several different levels consisting of phonology, morphology,
and syntax. Each level has its own distinctive patterns. Culture involves everyday
behavior and lifestyle of the target language speakers (Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
According to descriptive linguistics, since the native language and the target
language have separate linguistic systems and as a consequence the students’
native language interferes with students’ attempts to acquire the target language,
the should be kept apart(Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
Areas of language that is emphasized in ALM (Larsen-Freeman, 2011):
1. Vocabulary is kept to minimum while the students are mastering the

system and grammatical patterns.
2. The natural order of skills presentation is adhered to: listening, speaking,
reading and writing.
3. The oral/aural skills receive most of the attention
4. Pronunciation is taught from the beginning.
45
Theory of Learning
The language teaching theoreticians and methodologists who developed
Audiolingualism besides having a convincing and powerful theory of language to
draw upon, they had the chance of working in a period when a school of
American psychology-known as behavioral psychology- claimed to have taped
the secrets of all human learning, including language learning(Richards and
Rodgers, 2001).
Behaviorism, like structuralism, is another anti-mentalist and empirically-based

approach to the study of human behavior. According to behaviorists, the human
being is seen as an organism that is capable of a wide repertoire of behaviors.
These behaviors take place dependently on three crucial elements in learning:
Stimulus, which serves to elicit behavior, Response, which is triggered by a
stimulus, and Reinforcement, which serves to mark the response appropriate and
encourages the repetition of the response in the future (Figure 5) (see Skiner 1957;
Brown 1980).
Figure 5: S-R process
Out of the influences of structural linguistics and behavioral psychology a number

of learning principles was emerged, on which Audiolingualism was
psychologically founded (Rivers, 1964):
a. Foreign language learning is basically a process of mechanical habit

formation. Good habits are formed by giving correct responses rather than
by making mistakes. By memorizing dialogues and performing pattern
46
drills the chances of producing mistakes are minimized. Language is

verbal behavior.
b. Language skills are learned more effectively if the items to be learned in

the target language are presented in spoken before written form.
c. Analogy provides a better foundation for language learning than analysis.

The approach to the teaching of grammar is essentially inductive rather
than deductive.
d. The meanings that the words of a language have for the native speaker can
be learned only in a linguistic and cultural context and not in isolation.
Design
Audiolingualists supported the speech–based instruction (oral proficiency is the
primarily concerned objective) and rejected the study of grammar or literature as a
goal of teaching (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Objectives
Brooks(1964) differentiates between short-range and long-range objectives of an
Audiolingual program through which Short-range objectives include training in
listening comprehension, accurate pronunciation, recognition of speech symbols
such as graphic signs on the printed page, and ability to produce these symbols in
writing and Long-range objectives refer to the way language is used by the
native speakers; more succinctly, the long-range objective is to gain knowledge of
a second language as it is possessed by a true bilingual (Rivers, 1964) and oral
proficiency is considered equal to accurate pronunciation and grammar and the
ability to respond quickly and accurately in speech situations (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001).
The syllabus
Audiolingualism uses a structural syllabus which is composed of the key items of
phonology, morphology, and syntax of the language arranged according to their
order of presentation. Particularly, these may have been derived from a contrastive
analysis of the differences between the two languages, since these differences are
seen as the cause of major difficulties the learners will encounter. Moreover, a
detailed lexical syllabus of basic vocabulary items is usually stated in advance.
47
Listening, speaking, reading and writing skills of language are taught respectively.
In fact, learners must first acquire the Audio-lingual and gestural-visual skills and,
within the same vein, their activities must also be limited to these behaviors.
Afterwards, recognition and discrimination activities are followed by imitation,
repetition and memorization. Only when the learner is thoroughly familiar with
sounds, arrangements, and forms, they center their attention on learning the
vocabulary. Throughout language learning he concentrates upon obtaining
accuracy before making a great effort to achieve fluency (Richards and Rodgers,
2001)
Types of learning and teaching activities

Dialogues and drills basically form the practices of the Audio-lingual classroom.
The former are mostly used for the purpose of repetition and memorization and, in
fact, dialogues provide the means of contextualizing necessary structures and
illustrate situations. Therefore, besides putting emphasis on correct pronunciation,
stress, rhythm and intonation, specified grammatical patterns are selected and
highlighted around which various kinds of drill and pattern-practice exercise are
centered (Figure 6).
Drills (Richards and Rodgers, 2001):
1. Repetition: the student repeats and utterance aloud as soon as he has read
it.
2. Inflection: one word in an utterance appears in another form when repeat.
3. Replacement: one word in an utterance is replaced by another.
4. Restatement: the student rephrases an utterance and addresses it to
someone else, according to instruction.
5. Completion: the student hears an utterance that is complete except for one
word, then repeats the utterance in complete form.
6. Transposition: a change word order is necessary when a word is added.
7. Expansion (Backward build – up drill): when a word is added it takes a
certain place in the sequence.
8. Contraction: a single word stands for a phrase or clause.
9. Transformation: a sentence is transformed by being made negative or
interrogative or through changes in tense, mood, voice, aspect, or
modality.
10. Integration: two separate utterances are interacted into one.
11. Rejoinder: the students make an appropriate rejoinder to a given utterance.
48
12. Restoration: the student is given a sequence of words that have been
called from a sentence but still bear its basic meaning.
13. Chain drill: this kind of drill leads to (limited) communicative language
use and individual monitoring. (One by one, ask and answer questions of
each other. It gives the teacher an opportunity to check each student’s
speech) (Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
14. Single/Multiple – slot substitution drill: It involves the teacher first
modeling a word or a sentence and the learners repeating it. The teacher
then substitutes one or more key words (called the cue), or changes the
prompt, and the learners say the new structure. The major purpose of this
drill is to give the students practice in finding and filling in the slot of a
sentence (Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
15. Minimal pair is a technique used in this method. It means that teacher
uses the words which differ in only one sound. (ship / sheep) (Larsen-
Freeman, 2011).
49
Figure 6: Types of learning and teaching activities in ALM
50
Learner roles
Learners can produce correct responses since they are directed by skill training
techniques. They have a reactive role by responding to stimuli, and thus, content,
pace, or style of learning is not under the learners’ control. Furthermore, since
there are fears that initiating the interaction by students may lead to mistakes, they
are never encouraged to initiate an interaction. Richards and Rodgers (2001) state
that “students are imitators of the teacher’s model or the tapes which supplies of
model speaker”, and it is also believed that in the early stages, learners do not
always understand the meaning of what they are repeating, however, it is not
interpreted as drawback because learners are acquiring a new form of verbal
behavior by “listening to the teacher, imitating accurately, and responding to and
performing controlled tasks” (Richards and Rodgers, 2001, p.62). In sum, as
Larsen-Freeman (2011) declares, students should overlearn; they should learn
how to answer automatically without stopping to think.
Teacher roles
Audiolingualism is a teacher-dominant method. Therefore, teachers play an active
and central role in the class. More succinctly, they model the target language,
control the direction and pace of learning, monitor and correct the learners’
performance. Thus, through an active verbal interaction between the teacher and
learners, language learning takes place (Richards and Rodgers, 2001). Larsen-
Freeman (2011) calls the teacher an orchestra leader who directs and controls
students’ language behavior.
The role of instructional materials

Instructional materials in Audiolingual Method assist teachers in developing
language mastery. It is primarily teacher-oriented and even in the elementary
phases although students’ textbooks are not often used, teachers will have access
to the teacher’s book. Above all, tape recorders and audiovisual equipment often
have vital roles in an Audiolingual course.
Imitation reinforcement or correction was employed by the audio-lingual method.

Inductive teaching implies that teachers should not teach about the language, but
the language itself. Contextualization did not have a significant place in ALM and
it was just limited to the contextualization of vocabulary in grammatical patterns,
and the mechanical drills devised in ALM were not meaningfully contextualized
51
Procedure
Audiolingualism, with which inductive teaching is mainly dealt, is seen primarily
as an oral approach to language teaching. Therefore, the immediate and accurate
speech is the main concern and focus of instruction. Moreover, according to
Richards and Rodgers (2001), instruction takes place, as far as possible, through
the target language and translation is not done. They claim that teacher, in this
method, should not teach about the language, but the language itself. That is why
it scarcely provides grammatical explanation. In other words, contextualization,
although does not play a significant role in ALM, is used of vocabulary in
grammatical patterns.
Conclusion
Audiolingualism does not distinguish language learning from other forms of
learning since it is believed that language is a rule-governed system that can be
formally organized. Thus, Audiolingualism emphasizes the mechanical aspect of
language learning and language use.
Theoretically speaking, ALM was under the influence of American structuralism

linguistic theory in the 1960s. ALM linguistic (structuralism) and language
learning (behaviorism) theories, however, were then rejected by an MIT linguist
named Noam Chomsky who believed that "Language is not a habit structure.
Ordinary linguistic behavior characteristically involves innovation, formation of
new sentences and patterns in accordance with rules of great abstractness
intricacy”(cited in Richards and Rodgers, 2001).He instead proposed that
“speakers have knowledge of underlying abstract rules which allow them to
understand and create novel utterances, thus, Chomsky reasoned, language must
not be considered as a product of habit formation but rather of rule formation.”
(p.65).Consequently, language acquisition must be a procedure according to
which people use their own thinking process, or cognition, to discover the rules of
the language they are acquiring. The emphasis on human cognition led to the
establishment of Cognitive Code Approach (Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
ALM drawbacks:
1. Students were often found to be unable to transfer skills acquired through
Audiolingualism to real communication outside the classroom.
2. Students found the experience of studying through ALM to be boring and
unsatisfying.
52
In a Nutshell:
1. The term Audiolingualism was coined by Professor Nelson Brooks in
1964.
2. In many ways the methodology used by U.S. linguistics and language
teaching experts during this period sounded similar to British oral
approach, although he two traditions developed independently.
3. The view of language in ALM has been influenced by descriptive
linguistics.
4. Audiolingualism holds language is a formal rule-governed system.
5. Behaviorism and structural linguistics, are anti-mentalist, empirically
based approaches.
6. Foreign language learning is basically a process of mechanical habit
formation. Good habits are formed by giving correct responses rather than
by making mistakes.
7. Language skills are learned more effectively if the items to be learned in
the target language are presented in spoken before written form.
8. There is little provision for grammatical explanation or talking about the
language.
9. Analogy provides a better foundation for language learning than analysis.
10. Oral proficiency is equated with accurate pronunciation and grammar and
the ability to respond quickly and accurately in speech situations.
11. The language skills are taught in the order of listening, speaking, reading
and writing.
12. Only when the learner is thoroughly familiar with sounds, arrangements,
and forms does he center his attention on learning his vocabulary.
13. Throughout language learning he concentrates upon gaining accuracy
before striving for fluency.
14. Dialogues provide the means of contextualizing key structures and
illustrate situations. They are used for repetition and memorization.
15. Correct pronunciation, stress, rhythm, and intonation are emphasized.
16. Students should overlearn; i.e. learnt to answer automatically without
stopping to think.
17. ALM is a teacher – dominant method.
18. The teacher is like an orchestra leader, directing and controlling the
language behavior of students.
19. Imitation reinforcement or correction was employed by the audio-lingual
method.
20. Inductive teaching implies that teachers should not teach about the
language, but the language itself.
21.Contextualization did not have a significant place in ALM and it was just
limited to the contextualization of vocabulary in grammatical patterns.
53
54
COGNITIVE-CODE APPROACH
Background
Chomsky’s theory of transformational grammar states that “the fundamental
properties of language derive from the innate aspects of the mind and from how
humans process experiences through language”(1964, p. 66). American linguistics
was revolutionized by this theory and he turned the attention of linguists and
psychologists to the mental properties of mind. Therefore, the whole Audiolingual
paradigm- pattern practice; drilling; memorization- came under question
More recent theories of learning have changed their attention from the
conditioning model of behaviorism to cognitive approach. According to the
cognitive psychologists, the result of experiment with animal behaviors is not
appropriate to be considered as a valid model for human learning. Instead, in
order to understand the learning process they employed neuropsychological and
information processing models as the basis of human learning behaviors. They
made an effort to find solutions to the problems of learning beyond changes in
behavior stressed by behavioristic approach. The cognitive approach to define
human learning took the role of mind in processing the acquired information into
account. Likely, Chastain (1988) states that “learning is the perception,
acquisition, organization, and storage of knowledge in such a way that it becomes
an active part of the individual’s cognitive structure” (p.90).
Although Transformational-Generative (T-G) linguists are not interested in

language teaching per se, many of their ideas support a different approach from
that recommended by ALM. In their viewpoints, it is impossible to teach all the
expressions and sentences that students may need since language is infinitely
varied. Therefore, the only achievable goal is that of teaching the system that
makes language production feasible (Chastain, 1988).
55
Cognitive-Code Approach
Language rules are of two types: generative rules and transformational rules
(Figure 1). Since language users must be aware of the rules before producing
language, competence must precede performance. In other words, language
learners are required to obtain and activate their competence first in order to create
the language needed in particular communicative situations. On the other hand,
second language learners may use their first language and apply the universal
elements to the second language while they are learning the second language. In
addition, T-G linguists allocate a larger role for syntax and semantic and lesser
role for sounds in language learning (Chastain, 1988).
Figure 1: Rules of language
Approach
Theory of Language
Chomsky, one of the prime candidates for innovative linguistic studies, says that
"it seems to me impossible to accept the view that linguistic behavior is a matter
of habit, that it is slowly acquired by reinforcement, association and
generalization." Like cognitive definition of learning, language cognitive
definition stresses mental process, because the conditional verbal responses are
not adequate to support creativity of humans and rule-governed communication
(Chastain, 1988).
Theory of Learning
Mental processes take a pivotal role in cognitive learning which are under
individual’s control. The individual’s knowledge does not include conditioned
56
behavior but assimilated information within their cognitive resources that makes
their behavior possible and controls it. Hence, rote learning or controlled learning
do not make sense and are considered relatively unimportant in the explanation of
basic and higher mental activities. Consequently, the learning outcomes from
animals were not attributed to human subjects (Chastain, 1988).
Design
Objectives
Based on cognitive-code approach, the main objective deals with developing
students’ competence to the extent to which they can formulate their own replies
to previously unmet language situation. To this end, teacher first sets up the
necessary prerequisites in students’ cognitive structure to develop their
performance. Then, students activate their competence to produce the specific
utterances appropriate to the communicative situations (Chastain, 1988).
Learner Roles
According to Chastain (1988), students are no longer considered as responsive to
the stimuli; instead, learners, who are far actively responsible for their own
learning, are expected to demonstrate how they are able to recall as well as use
what they have acquired. In other words, it is believed that students are enabled to
discover the rules of the target language by getting involved with hypotheses
formulation based on which errors are embraced and concerned as signs of
learning (Larsen-freeman, 2011).
Teacher Roles
The teacher’s responsibility is to recognize the importance of the students’ mental
asset and mental activity in learning and to organize the material being presented
in such manner that what is to be learned will be meaningful to the learners. In
addition, they should encourage an active, questioning attitude on the part of the
students, which help them to understand and relate what is being learned to what
they already know (Chastain, 1988).
Materials
The materials in a cognitive textbook are sequences so that the learner progresses
from comprehension to state of competence and then to a level of functional
performance skills. Throughout the text, the emphasis is on meaningful learning
57
Cognitive-Code Approach
and meaningful practice and application activities. (Chastain, 1988) Materials

were developed with deductive and inductive grammar exercises (Larsen-freeman,
2011).
The book is introduced at very beginning of the course, since all four language
skills are introduced at the same time. There is no pre-reading period, and the
students can prepare written homework as early as the first day of the class
(Chastain, 1988).
58
59
Comprehension approach
+++/
COMPREHENSION APPROACH
Introduction
Postovsky and Winitz are two of the most common figures associated with
comprehension approach. Their recommendations are widely derived from the
most recently introduced theories of learning and language and particularly from a
reaction to some of the principles of previous approaches (Chastain, 1988).
Approach
According to Postovsky (1981), language is viewed as a coding process in the
central nervous system and learner is considered as an active processer of
language input and output. Therefore, individual’s internal mental processes are
indicated as the basic component in the second language learning.
Postovsky (1982), disapproved the audio-lingual position in which speaking was

the primary means of language since he believed that students must have the
ability to comprehend and process language before they can speak it. He also
countered imitation of foreign language with the argument of using the processing
devices that have been established in human’s brain by prior learning (Chastain,
1988).
The role of conscious grammar knowledge is also rejected by the proponents of

this approach. Comprehensionists are on the consensus that knowledge of the
rules has a negative impact on learning due to the two following reasons:
(Chastain, 1988)
1. The result of being exposed to the explanation of a rule is that students

want to know more and more until the rules with all its exceptions become
60
so complex that their incomplete knowledge becomes more of a handicap

than an asset.
2. Rules that treat surface structures are often so simplified as to be
incomplete and even inaccurate at times.
Unlike grammar explanation (in GTM) and pattern drills (in ALM), proponents of
comprehension approach betray a focus on developing student’s listening
comprehension skills in the introductory early stages course (Chastain, 1988).
To teach listening comprehension successfully, Postovsky suggests that teachers

should follow three criteria: (Chastain, 1988)
1. From the first hour of instruction they present the material in such a
manner that students understand everything said in the second language.
2. They use some system that requires students to verify that they understood
what the teacher said.
3. They get students to infer meaning from the context.
Although students do speak in comprehension classes, proponents emphasize on

the fact that speech production needs to be supported first by the prerequisite
language elements in their mental systems. They believe that production drills and
the preplanned dialogues or artificially generated conversations should not be
used. In fact, to Postovsky, speaking skill is delayed until students profit by
speaking practice and are prepared to speak (Chastain, 1988).
First language learning and related theories firmly support comprehension

proponents’ beliefs and their techniques. Children are exposed a preproduction
period during which they learn a particular form, pattern, or words but they do not
use it themselves until some times after initial comprehension. Furthermore,
children learn grammar subconsciously, while they are communicating in the
language (Chastain, 1988).
Proponents of the comprehension approach believe that second language learners

can learn language in basically in same fashion by stressing listening
comprehension prior to speaking and by learning grammar implicitly while they
are learning to comprehend the spoken language.
Postovsky also believes that listening and speaking involve different process. He
conceived of listening as decoding process involving recognition knowledge and
of speaking as an encoding process involving retrieval knowledge. He
61
Comprehension approach
maintained that both types of knowledge cannot be learned at the same time and
that recognition knowledge precedes retrieval knowledge (Chastain, 1988).
The relationship between listening comprehension and speaking:
•A decoding •An encoding

Listening process Speaking process
comprehnsi •Involving comprehensi •Involving
on recognition on retrival
knowledge knowlede
Decoding process is defined as the process of trying to understand the meaning of

a word, phrase, or sentence. When decoding a speech utterance takes place, the
listener must fallow the following criteria: (Jack C. Richards, & Richard Schmidt,
2010)
1. To hold the utterance in short-term memory.

2. To analyze the utterance into segment and identify clauses, phrases, and
other linguistic unit.
3. To identify the underlying propositions and illocutionary meaning.
Encoding process, on the other hand, is the process of turning a massage into sets
of symbols, as part of the act of communication. In encoding speech, the speaker
must follow the following criteria: (Jack C. Richards, & Richard Schmidt, 2010)
1. Select meaning to be communicated.

2. Turn it into linguistic form using semantic systems and phonological
systems.
Comprehension approach solves three major problems and drawbacks of the

grammar translation and audio-lingual approaches (Postovsky, 1982):
1. When teacher requires students to speak before they have learned the
necessary language element, the result is that the interference from their
62
native language is greater because the only resource they have is to resort
their native language.
2. Requiring students to speak before they are ready causes them to try to
produce sentences by applying conscious grammar rules. An approach that
result in cognitive overload of short-term memory processes.
3. Students forced to speak spend their time using language they already
know rather than listening to learn more language.
63
Total physical response
TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE

Background
Total Physical Response (TPR), a language teaching method which was
developed by James Asher, is based on the idea of the coordination of the speech
and action according to which language teaching takes place through physical
(motor) activity. Asher states that successful adult second language learning is a
parallel process to child first language acquisition. He also claims that young
children are directed to the speech of commands to which they respond physically
before they begin to produce verbal responses (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Asher’s method is also built around the school of humanistic psychology by taking
the affective (emotional) factors in language learning into account. In fact, TPR
facilitates learning for the learners by reducing their stress and creating a positive
mood in them (Richards & Rodgers, 2001).
Asher mentions three major strengths of TPR demonstrated in Figure 1

(Chastain, 1988):
64
Figure 1: three major strengths of TPR
Approach
Theory of Language
Vocabulary and grammatical structure are emphasized over other language areas.
Asher (1977) to clarify the grammar-based view of language in TPR states that to
use the imperative skillfully most of the grammatical structures of the target
language and hundreds of vocabulary items can be learned. He, in fact, views the
verb, particularly the verb in the imperative, as the central linguistic motif around
which language use and learning are organized. The imperatives are single words
and multi-words chunk (Larsen-Freeman, 2011). Larsen-Freeman adds that the
importance of imperatives, the dominant feature of TPR, is due to their frequency
of occurrence in young children’s native language.
Theory of Learning
Stimulus-response view of learning theory provides the underlying language
teaching pedagogy in Asher’s point of view. In addition, Richards and Rodgers
(2001) believe that TPR can also be linked to the trace theory of memory in
psychology. Based on trace theory, they believe, “the more often a memory
65
connection is traced, the stronger the memory association will be and more likely
it will be recalled. Retracing can be done verbally (by rote learning) and/or in
association motor activity”(Richards and Rodgers, 2001, p. 74).
To Asher, learning theory includes three influential hypotheses; namely, innate

bio-program, brain lateralization and reduction of stress (Figure 2).
Richards and Rodgers (2001) define the first hypothesis as follow:
1. Innate bio-program: there exists an innate bio-program for language

learning which defines an optimal path for first and second language
development. Asher sees first and second language learning parallel to
each other. He mentions these three processes central:
I. Children develop listening competence before they develop the
ability to speak. At the early stages of first language acquisition,
they can understand complex utterances that they cannot produce
or imitate.
II. Children’s ability in listening comprehension is acquired because
children are required to respond physically to spoken language in
the form of parental commands.
III. Once the foundation in listening comprehension has been
established, speech evolves naturally and effortlessly out of it.
In short, they believe that parallel to the process of the first language learning, the
foreign language learner should first internalize a cognitive map of the target
language through listening exercises. Listening should be accompanied by
physical movement. Speech and other productive skills should come later.
Larsen-Freeman (2011) in terms of innate bio-program hypothesis declares that to

Asher language learning starts first with understanding and ends with production.
That is, after the learner internalizes an extensive map of how the target language
works, speaking will appear spontaneously.
Asher states that “the brain and nervous system are biologically programmed to
acquire language in a particular sequence and mode. The sequence is listening
before speaking and the mood is to synchronized language with the individual’s
body” (1977, p.4). To this regard, the importance of the next hypothesis comes
up:
66
Brain lateralization defines different learning functions in left and right brain
hemispheres. Asher sees TPR as directed to right-brain learning whereas most
second language teaching methods are directed to left-brain language. Asher holds
that the child language learner acquires language through motor movement- a
right-hemisphere activity. Right-hemisphere activity must occur before the left-
hemisphere can process language for production. Similarly, the adult should
proceed to language mastery through right-hemisphere motor activity, while the
left hemisphere watches and learns. When a sufficient amount of right-hemisphere
learning has taken place, the left hemisphere will be triggered to produce language
and to initiate other, more abstract language processes (Richards and Rodgers,
2001, p. 74).
Finally, the next hypothesis, reduction of stress, is defined as follow:
Reduction of stress: stress as an effective filter intervenes between the act of

learning and what is to be learned. An important condition for successful language
learning is the absence of stress. The key to stress-free learning is to tap into the
natural bio-program for language development. By focusing on meaning
interpreted through movement, rather than on language forms studied in the
abstract, the learner is said to be liberated from self-conscious and stressful
situations and is able to devote full energy to learning (Richards and Rodgers,
2001, p. 75).
In sum, “meaning in the target language can often be conveyed through actions.
Memory is activated through learner response. Beginning language instruction
should address the right-hemisphere, the part which controls nonverbal behavior.
The target language should be presented in chunks, not just word by
word”(Larsen-Freeman, 2011).(Redundant to me)
67
Figure 2: three influential hypotheses in TPR
68
Design
Objectives
Teaching oral proficiency at a beginning level is considered as the general
objective of TPR. Comprehension is a means to an end and also teaching speaking
skills is seen as the ultimate aim, however, specific instructional objectives are not
elaborated since they will depend on learners’ particular needs. All these goals
must be set in an attainable way through which action-based drills in the
imperative form are required. By attainable it is implied that, in a TPR course,
learners are able to communicate in a way that is intelligible to native speakers
although it is an uninhabited communication (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
TPR was developed with the aim of reducing the stress people feel when they are
studying other languages. To this regard, Larsen-Freeman (2011) believes that
TPR encourages students to persist in their study beyond a beginning level of
proficiency.
Syllabus
In TPR classes teachers use a sentence-based syllabus with grammatical and
lexical criteria. TPR requires initial attention to meaning rather than to the form of
the items. Grammar is thus taught inductively (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Learning Activities
Imperative drills are the major classroom activities in TPR. Asher acknowledges
that a variety of activities is preferred in order to maintain students’ interest.
These activities, according to Larsen-Freeman (2011), include role reversal and
action sequences (or operation). Richards and Rodgers (2001) state that role play
and slide presentation are considered as the other class activities as well as
conversational dialogs which are delayed until after 120 hours of instruction.
Roles of learners
Learners in TPR have the primary role of listener and performer. They are
expected to recognize and respond to novel combinations of previously taught
items and are also required to produce novel combinations of their own. Learners
monitor and evaluate their own progress. They are encouraged to speak when they
feel ready to speak (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
69
Roles of the teacher

Teachers take an active and direct role in TPR by deciding what to teach and
modeling the new materials as well as selecting the supporting materials(Richards
& Rodgers, 2001).
The teacher’s role is more providing opportunities for leaning rather than teaching
per se. They are expected to be in charge of providing the best kind of exposure to
language. Within the same vein, learners can internalize the basic role of the target
language. Thus, the teacher, in fact, controls the language input the learners
receive and provides the raw materials for the cognitive map that learner will
construct in their own minds. They should also let speaking abilities develop in
learner’s own natural pace (Richards & Rodgers, 2001).
Giving feedback: In giving feedback to the learners, teachers act like parents
giving feedback to their children. At first, parents correct very little, but as the
child grows older, parent are said to tolerate few mistakes. Similarly, too much
correction in the early stages is prohibited and teachers should not interrupt to
correct errors, since this will inhibit learners from speaking. As time goes on,
however, teachers are expected to intervene more (Richards and Rodgers, 2001)
and error correction should be conducted in an unobtrusive manner. (Larsen-
Freeman, 2011)
Asher stresses that teachers should not introduce new commands too fast. They
should, in fact, let their pupils feel successful. According to Larsen-Freeman,
three commands at a time are recommended. The more can be thought after
students could deal with these successfully.
The Role of Students’ Native Language

TPR is usually introduced in the student’s native language. After the introduction,
rarely would the native language be used and meaning is made clear through body
movements.

There is generally no basic text in TPR. Since for absolute beginners, the
teacher’s voice, action and gesture may be sufficient basis for classroom activities
and other materials are not required to be used. In fact, materials and realia play
an increasing role for the later learning stages.
70
Furthermore, Asher has developed TPR student kits that focus on specific
situations, such as home, supermarket, and beach (Richards & Rodgers, 2001).
Conclusion
TPR puts emphasis on the role of comprehension in SLA as Krashen (1981), for
example, regards provision of comprehensible input and reduction of stress as
keys to successful language acquisition. He also sees performing physical actions
in the target language as a means of making input comprehensible and minimizing
stress (Richards & Rodgers, 2001).
Comprehension Approach vs. Total Physical Response approach:

Asher’s approach is similar to comprehension approach in that:
1) Both favor a silent period at the beginning of second language learning.

2) Both approaches have a cognitive orientation because the stress
internalization of linguistic data before asking students to generate
utterances and because the stress meaningful learning.
3) Both recommended that students not be required to talk before they are
ready to talk.
4) And, both stress that students should comprehend everything that they
heard (Chastain, 1998).
However, the TPR approach is different from the comprehension approach in

some ways:
1) One of the Asher's major objectives is to eliminate stress. That is, he is

more concerned with the affective domain than are proponents of
comprehension approach.
2) The techniques he recommended are different. Giving and performing
commends probably make it easier for teachers to establish meaning than
do techniques recommended for comprehension approach.
3) Physical action may promote long-term retention through psychometric
memory.
4) Students acquiring second language by acting out commands may which
engage the right hemisphere of brain while they tend to use the left-
hemisphere in traditional approaches (Chastain, 1998).
71
In a Nutshell:
1) Total Physical Response (TPR), developed by James Asher, is language
teaching method built around the coordination of the speech and action.
2) It attempts to teach language through physical (motor) activity.
3) Asher sees successful adult second language learning as a parallel process
to child first language acquisition.
4) Asher shares with school of humanistic phycology a concern for the role
of affective (emotional) factors in language learning.
5) Asher sees a stimulus-response view as providing the learning theory
underlying language teaching pedagogy.
6) TPR can also be linked to the trace theory of memory in psychology.
7) For Asher’s learning theory includes three influential hypotheses: the bio-
program, brain lateralization, and reduction of stress.
8) By focusing on meaning interpreted through movement, rather than on
language forms studied in the abstract, the learner is said to be liberated
from self-conscious and stressful situations and is able to devote full
energy to learning.
9) The target language should be presented in chunks, not just word by word.
(Larsen-Freeman, 2011)
10) Comprehension is a means to an end.
11) In TPR classes teachers use a sentence-based syllabus with grammatical
and lexical criteria.
12) Grammar is thus taught inductively. (Richards & Rodgers, 2001)
13) Learners monitor and evaluate their own progress in TPR.
14) They are encouraged to speak when they feel ready to speak.
72
73
74
THE SILENT WAY

Background
The method of Silent Way (SW) was devised by Caleb Gattegno. It is based on
the premise that teacher should be silent as much as possible in the classroom but
the learner should be encouraged to produce as much language as possible. The
charts and colored Cuisenaire rods are particularly used as the elements of this
method which grew out of Gattegno’s previous experience as designer of reading
and mathematics (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
One of the basic principles of the SW is that teaching should be subordinated to

learning. In other words, Gattegno believes that to teach means to serve the
learning process rather than to dominate it. In this approach the teacher works
with the students working on the language (Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
Learning hypotheses underlying Gattegno’s work could be stated as

follows(Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p. 81):
1. Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers and creates rather than

remembers and repeats what is to be learned:
“The silent way belongs to tradition that views learning as a problem
solving, creative, discovering activity in which the learner is principal actor
rather than a bench-bound listener” (Bruner, 1966, p.81).
Brunner (1966) discussed the benefits derived from discovery learning
which were similar to the ones taught via SW according to Gattegno as
follows:
a) The increase in intellectual potency
b) The shift from extrinsic to intrinsic reward
c) The learning of heuristic by discovering
75
The Silent Way
d) The aid to conserving memory
2. Learning is facilitated by accompanying (mediating) physical objects:

The rods and the color-coded punctuation charts (fidel charts) provide
physical foci for students learning and also create memorable images to
facilitate students’ recall. In psychological terms, these visual devices serve
as associative mediators for students learning and recall.
3. Learning is facilitated by problem solving involving the material to be

learned:
The silent way is also related to a set of premises that we have called
problem-solving approaches to leaning. These premises are represented in
the words of Benjamin Franklin:
Tell me and forget,
Teach me and remember,
Involve me and learn.
76
Learning hypotheses underlying

Gattegno’s work
•learner is principal actor.

•Benefits of this kind of learning:
•a)The increase in intellectual potency
Learner should discovers •b)The shift from extrinsic to intrinsic
‎and creates. reward
•c)The learning of heuristic by discovering
•d)The aid to conserving memory
•These physical objects include:rod

Learning should mediating by charts and fidel charts
physical bjects (associatve •benefits of this kind of learning
‎mediators) ==>creates memorable images for
facilitate students` recall
•These premises are represented in the

words of Benjamin Franklin:
learning is a problem-solving •Tell me and forget,
‎process.
•Teach me and remember,
•Involve me and learn.
Figure1. Learning hypotheses underlying Gattegno’s work
Approach
Theory of language
The linguistic theory of SW comes into an openly doubtful view. Considerable
discussion goes to the importance of the spirit of the language and not just its
component forms. By sprit of language he refers to “the way each language is
composed of phonological and super-segmental elements that combine to give
language its unique sound system and melody”(Richards and Rodgers, 2001,
p.83).
77
The Silent Way
By looking at the chosen materials and the sequences in which they are presented
in a SW class, it is implied that the SW takes a structural approach to the
organization of language to be taught. The sentence is the basic unit of language,
and the teacher takes propositional meaning into account rather than
communicative values. They present structural pattern of language and students
learn the grammar through inductive process (Richards & Rodgers, 2001).The
structure of the syllabus is constantly being recycled and not arranged in a linear
fashion (Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
In addition, meaning in SW is made clear by focusing on students’ perceptions,

not through translation (Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
Gattegno sees the vocabulary also as the other central dimension of language
learning which mostly deals with functional and versatile words of the language,
many of which may not have direct equivalence in the native language. To
Richards and Rodgers (2001), these functional vocabulary items are seen as keys
to comprehending the spirit of language.
•Basic unit
‎Sound of the
blocks
•Central
dimension of
‎vocabulary langeage
learning
•Basic unit
‎Sentence of
teaching
Figure 2: the role of component of language in SW
78
Theory of Learning
Gattegno declares that there is no resemblance between the processes of learning a
second language and those involved in learning first language (L1≠L2). In other
words, the second language learner cannot learn another language in the same way
of learning first language due to what he now knows (Gattegno, 1972). Therefore,
a successful second language approach that is very artificial will replace the
natural one(Richards & Rodgers, 2001).
Gattegno’s artificial approach is based upon the principle that successful learning
takes place via commitment of the self to language acquisition through the use of
the silent awareness before active trail. More succinctly, by ’self’ it is implied that
two systems- a learning system and retaining system- should be taken for granted.
The learning system is activated only by the way of intelligence awareness;
therefore, silence is considered as the best vehicle for learning, since in silence
students have better concentration on the task to be accomplished. Repetition -as
opposed to silence-consumes time and encourages the scattered mind to remain
scattered (Gattegno,1972). Richards and Rodgers (2001) believe that awareness is
educable. That is to say, individual’s power of awareness becomes greater as they
are taught in awareness. The SW thus claims to facilitate what psychologists call
learning to learn.
self-
‎Attention ‎Production ‎Absorption
‎correction
Figure 3: The process chain that develops awareness
In addition, silent way learners acquire inner criteria, which play a pivotal role in
one’s education. In fact, the inner criteria let learners monitor and self-correct
their own production. It is the activity of self-correction through self- awareness
that distinguishes the SW notably from other ways of language learning (Richards
and Rodgers, 2001).
To count the next feature of SW students’ autonomy comes into attention which is
fostered via silence that is a tool and considered as the exercise of initiative.
Silence also removes the teacher from the center of attention so teacher can listen
to and work with the students. The teacher speaks, but only when necessary
(Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
79
The Silent Way
Design
Objectives
Richards and Rodgers (2001) made distinction between the objectives and goals
of SW. To them, general objective of the silent way is giving beginning-level
students oral and aural facility in basic elements of the target language. The
general goals set for language learning is near-native fluency in the target
language, and correct pronunciation and mastery of the prosodic elements of
target language are emphasized.
They believe that providing the learner with a basic practical knowledge of the
grammar is an immediate objective in SW.
Syllabus
The silent way conducts a basically structural syllabus, with lesson plans around
grammatical items and related vocabulary. Language items are introduced
according to their grammatical complexity, their relationship to what has been
taught previously, and the ease with which item can be presented visually
Learning Activities
Learning tasks in the SW are developed with the aim of encouraging and shaping
students’ oral response without direct oral instruction form or unnecessary
modeling by the teacher. They are basically simple linguistic tasks in which the
teacher models a word, phrase, or sentence and then learners’ responses are
elicited. Time by time, learners by putting old and new information together could
create their own utterances. Responses to command, questions, and visual cues
thus constitute the basis for classroom activity (In TPR and ALM, the activities
were just based on responses to commands and questions) (Richards & Rodgers,
2001).
Learner’s role
Learners are expected to develop independence, autonomy, and responsibility.
They have only themselves as individuals as well as group for relying on;
therefore, learners must acquire how to work cooperatively rather than
competitively (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). Students gain autonomy in the
language by exploring it and by making choices (Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
80
Characteristics of an independent learner in SW are considered as follows

1) They should be aware that they must depend on their own resources.
2) They can use the knowledge of their own knowledge to open up some
things in a new language.
3) They can apply their knowledge of the first few words in new language
and figure out additional words by using that knowledge.
4) Developing inner-criteria (by the absence of correction and repeated model
from the teacher).
5) Making generalization (by the absence of explanations from the teacher).
6) Come to their own conclusion
7) Formulate whether rules they themselves feel they need.
Teacher’s Role
Teachers’ silence is the most demanding aspect of silent way. The teacher models
a word, phrase or sentence and then elicits learner’s responses. Teacher modeling
is minimal, although much of the activity may be teacher directed. The teachers
use gesture and charts and also are considered as a manipulator in order to elicit
and shape student’s responses. Thus, they must be both facile and creative as a
pantomimist and puppeteer. In sum, the silent way teacher, like a dramatist, writes
the script, chooses the props, sets the mood, models the action, and criticizes the
performance(Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
To test
•Teaching is meant the •The teacher monitores
presentation of an item •Testing is elicitation and learners` interaction
once, tyoically using shaping of students` with each other.
nonverbal clues to get production, which is
across meanings. done in as silent as
possible.
To get out of
To teach the way
Figure 4: The Teacher’s Task in SW (Stevick, 1980)
81
The Silent Way
In Larsen-Freeman’s words, the teacher is also seen as a technician or an engineer.

They, in fact, rely on what their students already know and offer them help while
it is felt necessary. Students’ perceptions are given attention and teachers and in
spite of the fact that teachers provide students some exercises, they respect
learners’ autonomy for their attempts at relating and interacting with the new
challenges. The teacher work with students and the students work on the
language.
Learning Materials
Silent Way materials consist mainly of a set of colored rods, colored coded
pronunciation and vocabulary wall charts, a pointer, a reading/ writing exercises,
all of which are used to illustrate the relationships between sounds and meaning in
the target language.
•Contain symboles in
Rods in SW: the target language
for all the vowel and
Fidel Rods
consonant sounds of
(pronunciat language.
‎ion charts)
•Are used to visually
illustrate
pronunciation.
Learning
Tools
•Avoid translation into
native language.
Cuisenaire •Are used to link
Rods words and structures
with their meaning in
the target lagnguage.
Figure 5: learning tools in SW
Responding to the Errors in SW

Errors are inevitable and embraced in SW, since the students are encouraged to
explore the language. They are important and necessary to learning and therefore
pave the ways for the teacher where things are not clear. Teachers’ praises (or
criticism) may prevent students from getting self-reliant and can interfere with
students’ developing their own criteria (Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
The Role of Students’ Native Language

The students’ native language can be used for giving instruction, when it is felt
necessary, and also during the feedback sessions for the beginning levels.
Interestingly, students’ native language can help the teacher of the target language
82
exploit the extent to which their pupils are knowledgeable about their native
language (Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
Conclusion
The innovations in Gattegno’s method is due to several factors like the manner in
which classroom activities are organized, the indirect role the teacher is required
to assume in directing and monitoring learner performance, the responsibility
placed on learners to figure out and test their hypotheses about how the language
works, and the materials used to elicit and practice language (Richards &
Rodgers, 2001).
Like the other approaches, SW has been criticized from different aspects. In one
sense, the silent way is too harsh as a method, and the teacher is not close enough
to encourage a communicative atmosphere. Furthermore, Students often need
more guidance and overt correction. There are a number of aspects of language, as
Brown (2001) clarifies, that students can be indeed told to take benefit. In other
words, there is no need students struggle for hours or even days with a concept
that can be easily elaborated by the teacher’s direct guidance.
However, Brown declares that the underlying principles of the SW are valid for
all teachers to provide their students with and as he puts it they nearly “served up
on a silver platter”. For instance, teachers can benefit from “injection healthy
doses of discovery learning into their classroom activities” and from providing
teacher with less talk to let the students work things out on their own (Brown,
2001, p.88).
83
The Silent Way
In a Nutshell:
1) The silent way is the name of the method of language teaching devised by
Caleb Gattegno.
2) The teacher should be silent as much as possible in the classroom but the
learner should be encouraged to produce as much language as possible.
3) The teacher should start with something that students already know and
build from that to the unknown. (Larsen-Freeman, 2011)
4) In this approach the teacher works with the students work on the
language.(Larsen-Freeman, 2011)
5)
6) The most important vocabulary for the learner deals with the most
functional and versatile words of the language.
7) Teacher modeling is minimal, although much of the activity may be
teacher directed.
8) Sprite of language is referring to the way each language is composed of
phonological and super segmental elements that combine to give language
its unique sound system and melody.
9) SW is an artificial approach.
10) Silence is the best vehicle for learning, because in silence students
concentrated on the task to be accomplishment.
11) Silent way learners acquire inner criteria, which play a central role in one’s
education. The inner criteria allow learner to monitor and self-correct their
own production.
12) Responses to command, questions, and visual cues thus constitute the
basis for classroom activity.
13) The teacher is technician or engineer.
14) Errors are inevitable since the students are encouraged to explore the
language.
84
Silent Way
‎Approach ‎Design
Objectives:
The general objective: to give
Theory of language: beginning-level students oral and
aural facility in basic elements of
‎structural approach the target language.
The general goals: near-native
fluency in the target language, and
correct pronunciation. An
immediate objective: to provide
the learner with a basic practical
Theory of learning: ‎knowledge of the grammar.
An artificial approach
Silent way learners
acquire inner criteria. Syllabus
structural syllabus
learning activity:
Responses to command, questions,
and visual cues thus constitute the
basis for classroom activity.
learner's role:
Learners are expected to develop
independence, autonomy, and
responsibility. Learner have only
themselves as individuals and group
to rely on, and so must learn
cooperatively rather than
‎competitively.
teacher’s role:
to teach
to test
‎to get out of the way
learning materials:
colored rods, colored coded
pronunciation and vocabulary wall
charts, a pointer, a reading/ writing
exercises
85
‎
Community Language Learning (CLL)
COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING (CLL)

Background
Community Language Learning (CLL) is the name of the method developed by
Charles A. Curran. There exist some traditions of language teaching with which
CLL is linked; they consist of: Rogerian counseling theory, humanistic
techniques, and language alternation (Richards and Rodgers, 2001)clarified as
follows:
1. Rogerian counseling theory: It is defined as one person giving advice,

assistance and support to another who has a problem or is to some extent
in need. CLL draws on the counseling metaphor to redefine the role of the
teacher (the counselor) and learners (the clients) in the language
classroom.
2. Humanistic techniques: It engages the whole person, including emotions
and feelings as well as linguistic knowledge and behavioral skills.
Moskowitz defines humanistic techniques as those that:
“Blend what the student feels, thinks and knows with what he is learning
in the target language. These techniques help build rapport, cohesiveness,
and caring that far transcend what is already there help students to be
themselves, to accept themselves, and be proud of themselves”
(Moskowitz, 1978, p.2).
3. Language alternation: In language alternation, a message/lesson/class is
presented in the native language and then again in the second language. In
CLL a learner presents the message in L1 to the knowers. The message is
translated into L2 by the knowers. The learner then repeat the message in
the L2, addressing it to another learner with whom he or she wishes to
communicate.
86
According to Language Alternation (number 3), La Forge (1983) states that CLL
learners are encouraged to deal with the "overhears", in his words, the
experience they attend to and takes place between other learners and their
knowers. Consequently, every member of the group can understand what any
given learner is trying to communicate.
Chastain (1988) believes that CLL is inner directed, meaning oriented, and
student centered as well as being nonlinear; that is, elements of language are not
separated and they are not taught one at a time-the linear sequence- which was
common in grammar-based course.
• CLL draws on the counseling metaphor to redefine the role

Rogerian of the teacher (the counselor) and learners (the clients) in
counseling the language classroom.
theory
• Humanistic techniques engage the whole person, including

emotions and feelings as well as linguistic knowledge and
Humanistic
techniques behavioral skills.
• In language alternation, a message/lesson/class is

presented in the native language and then again in the
Language
alternation second language.
Figur1. Hypotheses underling CLL
Approach
Theory of Language
Curran himself did not concern very much with CLL theory of language. La
Forge, his student, has made an effort to be more explicit about this dimension.
He believes that criteria for sound features, the sentences, and abstract models of
language must be considered primarily at the start point of language theory;
however, the language theories must not end with these criteria. Within the same
vein, Richards and Rodgers (2001) regarding the foreign language learners’ tasks
state that they are organized to apprehend the sound system, assign fundamental
meaning, and to construct a basic grammar of foreign language. But La Forge
goes beyond this Structuralistic view of language, and elaborates an alternative
theory of language which is referred to as language as social process:
87
“Communication is more than just a massage being transmitted from a speaker

to a listener. The speaker is at the same time both subject and object of his
own message.” (La Forge, 1983, p.92)
La Forge also gives further information regarding the interactional view of

language underlying CLL: "language is people; language is persons in contact;
language is persons in response." (p.92)
According to Richards and Rodgers, CLL interactions are in two distinct

types: interactions between learners and interactions between learners and
knower. The former isunpridictable in content but typically these interactions
are said to be consist of exchanges of affect. Learner’s exchanges become
stronger in intimacy as the class becomes a community laerning. Learners’
willingness to be part of this intimacy motivates them to keep pace with
learning of their peers(Richards & Rodgers, 2001).
The latter type of interaction, between learners and knowers, is intially

dependent. The learner tells the knower what he whishes to say in target
language, and the knower tells them how to say it(Richards & Rodgers, 2001).
Figure 2 demonstrates this interaction.
Larsen-Freeman (2001) believes that CLL is niether student-centered, nor

teacher-centered. To her, it is rather teacher-student centered, since both are
decision-makers in the class(Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
Stage 5:
Stage 4: ‎Independent
Stage3: ‎Toleant
Resentful
Stage 2: and
‎Self-Assertive ‎ Indigent
Stage1:
‎Dependent
Figur2. The process of interaction between learners and knower
88
This process could be compared to the ontogenetic development of the child:

(figur3)
Stage5:
Stage 4: the learner
merely works on
this stage sees he improving style
Stage3: learner secure and knowledge
enough to take of linguistic
the child speak ‎criticism ‎appropriateness
independently and
Stage 2: may need to asserd
his identity, often
being independent rejecting un-asked for
‎from the parents. ‎advice.
Stage 1:
birth stage: in this
stage feeling of
security and
belonging are
‎established.
Figur3. The ontogenetic development of the child
Theory of Learning
The language learning view of CLL is a holistic one- also called whole-person
learning- in which learners are both cognitively and affectively involved and true
human learning takes place. Based on this theory, the development of the learner’s
relationship with the teacher is central. In fact, in consensual validation, or
convalidation, as Curren puts it, mutual warmth and understanding a positive
evaluation of other person’s worth develop between the teacher and the learner.
Such a relationship is considered essential to the learning process and is a key
element of CLL classroom procedures (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Curren collects the psychological requirements for successful learning under the
acronym SARD which can be explained as follow (1976, p.92):
S stands for security:

Unless learners feel secure, they will find it difficult to enter into a successful
learning experience.
89
A stands for attention and aggression:

I. Attention: a loss of attention should be taken as an indication of the
learner’s lack of involvement in the learning. Variety in the choice of
learner tasks will increase attention.
II. Aggression: by which Curran means that students should be given an
opportunity to assert themselves in the learning experience. Conducting
learner’s own conversations will increase aggression.
R stands for retention and reflection:
I. Retention: if the whole person is involved in the learning process, what is
retained is internalized and become a part of the learner’s new persona in
second language.(Richards & Rodgers, 2001)Retention will best take
place somewhere in between novelty and familiarity (Larsen-Freeman,
2011).
II. Reflection: is consciously identified period of silence within the
framework of lesson for the student to focus on the learning forces of the
last hour, to assess his present stage of development and to re-evaluate
future goal.
D stands for discrimination:
To sort materials out and see how one thing relate to another.
Discrimination process enables learners to use language for purpose of
communication outside the classroom.
Security
Attention & Non-

Aggression
Retention &
SAR defensive
and
Reflection
‎D successful
learning
Discrimination
Figur4. Successful learning
Curran proposes that learning is persons. It is implied that both teacher and
students work at building trust in one another and the learning process. He also
believes that through this kind of learning process, language is seen as the means
to develop creativity and critical thinking in learners (Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
90
Generally, the two most basic principles which underlie the kind of learning
taking place in CLL are summed up in the following phrases(Larsen-Freeman,
2011, p.92):
1) Learning is persons, which means that whole-person learning of another

language takes place best in a relationship of trust, support and
cooperation between teacher and students and among students.
2) Learning is dynamic and creative, which means that learning is an
ongoing developmental process.
Design
Objectives
CLL teachers desire their pupils to learn how to use the target language
communicatively. Moreover, they want their students to learn about their own
learning, to have increasingly responsibility for it, and to learn how to learn from
one another. All of these objectives can be achieved in a non-defensive manner in
case the teacher and learners treat each other as a whole person and take both
thoughts and feelings into account (Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
However, according to Richards and Rodgers (2001), explicit linguistic or

communicative objectives are not defined in CLL.
Syllabus
CLL do not use conventional language syllabus, which is set out in advance. A
CLL syllabus is a post-prior one, because it comes up from the interaction
between the learners’ expressed communicative intentions and the teacher’s
reformulations of these into suitable target language utterance(Richards and
Rodgers, 2001). Teachers will sometimes isolate the specific grammatical points,
lexical patterns and generalizations for further analysis and more detailed study.
Richards and Rodgers believe that subsequent specification of these factors as “a
retrospective account of what the course covered” could be a way of deriving a
CLL syllabus (2001, p.93)
Learning Activities
Learning tasks and language syllabus are combined innovatively in CLL. They
include as follow (Richards & Rodgers, 2001):
91
1) Translation: a learner whispers a message, the teacher translate it into the

TL.
2) Group work: such as discussion topic, preparing a conversations
preparing a summary of the topic, and preparing a story.
3) Recording: recording conversation in the TL.
4) Transcription: students transcribe the conversation they have recorded.
5) Analysis: students analyze transcriptions of TL in order to focus on lexical
usage and grammar rules.
6) Reflection and observation: students reflect their experiences. This
consists of expressions of feelings-sense of one another, reaction to
silence, concern for something to say.
7) Reflective listening: students listen to a monologue by the teacher
involving elements they might have overheard in the interaction.
8) Free conversation: this might include discussion of what they learned as
well as feelings they had about how they learned.
9) Human ComputerTM: a student chooses some part of the transcript to
practice pronunciation. She is in control of the teacher when she tries to
say the word. The teacher following student’s lead, repeat the word as
often as the student want to practice it. The teacher does not correct the
student’s mispronunciation in any way. It is through the teacher consistent
manner of repeating the word clearly that the student self-corrects as she
tries to imitate the teacher’s model (Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
Learner Role
Learners become members of a community. Therefore, learning takes place
through interacting with the community and it is achieved collaboratively rather
than an individual accomplishment. Richards and Rodgers state that “learners are
expected to listen attentively to the knower, to freely provide meaning they wish
to express, to repeat target utterances, to support fellow members of the
community, to report deep inner feeling and frustrations as well as joy”(2001,
p.94).
The role of learner grows developmentally as a result of the preceding. Hence,

Richards and Rodgers (2001) view it as an organic one. They believe that these
role changes are not automatically achieved. They are in fact seen as outcomes of
affective crises.
92
Teacher Role
The teacher’s role, as a counselor, is to respond supportively, and help the client
make an effort to understand his problems better by applying order and analysis to
them. One of the functions of the counseling response is to relate affect to
cognition (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
The superior knowledge and power of the teacher can be threatening (unsecure
condition for learning). If the teacher does not remain in front of the classroom,
the threat is reduced and the students’ learning is facilitated. The teacher should
be sensitive to student’s level of confidence and give them just what they need to
be successful. (Larsen-Freeman, 2011)
Most specific teacher' roles are, like those of the students, keyed to the five
developmental stages that illustrated in figure 5 (Richards and Rodgers, 2001):
Stage5: the
Stage4: nature of
the
Stage 3: correcting
relationshi
students,
‎assistance p changes
supply
Stage2: so that the
idioms and
teacher's
monitorin advise on
position
‎g usage
becomes
Stage 1: points of
dependent
supportive role: ‎grammare
on the
providing target
‎learner.
language
translation and
modle for
imitation.
Figure5. Teacher role in CLL

Since a CLL course develops out of the interactions of the community gradually,
text-book is not considered a necessary component. In fact, text-book hinders
learners’ growth and interaction. Therefore, materials may be developed by the
teacher as the course develops (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
93

The students’ native language is used for meaning elaboration and building a
bridge from the known to the unknown. Students feel more secure if they
understand everything. Pantomime, pictures, and the use of TL synonyms are also
used to clarify meanings (Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
Responding to the Errors in CLL

Teachers should deal with what the learner has produced in a non-threatening
way. One way of doing so is recasting the students’ errors, i.e. “to repeat
correctly what the student has said incorrectly, without calling to the error”.
However, these techniques depend on which of the five-stage learning process
learners are located. But they are consistent with sustaining a respectful, non-
defensive relationship between teacher and students (Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
Conclusion
Positive benefits of CLL:
1) This method centers on the humanistic side of language learning, and not
merely its linguistic dimension (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Critics of CLL:
1. The appropriateness of the counseling metaphor on which it is predicted is
under the question.
2. Questions also arise about whether teachers should attempt counseling
without special training.
3. Other concerns have been expressed regarding the lack of a syllabus,
which makes objectives unclear and evaluation difficult to accomplish,
4. And the focus on fluency rather than accuracy, which may lead to
inadequate control of the grammatical system of the TL(Richards and
Rodgers, 2001).
94
In a Nutshell:
1. Community language learning is the name of the method developed by
Charles A. Curran.
2. There are some language teaching traditions with which CLL is linked that
include: Rogerian counseling theory, humanistic techniques, and language
alternation.
3. CLL is inner directed, meaning oriented, and student centered. It is
also nonlinear, which means that language elements are not separated and
taught one at a time in a linear sequence as is common in grammar- based
course.
4. Language is people; language is persons in contact; language is persons in
response."CLL interactions are two distinct kinds: interactions between
learners and interactions between learners and knower.
5. The CLL view of language is a holistic one, since true human learning is
both cognitive and affective. This termed whole-person learning.
6. Curran discusses what the he calls consensual validation, or convalidation,
in which mutual warmth, understanding, a positive evaluation of other
person’s worth develop between the teacher and the learner.
7. A text-book impedes learners’ growth and interaction. Materials may be
developed by the teacher as the course develops.
95
96
97
Suggestopedia
SUGGESTOPEDIA
Background
Suggestopedia, also known as Desuggestopedia, is a method developed by Georgi
Lozanov. The decoration, furniture, and arrangement of the classroom, use of
music, and authoritative behavior of the teacher make distinction between this
method and the others (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Lozanov, like Gattegno for Silent Way, believes that language learning can occur
at a much faster rate than ordinarily transpires. Lozanov to give further
explanation asserts that psychological barriers are set to learning in natural
transpiration; in fact, there exists fear of being unable to perform, and having
limited ability to learn, which consequently may lead to failure and the possessed
full mental power could not be used. To this regard, Lozanov and other scholars
declare that only five to ten present of the mental capacity is used then. Therefore,
in order to make better use of this mental capacity, the limitations that are thought
exist need to be desuggested. Desuggestopedia, the application of the study of
suggestion to pedagogy, has been developed with the purpose of eliminating the
feeling resulting to students’ unsuccessful learning and/or negative association
they may have towards studying; thus, it helps them overcome the barriers to
learning. Integration of the fine arts, an important contribution to the method
made by Lozanov’s colleague, Evelina Gateva, is considered as one of the ways
stimulating the students’ mental reserves (Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
Learning hypotheses underlying Lozanov’s work could be stated as follows

1. From suggestology: which Lozanov describes as a "science concerned

with the systematic study of non-rational and/or non-conscious
98
influences" that human beings are constantly responding to (Stevick,

1976).
2. From the raja-yoga: Lozanov has borrowed techniques for altering states
of consciousness and concentration, and the use of rhythmic breathing.
3. From Soviet psychology: Lozanov has taken the notion that all students
can be taught a given subject matter at the same level of skill. Lozanov
claims that his method work equally well whether or not students spend
time on outside study. He promises success through Suggestopedia to
academically gifted and the ungifted alike.
4. This method has a kinship with use of musical rhythm to the learning,
particular therapy. Gaston (1968) defines three function of music in
therapy:
I. To facilitate the establishment and maintenance of personal
relations.
II. To increase self-esteem through increase self-satisfaction.
III. To use the unique potential of rhythm to energize and bring
order. This function seems to be one that Lozanov calls upon in
his use of music to relax students as well as to structure, pace,
and punctuate the presentation of linguistic material.
•Lozanov describes suggestology as a "science concerned with the systematic

study of non-rational and/or non-conscious influences" that human beings are
Suggestology constantly responding to.
•He has borrowed techniques for altering states of consciousness and

Raja-yoga
concentration, and the use of rhythmic breathing.
•He has taken the notion that all students can be taught a given subject matter at
Soviet the same level of skill.
‎psychology
•He uses music to relax students as well as to structure, pace, and punctuate the
Use of musical presentation of linguistic material.
‎rhythm
Figure1.Learning hypotheses underlying Lozanov’s work
99
Suggestopedia
Approach
Theory of language
Lozanov does not articulate a theory of language. The emphasis goes to
memorization of vocabulary pairs-a target language item and its native language
translation- suggesting a view of language in which lexis is central and in which
lexical translation rather than contextualization is stressed (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001).
However, Lozanov does occasionally indicate that expressing language material

in whole-meaningful texts is of crucial importance and notes that the
"Suggestopedic course directs the students not to vocabulary memorization and
acquiring habits of speech but to act of communication" (Lozanov, 1978, p. 267).
According to him, communication takes place on two planes: on one of them the
linguistic message is encoded; and on the other one there exist the factors which
influence the linguistic message. The former one is named conscious plane, on
which the learner attends to the language, and the latter one is entitled
subconscious plane referring to the music that suggests that learning is easy and
pleasant. When there is a unity between conscious and subconscious learning is
enhanced (Figure 2) (Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
Figure 2: conscious and subconscious learning in Suggestopedia
100
Areas of language that are emphasized (Larsen-Freeman, 2011):
1. Vocabulary which claims about the success of the method and often
focuses on the large number of words that can be acquired.
2. Grammar is dealt with explicitly but minimally. In fact, it is believed that
students will learn best if their conscious attention is focused, not on the
language forms, but on using language.
3. Speaking communicatively
4. Students also read (dialogues) in the target language and write in it
(imaginative compositions).
Theory of learning
Lozanov distinguishes his theory of suggestion from the narrow clinical concept
of hypnosis. He declares that lack of "Desuggestive-Suggestive" in hypnosis is a
distinctive feature which fails to create a constant set up access to reserves
through the concentrative psycho-relaxation. Figure 3 illustrates the six principal
theoretical components through which suggestion operates (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001).
Authority:
People remember best and are most influenced by information coming from an
authoritative source. Well-publicized accounts of learning success require the
method and institution authority; for this respect, commitment to the method, self-
confidence, personal distance, acting ability, and a highly positive attitude make
the teacher more authoritative.
Infantilization:
Authority is also used to suggest a teacher-student relation like that of parents to
the child.
Double-Planedness
The learner learns from both the effect of direct instruction and the environment in
which the instruction takes place. The bright decoration of the classroom, the
musical background the shape of the chair, and the personality of the teacher are
considered important as well.
Larsen-Freeman (2011) believes that a student can learn peripherally. By

peripheral learning she intends that learning takes place from what is present in
the environment, even if students’ attentions are not directed to it.
101
Suggestopedia
Intonation, Rhythm, and Concert Pseudo-Passiveness

Varying the intonation and tone of the present material helps not only to avoid
boredom through monotony of repletion but also to dramatize, emotionalize, and
give meaning to linguistic material.
Both intonation and tone are coordinated with musical background. The musical
background causes a relaxing attitude which Lozanov refers to as a concert
pseudo-passiveness. This condition is felt to be suitable and optimum for learning,
since anxieties and tension are relieved and power of concentration for new
material is raised (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Lozanov contends that to maximize learning efficiency and potential both the left
and the right hemisphere of the brain should be activated, but most traditional
academic learning is directed only towards the left hemisphere. He argues that
learning should involve both analysis and synthesis at the same time rather than
one or the other, and students should use both conscious and subconscious process
as they learn. Lozanov maintains that anyone has unmanifested but genetically
predetermined capacities operating mainly in the paraconscious and surpassing
the normal ones several times over(Chastain, 1988).
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Figure 3:Theoretical components in Suggestopedia
Design
Objectives
The objectives of Suggestopedia are delivered quickly through advanced
conversational proficiency. In fact, the learning claims are based on student
mastery of prodigious list of vocabulary pairs and, indeed, students are suggested
to set such goals for themselves (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Teachers believe that more of students’ must be tapped to speed up the process by
which students learn to use another language for everyday communication. To do
103
Suggestopedia
so, the psychological barriers learners bring with them to the learning situation
are desugested (Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
Syllabus
A Suggestopedia course consists of ten units of study covered in 30 days. Classes
are held 4 hours a day, 6 days a week. Each unit centers upon a dialogue
consisting of 1200 words or so, with and accompanying vocabulary list and
grammatical commentary. Lexis and grammar are the main features to grade the
dialogues (Richards & Rodgers, 2001).
Learning Activities
Prior to instruction, students assume a new name and a new identity. Therefore,
they get rid of restrictive suggestion that has been gradually increased over the
years (Richards & Rodgers, 2001).
The use of mechanical drills, rigid exercises or the language laboratory is not
teachers’ favorite in Suggestopedia approach. Teachers rather than correcting
students, encourage them to be spontaneous and creative as they practice using the
language instead of completing an exercise (Chastain, 1988). Activities are run
within three in-order phases as follow:
Pre-Session Phase:
During Phase 1 students review the materials from the previous class in the
conversation, games, sketches, and plays (Chastain, 1988).
Respective phase
During this phase teacher represents the dialogue during two concerts. In the first
concert, teacher reads the dialogue and matches his voice to the rhythm and pitch
of the music. By doing so, the whole brain of students become activated. The
students follow the target language dialogue as the teacher reads it out aloud.
They also check the translation. In the second concert, the students listen calmly
while the teacher reads the dialogue at normal speed (Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
Active phase
During phase 3 students are involved in various activities designed to help them
gain facility with new material. The activities include dramatization, games,
songs, and question and answer exercises (Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
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Learners’ Role
Learners’ mental state is crucially important for success; that is why learners must
rid themselves of mind-altering substances and other distractions and immerse
themselves in the procedures of the method. They must not make an effort to
figure out, manipulate or study the materials present; instead, they are put in a
pseudo-passive state in which the material rolls over and through them. In fact,
they are expected to encourage their own infantilization which is partly
accomplished by recognizing teacher’s authority and partly by being given
activities and techniques designed with the aim of helping them regain the self-
confidence, spontaneity, and receptivity of a child (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Teacher’s Role
The teacher primarily creates situation in which the learner is easily influenced.
Then, they present linguistic materials in a way most likely to encourage learners
receive positively and have positive retention (Richards & Rodgers, 2001).
Lozanov lists several expected teacher behavior:
1. Show absolute confidence in the method.

2. Display fastidious conduct in manners and dress.
3. Maintain a solemn attitude toward the session.
4. Give tests and respond tactfully to poor papers.
5. Stress a global rather than analytical attitude toward material.
6. Maintain a modest enthusiasm.
(Richards and Rodgers, 2001)
The teacher should first figure out that learners bring certain psychological
barriers with them to the learning situation and then attempt to desuggest these
barriers. Also, they should present and touch upon the grammar and vocabulary
rather than dwelling on them. The bold print allows the students’ focus to shift
from the whole-text to the details before they return to the whole text again.
The dynamic interplay between the whole and the parts is important (Larsen-
Freeman, 2011).
Materials
Materials consist of both direct and indirect support materials. The former
includes primarily text and tape, and the latter refers to classroom fixtures and
music (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
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Suggestopedia
Figure5: Materials in Suggestopedia

Native language translation is used to clarify the meaning of the dialogue. It is
also used in class by the teacher when they feel necessary. As the course proceeds,
the teacher uses the native language less and less (Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
Responding to the Errors in CLL

Teacher uses a soft voice and corrects the errors gently (Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
Conclusion
Like other alternative approaches, suggestopedia put emphasis on both affective
and cognitive influences on developing second-language skills.
Its distinctive cognitive feature is that a super-cognitive approach is used to

activate both students’ subconscious as well as conscious processes in their
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learning activities. The distinctive affective feature is removing the limiting social
suggestions (psychological barriers) that students bring with them to the learning
situation (Chastain, 1988).
However, Brown (2001) believes that Suggestopedia is under the criticism of

teaching memorization techniques rather than being devoted to much more
comprehensive enterprise of language acquisition.
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Suggestopedia
In a Nutshell:
1. Suggestopedia, also known as desuggestopedia, is a method developed by
Georgi Lozanov.
2. The most obvious characteristics of Suggestopedia are the decoration,
furniture, and arrangement of the classroom, the use of music, and the
authoritative behavior of the teacher.
3. The reason for our inefficiency, Lozanov asserts, is that we set of
psychology barriers to learning: we fear that we will be unable to perform,
that we will be limited in our ability to learn, that we will fail.
4. Grammar is dealt with explicitly but minimally.
5. Lozanov distinguishes his theory of suggestion from the narrow clinical of
concept of hypnosis.
6. Fine arts provide positive suggestions for students.
7. Prior to instruction, students assume a new name and a new identity. This
procedure is part of the attempt to rid students of the restrictive suggestion
influences that they have accumulated over the years.
8. Lozanov recommends that both the left and the right hemisphere of the
brain be activated for maximum learning efficiency and potential.
Learning should involve both analysis and synthesis at the same time
rather than one or the other, and students should use both conscious and
subconscious process as they learn.
9. Lozanov maintains that anyone has unmanifested but genetically
predetermined capacities operating mainly in the paraconscious and
surpassing the normal ones several times over.
10. Native language translation is used to make the meaning of the dialogue
clear.
11. Errors are corrected gently, with the teacher using a soft voice.
108
109
Suggestopedia
‫‏‬
‫‏‬
110
WHOLE LANGUAGE
Background
Whole language was entitled in the 1980s by a group of U.S. educators
concerning with the teaching of language arts (i.e., reading and writing) in the
native language.
The whole language movement is strongly opposed to decoding approach which

takes separate components of language, such as grammar, vocabulary, word
recognition and particularly phonics into consideration (Richards and Rodgers,
2001). Hence, it argues that language should be taught as a whole otherwise it is
not considered language anymore.
Whole Language instruction is a theory of language that was developed with the
aim of helping young children learn to read; however, it has been extended to
teaching middle and secondary levels of ESL (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Teaching reading has become a movement for change known as holistic way in
which each student is respected as a member of a culture as well as a creator of
knowledge and each teacher is respected as a professional one(Rigg, 1991).
According to the Whole Language Approach, reading and writing are taken for
pleasure and naturally acquired and the main concern goes to real communication.
Richards and Rodgers (2001) state that some other language teaching approaches
are linked to WL;
1. In language teaching, it shares a philosophical and instructional

perspective with Communication Language Teaching since it
emphasizes the importance of meaning and meaning making in teaching
and learning.
111
Whole language
2. In language learning, it is related to Natural method, since it is designed

to help children and adults learn a second language in the same way that
children learn their first language.
Figure1: relationship between WL and other approaches
Approach
Theory of Language
Whole Language views language as an interactional perspective based on which
language is viewed as a tool for human communication and interactional
relationships between reader and writer are highly attended. In fact, there exists a
lot of emphasis in on authenticity, on engagement with author, on written text, and
also on conversation (Richards and Rodgers, 2001)
Psycholinguistically speaking, language is also viewed as a tool for internal

interaction, egocentric speech, and thinking in this approach. In fact, using
language let us think in order to discover what we know; for instance, we mutter
to ourselves silently or we sometimes write for talking to a friend.
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In addition, many articles refer to WL as a functional model. That is to say,

language is always seen as something that is used for meaningful purposes to
carry out authentic functions (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Interactional Internal Functional model

perspective interaction of language
•language is a vehicle •language is a vehicle •Language is always
for human for: seen as something
communication and • internal interaction that is used for:
in which there is an •for egocentric • meaningful
interactional speech, purposes
relationships • to carry out
• for thinking
between reader and authentic function.
writer. •to discover what we
know
Figure 2: Theories of language in WL
Theory of Learning
Humanistic and constructive schools underlie the learning theory of the Whole
Learning. According to the former theory, WL is said to be authentic,
personalized, self-directed, collaborative and pluralistic with the purpose of
putting learners’ attention under focus and motivating their mastery. Based on the
latter one, it is believed that knowledge is socially constructed rather than being
received or discovered. Therefore, constructive learners create meaning, learn by
doing and work collaboratively rather than transmitting knowledge to students. To
this theory, learners’ experiences, needs, interests, and aspiration are taken into
consideration (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
113
Whole language
Figure 3: theory of learning in WL
Design
Objectives
The major principles underlying the design of WL instruction are follows
1. The use of authentic literature rather than artificial

2. A focus on real and natural events
3. The reading of real texts of high interest
4. Reading for the sake of comprehension and for a real purpose.
5. Writing for a real audience.
6. Writing as a process through which learners explore and discover meaning
7. The use of students-product rather than teacher-generated or other-
generated texts.
8. Integration of four skills
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9. Student-centered learning
10. Reading and writing in partnership with other learners
11. Encouragement of risk taking and exploration.
12. The acceptance of errors as a sign of learning.
Learning Activities
Activities that are often used in WL are (Richards & Rodgers, 2001):
1. Individual and small group reading and writing.

2. Ungraded dialogue journals.
3. Writing portfolios.
4. Student-made book.
5. Story writing.
Many of these activities are also common in communication language teaching,

Content-Based teaching, and Task-based teaching. However, one of its features,
focusing on literature, is not certainly concerned in the discussion of
communicative approaches.
Encouragement
The use of
of cooperative
process writing
learning
Concern for
The use of
students'
literature
Features attitude
of WL
‎classroom
Figure4: features of WL classroom
Learner Roles
The learner is (Richards & Rodgers, 2001):
1. Collaborator (with students and teacher).

2. Evaluator (evaluating their own and others’ learning).
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Whole language
3. Self-directed: his own learning experiences are used as resources for

learning.
4. Selector: he selects the materials and activities.
Choice is vital in WL class, because as Rigg (1991) mentions the students cannot
use language for their own purpose unless the ability to select activities, materials
and conversational patterns is acquired.
Teacher Roles
The teacher(Richards and Rodgers, 2001):
1. Is a facilitator and an active participant rather than an expert passing on

knowledge.
2. Teaches students and not the subject matter.
3. Creates the climate that will support collaborative learning.
4. Has the responsibility of negotiating the plan of work with the learners.

Real-world materials rather than commercial texts in WL instruction are
advocated. To exemplify the real-world materials it can be referred to a piece of
literature since it is created in consequence of its author’s wish for communicating
with reader. In other words, instruction is not considered as a concern for
literature. Other real-world materials consist of newspapers, signs and handbills
that students bring to the class as well as printed material from the workplace in
the case they are adults (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Conclusion
The Whole Language movement is not a teaching method but an approach to
learning that sees language as a whole entity. Each language teacher is free to
implement the approach according to the needs of particular classes (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001).
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• It focuses on experiences • Anti-directed teaching

and activities that are • Anti-skills
relevant to learners' need • Anti-material
• It uses authentic materials • assuming that authentic
• It can be used to facilitate materials are sufficient to
the development of all support second language
aspects of a second learnig
language • it promotes fluency at the
expence of accuracy
‎
‎
Advantages of Disadvantages of ‎
‎WL  ‎WL 
‎
Figure 5: Advantages and disadvantages of WL
117
Whole language
‫‏‬
118
MULTIPLE-INTELLIGENCES (MI)
Background
Multiple-Intelligences is a learner-based philosophy characterizing human
intelligence as having multiple dimensions that must be acknowledged and
developed in education. It is based on the work of Howard Gardner that
challenged the traditional IQ tests according to which intelligence is considered as
a single, unchanged, inborn capacity (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
According to Gardner, only logic and language are measured by the traditional IQ
tests, while the brain has other equally important types of intelligence. He argues
that these intelligences are not inborn capacities and all humans possess them, but
people are different regarding the strengths and combinations of intelligences.
Garner notes that through training and practice, all these intelligences can be
enhanced and acquired. Hence, MI belongs to the group of instructional
perspectives focusing on differences between learners and the need to recognize
learner differences in teaching. In fact, learners are viewed as individuals
possessing learning styles, preferences, or intelligences. These learner differences
are required to be acknowledged and analyzed for a particular group of learners,
and accommodated in teaching for a more successful pedagogy (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001).
Gardner views intelligence as a culture-free phenomenon; therefore, he avoids a

conceptual narrowness usually associated with traditional models of intelligence
(IQ testing models). Gardner suggests eight native intelligences which are
described as follows (Richards & Rodgers, 2001):
1) Linguistic: the ability to use language in special and creative ways, which
is something lawyers, writers, editors, and interpreters are strong in
119
Multiple-Intelligences (MI)
2) Logical/mathematical: the ability to think rationally, often found with

doctors, engineers, programmers, and scientists
3) Spatial: the ability to form mental models of the world, something

architects, decorators, sculptors, and painters are good at
4) Musical: a good ear for music, as is strong in singers and composers
5) Bodily/kinesthetic: having a well-coordinated body, something found in

athletes and craftspersons
6) Interpersonal: the ability to be able to work well with people, which is

strong in salespeople, politicians, and teachers
7) Interapersonal: the ability to understand oneself and apply one’s talent

successfully, which lead to happy and well-adjusted people in all areas of
life
8) Naturalist: the ability to understand and organize the patterns of nature
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Figure 1: eight native intelligences
Approach
Theory of language and language learning

There exists lack of some basic elements in MI theory that might link it more
directly to language education. It can be referred to the fact that MI theory does
not clarify how it relates to any existing language and language learning theory. It
is certainly fair to say that MI proposals look at language of an individual,
including one or more second languages, not as an added-on and somewhat
peripheral skill but as central to the whole life of the language learner and user. To
121
this regard, language is not limited to linguistic perspectives, but it completely

covers all aspects of communication. Therefore, it is required to be integrated with
music, bodily activity, interpersonal relationships, and so on (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001).
MI theorists concern linguistic intelligence as the language learning and use of

this theory. However, MI proponents believe no limitation should be imposed on
language to the rubric linguistics; for instance, there are aspects of language such
as rhythm, tone volume and pitch that are taken for granted under the theory of
music than the theory of linguistic(Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
In addition, language is closely linked to life through the senses. In fact it is the
senses that give meaning and purpose to the linguistic messages by providing the
accompaniment and context for them. Thus, a multisensory view of language is
necessary, in Richards’ and Rodgers’ words. That is to say, an adequate theory of
language as well as an effective design for language learning should be
constructed (Richards & Rodgers, 2001).
Different Views of Intelligence

A widely accepted view of intelligence is that intelligence comprises a single
factor, usually called the "g" factor. From this point of view, intelligence (g) can
be described as the ability to deal with cognitive complexity. One popular
explanation of this view sees intelligence as a hierarchy with g at the apex of the
hierarchy:
More specific aptitudes are arrayed successively in lower levels: the so-called
group factor, such as verbal ability, mathematical reasoning, special visualization
and memory, are just below "g" and below these are skills that are more
dependent on knowledge and experience (Gottfredson, 1998, p.3).
In contrast, in Gardner’s point of view, there exists a cluster of mental abilities

that are separated but equal sharing the pinnacle at the top of hierarchy called
intelligence (Richards & Rodgers, 2001).
122
g
‎(intelligence)
Group Factor: verbal ability,

mathematical reasoning, spatial
‎visualization, and memory.
‎Knowledge and experinces
Figure 2: single factor g model of intelligence
Figure 3:Different Views of Intelligence
123
Design
Objectives
Linguistically, there are no goals for MI instruction. MI pedagogy draws attention
to providing a setting for language classrooms as the series of educational support
systems with the purpose of making the language learner a better designer of
his/her own learning experiences. Such a learner is a better empowered, goal-
directed and consequently a better second language learner and user (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001).
Syllabus
There is no syllabus, either prescribed or recommended, in respect to MI-based
language teaching. However there is basic developmental sequence that has been
proposed as four stages (Lazear, 1991):
•Through the multisensory experiences, learner can be synthesized to the

many-faceted properties of objects and events in the world that surrounds
them.
Stage 1: Awaken
the Intelligence •Multisensory experiences: touching, smelling, tasting, seeing and so on.
•Students strengthen and improve the intelligence by volunteering objects and

events of their own choosing and defining with others the properties and
Stage 2: Amplify contexts of experience of these objects and events.
the Intelligence.
•At this stage the intelligence is linked to the focus of the class, that is to some
Stage3: Teach aspect of language learning. This is done via worksheets and small-group
with/for the projects and discussion.
Intelligence.
•students efect on the learning experiences of the previous three stages and
Stage 4:Transfer of relate these to issues and challenges in the out-of-class world.
the Intelligence.
Figure 4: basic developmental sequences of MI
124
Learning Activities
As it was mentioned, the MI classroom aimed to support development of the
whole person, and the environment. Its activities are therefore intended to enable
students to become more well-rounded individuals and more successful learners
in general (Richards & Rodgers, 2001).
MI has been applied in many different types of classrooms. In some, there are
eight-access activities corners, each of which is built around one of the eight
intelligences. Nicholson-Nelson (1998) categorizes five types of projects:
1. Multiple intelligences projects: there are based on one or more of the

intelligences and are designed to stimulate particular intelligences.
2. Curriculum-based projects: these are based on curriculum content areas

but are categorized according to the particular intelligences they make use
of.
3. Thematic-based projects: these are based on a theme from the

curriculum but are divided into different intelligences.
4. Resource-based projects: these are designed to provide students with

opportunities to research a topic using multiple intelligences.
5. Student-choice projects: these are designed by the students.
Figure5: MI’s Projects
125
Several of the alternative views have been summarized to the following list to
illustrate how MI model can be used to serve the needs of the language learners
within a classroom setting(Richards & Rodgers, 2001):
1. Play to strength: structure the learning material for each individual based
on his/her talent.
2. Variety is the spice: providing a teacher-directed rich mix of learning
activities makes for an interesting, lively, and effective classroom for all
students.
3. Pick a tool to suit the job: link the learning to the most appropriate kind
of MI activity.
4. All sizes fit one: MI pedagogy appeals to all the intelligences and so speak
to the whole person.
5. Me and my people: since language learning involves culture learning as
well, it is useful for language learner to study language in a context that
recognized a range of valued intelligences.
MI in the
Classroom
Figure6 : MI in the classroom
The Role of the Teacher

In this theory, teachers are expected to understand, master, and be committed to
the MI model. To this end, they should administer an MI inventory on themselves
and thereby connecting their life’s experiences to their concept of MI (Christison,
1997).
126
Teachers play a pivotal role in improving the second language abilities for their
students. In addition, they are considered as the major contributors to overall
development of students’ intelligences (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
The Role of the Learners

Learners are also required to see themselves involved in a process of personality
development above and beyond that of being successful language learners. They
are typically expected to take an MI inventory, like teachers, in order to develop
their own MI profiles. The more awareness the students have of their intelligences
and how they work, the more they will know to use that intelligence to access the
necessary information and knowledge from a lesson (Richards and Rodgers,
2001).
The Role of the Materials

MI is the richest theory in proposals for lesson organization, multisensory activity
planning and in using realia (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Conclusion
Campbell indicates that MI theory is not perspective. Rather, it gives teachers a
complex mental model from which to construct curriculum and improve
themselves as educators.
MI is an increasingly popular approach for characterizing the ways in which

learners are unique and for developing instruction in response to this uniqueness.
MI is one of a set of such perspectives dealing with learner differences and from
its recommendations lesson plans are designed (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
127
In a Nutshell:
1. MI is based on the work of the Howard Gardner.
2. Traditional IQ tests measure only logic and language.
3. All humans have these intelligences, but people differ in the strengths and
combinations of intelligences.
4. MI belongs to the group of instructional perspectives that focus on
differences between learners and the need to recognize learner differences
in teaching.
5. Pedagogy is most successful when these learner differences are
acknowledged, analyzed for particular group of learners, and
accommodate in teaching.
6. The traditional definition of intelligence or IQ was culture bound, but
Gardner’s definition of intelligence is culture free.
7. MI theory believes that there are aspects of language such as rhythm, tone
volume and pitch that are more closely linked, say, to the theory of music
than to the theory of linguistic.
8. MI is one of a set of such perspectives dealing with learner differences
9. The MI classroom is designed to support development of the whole
person, and the environment and its activities are intended to enable
students to become more well-rounded individuals and more successful
learners in general.
10. The more awareness the students have of their intelligences and how they
work, the more they will know to use that intelligence to access the
necessary information and knowledge from a lesson.
11. MI theory is not a perspective. Rather, it gives teachers a complex mental
model from which to construct curriculum and improve themselves as
educators.
12. MI theory believes that learners are unique and to developing instruction
in respond to this uniqueness.
128
129
130
NEUROLINGUISTIC PROGRAMMING
Background
Neuro Linguistic Programming (NLP), which is considered as an alternative form
of therapy, developed by John Grindler and Richard Bandler in mid-1970s. In
fact, it refers to a training philosophy and set of training techniques that could be
used by therapists in building rapport with clients, gathering information about
their internal and external views of the world, and for helping them achieve goals
and bring about personal change (Richards & Rodgers, 2001).
Figure 1:The assumptions of NLP
131
Neurolinguistic programming
According to Revell and Norman (1997), techniques, patterns, and strategies are
brought together to form NLP with the purpose of assisting effective
communication, personal growth, change, and learning. In other words, it is based
on a series of underlying assumptions illustrating how the mind works and how
people act and interact. Hence, it is related to attitudes towards life and people as
well as self-discovery and awareness; to this sense, principles of language
teaching with humanistic approaches in which developing one’s sense of self-
actualization and self-awareness are taken into consideration are common within
NLP (Figure 1).
Approach
To define NLP it is required to define the three terms of neuro, linguistics, and
programming; neuro refers to beliefs about the brain and how it functions,
linguistics is not related to the field of linguistics and has nothing to do with it but
it speaks about a theory of communication, programming is associated with
observable patterns of thought and behavior. It is claimed that NLP practitioners
could be able to deprogram and program client’s behavior. However, Richards and
Rodgers believe that learning effective behavior depends on moving from the stages
of controlled to automatic processing in which modeling is central (2001, p.126):
 Modeling a skill means finding about it, and the beliefs and values that
enable them to it.
 Modeling successful performance leads to excellence.
Revell and Norman (1997) offer the following explanation of the terms (Figure2):
132
Figure 2: NLP’s Components
133
Neurolinguistic programming
Design
There exist four key principles at the heart of NLP (Figure3):
Figure3: Four key principles at the heart of NLP (Revell and Norman, 1997)
Thirteen presuppositions have been introduced by Revell and Norman (1997) in

order to provide information for the application of NLP in language learning
(p.127):
1. Mind and body are interconnected: they are parts of the same system, and
each affects the other.
2. The map is not the territory: we all have different maps of the world.
3. There is no failure, only feedback and a renewed opportunity for success.
4. The map becomes the territory: what you believe to be true either is true or
becomes true.
5. Knowing what you want helps you get it.
6. The resources we need are within us.
134
7. Communication is nonverbal as well as verbal.

8. The non-conscious mind is benevolent.
9. Communication is non-conscious as well as conscious.
10. All behavior has a positive intention.
11. The meaning of my communication is the response I get.
12. Modeling excellent behavior leads to excellence.
13. In any system the element with the greatest flexibility will have the most
influence on that system.
Procedure
NLP principles are applicable to teaching all aspects of language; for instance,
providing a lesson sequence that helps the students become aware of conceptual
meaning of a grammatical structure at a feeling level. In fact, awareness and,
indeed, production are primarily under consideration of the sequence (Richards
and Rodgers, 2001).
Conclusion
NLP is not a language teaching method. Rather, it is a humanistic psychology
based on which a set of beliefs and suggestions are designed to persuade people to
believe that they have the power and ability to control their own and other
people’s lives for the better and practical presentations on how to do so (Richards
and Rodgers, 2001).
135
The Lexical Approach
THE LEXICAL APPROACH

Background
According to the underlying assumption of this approach, it is believed that
grammar, functions, notions, or some other units of planning and teaching are not
considered pivotal in language learning and communication. It is lexis, that is,
words and word combinations that is taken as the building blocks of
communication into account. Based on lexical approaches, the lexicon has a
central role in language structure, second language learning, and language use,
and particularly, multiword lexical units or “chunks” that are learned and used as
single items are taken into consideration (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Approach
Theory of Language
According to the lexical approach, multiword lexical units are taken essential. In
fact, it holds the view that in everyday conversation it is “chunks”-the multiword
units- or memorized patterns from a high proportion of the fluent stretches of
speech heard and only a minority of spoken sentences are entirely novel creations.
Moreover, based on theories of language, collocations are also important in this
approach (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Nattinger in terms of the central role that lexical units play in learning and in
communication comments that:
"Language production consists of piecing together the ready-made units

appropriate for a particular situation and that comprehension relies on knowing
which of these patterns to predict in these situations" (1980, p.341).
136
Theory of Learning
According to Krashen (1993), the only successful approach to such learning is
massive amounts of “language input,” that is especially, to him, taken place
through reading. Other scholars suggest that making the language class as a
laboratory in which learners can explore the contexts of lexical use that occur in
different kinds of texts and language data is also an effective approach. Moreover,
as the third approach to learning lexical chunks, there exists a contrastive
viewpoint; some applied linguists have suggested that for a number of languages
there is an appreciable degree of overlap in the form and meaning of lexical
collocations. Bahns (1993), for instance, proposes that "the teaching of lexical
collocations in EFL should concentrate on items for which there is no direct
translational equivalence in English and in the learner’s respective mother
tongues." (p. )
In sum, Figure1 illustrates assumptions are made about learning theory in Lexical
Approach:
Figure1: learning theory in Lexical Approach (Lewis, 2000)
137
Design
Syllabus
In this approach, the syllabus and its accompanying materials are realized based
on lexical rather than grammatical principles. Therefore, the contents of the course
would be determined based on word frequency and the first level of instruction
aims to cover the most frequent words together with their common patterns and
uses. Willis (1989) stresses that the lexical syllabus not only subsumes as a
structural syllabus, it also indicates how the structures which make up syllabus
should be exemplified since the commonest structural patterns in which words are
used are revealed through the computer corpus (cited in Richards & Rodgers,
2001).
To organize the instruction a functional schema is proposed by Nattinger and

DeCarrico:
“Distinguishing lexical phrases as social interactions, necessary topics, and

discourse devices seems to be the most effective distinction for pedagogical
purposes.” (1992, p.337)
Teacher’s Roles
Lewis’ proposal (2000) is in line with Krashen’s Natural Approach procedures in
respect of considering teacher talk as the major source of learner input in
demonstrating how lexical phrases are used for different functional purposes.
Willis suggests that teachers are required to understand and manage a classroom
methodology based on stages composed of Task, Planning, and Report. In
general, teacher should create an environment in which learners can operate
effectively and then help learners manage their own learning. To this end, it
requires that teachers do not consider themselves as knower; instead the ides of
the learner as a discoverer should be taken into consideration. It is teachers’ major
responsibility to organize the technological system and provide scaffolding to help
learners build their autonomy in use of the system (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Learners’ roles
Learners are suggested to use computers in order to analyze the data of the text
that were previously collected or made available "free-form" on the internet.
Therefore, it is assumed that learners play the role of data analyst to construct
their own linguistic generalizations based on examination of large corpora of
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language samples taken from "real life". The learner also must take the role of
“discourse analyst” as Richards and Rodgers put it (2001).
Materials
Materials and teaching resources to support lexical approaches in language
teaching are at least four types (Willis and Willis, 1989):
 Type1 consists of complete course package including texts, tapes,

teachers’ manuals, and so on.
 Type 2 is represented by collocations of vocabulary teaching

activities.
 Type3 consists of “printout” versions of computer corpora

collections packaged in text format.
 Type 4 materials are computer concordancing programs and

attached data sets to allow students to set up and carry out their
own analyses.
Procedure
Language teachings depending on which of four types of materials and activities
are employed are various. Activities that draw students’ attention to lexical
collocations are typically involved in the classroom procedures. In fact, activities
are used with the purpose of enhancing students’ retention and use of collocations
Conclusion
There is no doubt that the status of lexis in language teaching has been
considerably enhanced in this approach due to the facts of working in corpus
analysis, and recognizing the role of the multi-word units in language learning.
However, this approach faces some drawbacks in the sense that lexis is associated
with only one component of communicative competence. Thus, such proposals
lack the full characterization of an approach or method as illustrated in the first
chapter (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
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140
COMPETENCY-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING

Background
Unlike most of the methods that have been described up to here which mostly put
emphasis on inputs to language learning and based on which it is assumed that
improving syllabus, materials, and activities or changing the role of the learner
and teacher will lead to a more successful learning, Competence-Based Education
(CBE) focuses on the outcomes or outputs of learning in development of language
program and it is considered as the central competencies perspective of CBE. In
other words, it addresses what the learners are expected to do with language
(Richards & Rodgers, 2001). Schenck (1978) describes the characteristics of CBE
as illustrated in Figure 1:
CBE and some approaches to learning such as performance-based instruction,

mastery learning, and individualized instruction have a lot in common. More
succinctly, it is based on outcome and adapts itself to the changing needs of
students, teachers, and community. Competencies are different from other
students’ goals; in fact, they describe the students’ ability to apply basic and other
skills in situation that are commonly encountered in everyday life. Thus, CBE is
based on a set of outcomes that are derived from an analysis of task required of
students in life role situations (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
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Competency-Based Language Teaching
Figure 1: Characteristics of CBE
Competency-Based Language Teaching (CBLT) is an application of the principle

of CBE to language teaching. Such an approach had been widely and principally
dealt with by the end of 1970s, as the basis for the design of work-related and
survival oriented language teaching program for adult. By 1986, refuges in the
U.S. who wished to receive federal assistance had to be enrolled in a
Competency-based program.
Proponents of CBLT are on the consensus that the clear specification of expected
outcomes and the continuous feedback will enhance the quality of teaching and
student learning (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
CBLT uses the features of the graded objectives movement proposed as

framework for organizing foreign language teaching. To shed further lights on
graded objectives, it is required to mention that a series of short-term goals, each
building upon the one before, should be denied so that the learner advances in
knowledge and skill (Page, 1983).
Approach
Theory of Language
CBLT is based on a functional and interactional perspective on the nature of
language. It takes the social contexts, in which language is used, into account in
relation to which language is taught. Language always occurs as a medium of
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interaction and communication between people with the aim of achieving specific
goals and purposes. To this end, CBLT has most often been used as a framework
for language teaching in situations where the language skills they need can be
fairly accurately predicted or determined (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Theory of Learning
CBLT like behavioristic approach, shares the views based on which language
form can be inferred from language function; that is, certain life encounters call
for certain kinds of language. It is thus implied that designers of CBLT
competencies can accurately predict the vocabulary and structures likely to be
encountered and experienced in those particular situations that are central to the
life of learner and they also can state these in ways that can be used to organize
teaching/learning units (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Central to both language and learning theory there exist the view based on which
language can be analyzed into appropriate parts and subparts based on functional
perspectives; such parts and subparts can be taught and tested incrementally.
CBLT thus takes a mosaic approach in language learning based on which the
whole is constructed from smaller components correctly gathered together.
Moreover, CBLT shares some features with Communicative Language Teaching;
it makes an effort to develop functional communication skills which are linked to
the performance of specific real-world task in learners (Richards and Rodgers,
2001).
Design: Objectives, Syllabus, learning activities, role of the

learners, teachers, and materials
In traditional approaches, a syllabus and the course content are developed around
the subject. Although the objectives may be specified, they are not considered
essential in the teaching or assessing of the subject. Assessment of students, in
traditional approaches, is usually based on norm-referencing, that is, students will
be graded on a single scale with the expectation either that they are spread across
a wide range of scores or that they conform to a present distribution. A student
receives a set of marks for her performance relative to the other students, from
which it is very difficult to make any form of judgment about the specific
knowledge a student has acquired (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
In contrast, CBT is designed around the notion of competency rather than the
notion of the subject knowledge. Therefore the focus reconceptualizes from what
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students know about language to what they can do with it. The focus on
competencies or learning outcomes gives strength to the curriculum framework
and syllabus specification, teaching strategies, assessment and reporting. Instead
of norm-referencing assessment, criterion-based assessment procedures are used
in which learner are assessed according to how well they can perform on specific
learning tasks (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Competencies consist of a description of the essential skills, knowledge, attitudes,

and behaviors required for effective performance of real world task or activity.
Figure 2: traditional approaches vs. CBT program
Auerbach (1986) provides a useful review of factors involved in the implementation

of CBT programs in ESL and identified eight key features (p.144):
1. A focus on successful functioning in society. The goal is to enable

students to become autonomous individuals capable of coping with the
demands of the world.
2. A focus of life skills. CBLT teaches language as a function of
communication and students are taught just those language forms required
by the situation in which they will function.
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3. Task or performance-centered orientation. What counts is what students

can do as a result of instruction. The emphasis is on overt behaviors rather
than on knowledge or the ability to talk about language and skills.
4. Modularized instruction. Language learning is broken down into
manageable and meaningful chunks.
5. Outcomes that are made explicit a prior. Outcomes are specified in terms
of behavioral objectives so that students know exactly what behaviors are
expected of them.
6. Continuous and ongoing assessment. Students are presented to determine
what skills they lack and post-tested after instruction in that skill. If they
do not achieve the desired level of mastery, they continue to work on the
objective and retested.
7. Demonstrated mastery of performance objectives. Rather than the
traditional paper-and-pencil tests assessment is based on the ability to
demonstrate pre-specified behaviors.
8. Individualized, students-centered instructions. Objectives are defined in
terms of individual needs; prior learning and achievement are taken into
account in developing curricula. Instruction is not time-based, students’
progress at their own rates and concentrated on just those areas in which
they lack competence.
It is said that there exist several advantages of a competencies approach from the
learner’s point of view (Richards and Rodgers, 2001, p.144):
1. The competencies are specific and practical and can be seen to relate to the
learner’s needs and interests.
2. The learner can judge whether the competencies seem relevant and useful.
3. The competencies that will be taught and tested are specific and public-
hence the learner knows exactly what needs to be learned.
4. Competencies can be mastered one at the time so the learner can see what
has been learned and what still remains to be learned.
Procedure
After an initial assessment, students are placed within the framework on the basis
of their current English proficiency level. The competency descriptions at each
stage are divided into four domains as Richards and Rodgers(2001) declare:
1. Knowledge and learning competencies

2. Oral competencies
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3. Reading competencies
4. Writing competencies
Conclusion
Although CBLT has been embraced enthusiastically by large sections of ESL
profession, it is not without drawbacks. These include as follow (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001):
1. There is in fact no valid procedure available to develop competency lists

for most programs.
2. Many of areas for which competencies are needed, such as adult living,
survival, and functioning proficiently in community are impossible to
operationalize.
3. Dividing activities up into sets of competencies is a reductionist approach,
and that the sum of the parts does not equal the complexity of the whole.
4. Auerbach (1986) points out that CBLT reflects what Friere has
characterized as a banking model of education. It means that the function
of education is to transmit the knowledge and the teacher’s job is to devise
more and more effective ways to transmit skills.
5. Teaching typically focuses on behavior and performance rather than on the
development of thinking skills.
Figure 3: Critics of CBLT
146
Figure4: approaches that are related to CBLT
147
Communicative Language Teaching
COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING

Background
Most of the methods have been looked at so far aimed to help students learn to
communicate in the target language. In the 1970s, educators put it under question
to see whether they were going to meet the goal in the right way. Some of them
came to the conclusion that students could produce sentences accurately in a
lesson, but could not use them appropriately when communicating outside of the
classroom. Others observed that more than mastering linguistic structure was
required to achieve for communication, due to the fact that language was
fundamentally considered as a social phenomenon (Halliday, 1973). As Wilkins
(1976) declares within a social context language users need to do certain
functions, such as promising or inviting. Students may know the rules of linguistic
structures, but they might be unable to use the language appropriately
(Widdowson, 1978). In short, being able to communicate requires more than
linguistic competence; it requires communicative competence. Such observations
lead to shift in the field in the late 1970s and early 1980s from a linguistic
structure-centered approach to a Communicative Approach (Larsen-Freeman,
2011).
The origins of Communicative language Teaching (CLT) are considered due to

the changes in British language tradition dating from the 1960s. Therefore,
emergence of the CLT is based on the following reasons (Richards and Rodgers,
2001):
 Changes in the British language teaching (Applied linguistics emphasized

communicative proficiency rather than mastery of structure in teaching.)
 Experts’ attempts to develop language courses based on unit-credit system.
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Some characteristic of CLT approach

 makes the communicative competence the goal for teaching
 develop procedures for the teaching of four skills
 pays systematic attention to functional as well as structural aspect
 it can be interpreted in different ways ; experience approach
 learner-based and experience-based view of 2nd language
Howatt (1984) distinguishes between strong and weak versions of CLT;

according to the weak version, emphasis goes to integrating activities, with the
purpose of providing learners with opportunities to use their English for
communication, into a wider language teaching program. On the other hand, the
strong version of communicative teaching draws attention to the claim that
language is acquired through communication, so that stimulating the development
of the language system itself rather than activating an inert knowledge of language
is taken into account. If the former could be described as learning to use English,
the latter entails using English to learn it (Figure 1).
Figure 1: two versions of CLT
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Finocchiaro and Brumfit (1983) highlight the major distinctive features of Audio-
Lingual Method and Communicative Approach, according to their interpretation
as follow:
Table 1: ALM vs. CLT
ALM CLT
Attends to structure and form more Meaning is paramount.
than meaning.
Demands memorization of structure- Dialogues center around communicative
based dialogues. functions.
Language items are not necessarily Contextualization is basic premise.
contextualized.
Language learning is learning Language learning is learning to
structures, sounds, or words. communicate.
Mastery or overlearning is sought. Effective communication is sought.
Drilling is a central technique. Drilling may occur, but peripherally.
Native-speaker-like-pronunciation is Comprehensible pronunciation is
sought. sought.
Grammatical explanation is avoided. Any device that helps the learner is
accepted.
Communicative activities only come Attempt to communicate may be
after a long process of rigid drills. encouraged from the very beginning.
The use of the student’s first language Judicious use of first language is
is forbidden. accepted.
Translation is forbidden. Translation maybe used where students
benefit from it.
Reading and writing are deferred till Reading and writing can state from first
speech is mastered. day.
The target linguistic system will be The target linguistic system will be
learned through the over teaching of learned through the process of
the patterns of the system. straggling to communicate.
Linguistic competence is the desired Communicative competence is desired
goal. goal.
Varieties of language are recognized Linguistic variation is a central concept
but not emphasized. in materials and methodology.
The sequence of units is determined Sequencing is determined by any
solely by principles of linguistic consideration of content, function, or
complexity. meaning that maintains interest.
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ALM CLT
The teacher controls the learners and Teacher helps learners in any way that
prevents them from doing anything motivates them to work with the
that conflict with theory. language.
Language is habit, so errors must be Language is created by individual, often
prevented at all costs. through trial and errors.
Accuracy is primary goal. Fluency and acceptable language is the
primary goal.
Students are expected to interact with Students are expected to interact with
the language system, embodied in the other people.
controlled materials.
The teacher is expected to specify the The teacher cannot know exactly what
language that students are to use. language the students will use.
Intrinsic motivation will spring from Intrinsic motivation will spring from an
an interest in the structure of the interest in what is being communicated
language. by the language.
CLT is widely accepted and variously interpreted and applied due to the fact that
practitioners can identify different educational traditions with it and consequently
interpret it in a different way (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Approach
Theory of Language
Theory of language as communication is CLT’s underlying theory based on which
communicative competence is considered as the main goal. However, there exist
different views to the concept of communicative competence:
Communicative competence was firstly introduced by Hymes (1972) who

contrasted it with Chomsky’s theory of competence. Chomsky held that linguistic
theory is centered primarily with an ideal listener-speaker in a completely
homogeneous speech community, who knows its language perfectly and it is
unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory limitation,
distraction, and errors in applying his knowledge of the language in actual
performance.
However, Hymes stated that such view of linguistic theory was sterile. He
believes that linguistic theory needs to be seen as a part of a more general theory
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incorporating communication and culture. To Hymes, a communicatively

competent speaker is required to acquire both knowledge and the desirable ability
for language use with respect to whether something is:
1- Appropriate: a social concept
2- Feasible: a psychological concept
3- Possible: linguistic concept
4- Done or performed: a pragmatic concept
Besides Hymes’ communicative competence, Halliday’s functional account of

language use is favored in CLT as a communication linguistic theory. According
to functional approach, language is concerned with the description of speech acts
or texts, since only through the study of language in use all the functions of
language, and therefore all the components of meaning, are taken into
consideration. Halliday (1970) described seven basic functions of language that
children perform while learning their first language:
1. Instrumental function: using language to get things.

2. Regularity function: using language to control the behavior of others.
3. Interactional function: using language to create interaction with others.
4. Personal function: using language to express personal feelings and
meanings.
5. Heuristic function: using language to learn and to discover.
6. Imaginative function: using language to create a world of the
imagination.
7. Representational function: using language to communicate information.
Widdowson (1978) also presented a view of the relationship between linguistic

system and their communicative values in text and discourse. He focused on the
communicative acts underlying the ability to use language for different purposes.
Canale and Swain (1980) analyzed communicative competence and identified its
four dimensions in a more pedagogically influential way:
1- Grammatical Competence: domain of grammatical and lexical
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2- Sociolinguistic Competence: social context including: role, information,

purpose.
3- Discourse Competence: interpretation of individual messages.
4- Strategic Competence: strategies to initiate, terminate, maintain, repair

and redirect conversation.
In sum, it is undoubtedly implied that CLT has rich and somewhat eclectic
theoretical base from language theory perspective. Some of the characteristics of
this communicative view of language have been listed as follow according to
Richards and Rodgers (2001):
1. Language is a system for expression of meaning.

2. The primary function of language is to allow interaction and
communication.
3. The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses.
4. The primary units of language are categories of functional and
communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse.
Areas of language that are emphasized in CLT (Larsen-Freeman, 2011):
1. Language function might be emphasized over forms.

2. Students work with language at discourse or superasentential level.
3. They learn about cohesion and coherence.
4. Students work on all four skills from the beginning.
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Figure 2: Different views of Communicative Competence
Theory of Learning
In contrast to the amount that has written in CLT literature about communicative
dimensions of language, little has been written about learning theory. Elements of
an underlying learning theory can be perceived through some CLT practices
(Figure 3):
154
Figure 3: Elements of an underlying learning theory in CLT
However, other accounts of CLT betrayed a focus on an effort to describe

processes of language learning which are compatible with the CLT. Stephen
Krashen, who is not directly associated with CLT, has developed theories cited as
compatible with the principle of CLT. He makes a distinction between
‘acquisition’, which is considered as the basic process aimed at developing
language proficiency, and ‘learning’ (Figure 4) (Richards & Rodgers, 2001):
155
Figure4: Krashen’s model of learning
Moreover, Johnson and Little wood (1984) proposed a model known as skill-
learning model as an alternative learning theory which is seen compatible with
CLT, like Krashens’. According to this theory, the acquisition of communicative
competence in language learning is example of skill development. This involves a
cognitive as well as a behavioral aspect (Figure 5):
156
Figure 5: a skill-learning model of learning
Design
Objectives
Piepho (1981) discusses the following levels of objectives in CLT (Figure 6):
Figure 6: levels of objectives in CLT
157
It is assumed that the particular needs of the target learners will be reflected by
language teaching. Communicative competence can approach these needs which
may be placed in the domains of reading, writing, listening, or speaking (Richards
& Rodgers, 2001).
Communication in the target language as the main goal of this approach should be
considered as a process. Within the same vein, besides knowledge of the linguistic
forms, knowledge of meanings and functions are needed to be acquired. In fact,
they must be able to choose from among a verity of functions the most appropriate
form, given the social context and the rule of the interlocutors (Larsen-Freeman,
2011).
The Syllabus
There are several proposals and models for what a syllabus might look like in
CLT. Yalden (1983) describes the major current communicative syllabus types
(Table 2).
Type reference
Structure plus function Wilkins (1976)
functional spiral around a Brimfit (1980)

structural core
structural , Functional , Alen (1980)

instructional
Functional Jupp and hodlin (1975)
Notional Wilkins (1976)
Interactional Widdowson (1979)
Task-based Prabhu (1983)
learner-generated Candlin (1976)
Table 2: the major current communicative syllabus types
The shift from traditional grammar syllabus to a functional/notional syllabus was

supported by Wilkins (1976) who outlined its principal features.
158
First of all, he differentiates between synthetic and analytic approaches to syllabus

design. In Chastain’s words “in a synthetic approach authors and teachers break
language down into its component parts and arrange them in sequence according
to their perception of the difficulty of grammar. The principal weaknesses of are
that grammar is taught and learned as forms rather than as a set of meaning and
that students studying synthetically organized material seek to achieve
grammatical competence when they need to have both grammatical competence
and communicative competence to be able to communicate” (Chastain,1988,
p.107). On the other hand, in analytic approach the syllabus starts with units of
language behavior. The grammar and vocabulary can be analyzed at a later stage
aimed at using different functions (Longman Dictionary). Figure 7 illustrates
these two kinds of approach:
159
Figure 7:Two kinds of Syllabus
In contrast with structural and situational syllabuses, in Notional-Functional (N-F)

syllabus the language content is arranged according to the meanings a learner
needs to express through language and the functions the learner will use the
language for (Longman Dictionary).
160
Figure 8: Notional-Functional syllabus
Wilkins identified six functions, or purposes, and five notions of language

(Figure9) (Chastain, 1988).
161
Figure 9: category of function and notion
Some of the communicative syllabuses have also taken task specification and task
organization into account as appropriate criteria for syllabus design. With this
respect, the procedural syllabus is the only one which is compatible with
communicational teaching; it lists the types of tasks to be attempted in the
classroom and an order of complexity for tasks of the same kind is suggested in
this syllabus (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Richards and Rodgers (2001) also believe that a personal, although implicit,
syllabus must be created by the learners themselves as part of learning since it is
162
the learners who are fully aware of their own needs, communicational resources,
and desired learning pace and path.
Types of Learning and Teaching Activities

The range and types of exercise and activities which are in line with a
communicative approach, that is to say, the ones enable learners to achieve
curriculum communicative objectives and make learners involved in
communication, is very large in amount. In this regard, classroom activities are
often designed to focus on completing tasks that are mediated through language or
involve negotiation of information and information sharing (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001).
Littlewood (1981) distinguishes between functional communicative activities and

social interaction activities as major activity types in CLT (Figure 10):
Figure 10: Activities in CLT
Activities that are truly communicative, according to Morrow (Johnson and

morrow, 1981), have three features in common: information gap, choice and
feedback (Figure 10) (cited in Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
163
Information Gap
An information gap exists when one person in an exchange knows something the
other person does not. For example, a display question is not considered an
information gap activity. In contrast, a referential question is a communicative
activity (Figure 11).
Choice
In communication, the speaker has a choice of what they will say and how they
will say it. If students have no choice for saying something, it is not
communicative activity anymore. For example, in a chain drill students have no
choice of form and content and thus real communication does not occur.
Feedback
True communication is purposeful. A speaker can thus evaluate whether or not
their purposes have been achieved based upon the information they receive from
their listeners. If the listener does not have an opportunity to provide the speaker
with such feedback, then the exchange is not really communicative.
Figure 11: three features of communicative activities
164
Figure 12: three different kinds of questions (Longman dictionary)
Learner Roles
Processes of communication, rather than mastery of language forms as the main
concern and emphasis in CLT, creates a different role for learners. Learner is
negotiator who should learn in an interdependent way. They are expected to
interact primarily with each other rather than with the teacher. Furthermore,
correction of errors in CLT classroom may be absent or infrequent. Learners may
be quiet unfamiliar with the cooperative approach to learning stressed in CLT;
that is why, CLT methodologists recommended that learners should learn to see
that failed communication is a joint responsibility and not the fault of speaker or
listener. In other words, similarly successful communication is an
accomplishment jointly achieved and acknowledged (Richards and Rodgers,
2001).
Teacher Roles
The teacher has two main roles:
1. Facilitates the communicative process

2. Acts as an active participant
These two roles imply a set of Secondary roles:
1. Organizer of resource and a resource himself

2. A guide within classroom activities
3. Researcher and learner
Other roles are as need analyst, counselor, and group process manager:
165
Need analyst
The CLT teacher assumes a responsibility for determining and responding to

learner language needs. This may be done informally through one-to-one sessions
with students or formally through formal assessments.
Counselor
In this role the teacher counselor is expected to exemplify an effective

communication seeking to maximize the meshing of the speaker intention and
hearer interpretation, through the use of paraphrase, confirmation, and feedback.
Group process manager
According to CLT procedures, teacher is less required to achieve teacher-centered

classroom management skills. It is, in fact, the teacher’s responsibility to organize
the classroom as a setting for communication and communicative activities. Based
on the guidelines for classroom practice during an activity, the teacher is
suggested to monitor, encourage and suppress the inclination to supply gaps in
lexis, grammar, and strategy but such gaps should be noted for later commentary
and communicative practice. At the conclusion of group activity, the teacher is
expected to debrief the activity, point out alternatives and exertions and assist
groups in self-correction discussion (Richards & Rodgers, 2001).
The Role of Instruction Materials

Various materials have been used for supporting communicative approaches to
language teaching since in order to promote communicative language use in CLT
materials have the primary role. Three kinds of materials currently used in CLT
will be overviewed; they include text-based, task-based, and realia (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001).
Text-Based Materials
There are numerous textbooks designed to direct and support CLT. A typical
lesson for this type of material consists of a theme, a task analysis, a practice
situation description, comprehension questions and paraphrase exercises.
Task-Based Materials
A verity of games, role plays, simulations, and task-based communication
activities have been prepared to support CLT. These typically are in the form of
exercise handbooks, cue card, activity cards, pair communication practice
166
materials, and student practice booklet. To shed further lights on pair

communication materials it should be noted that there exist two sets of materials
for pairs of students each set containing different kinds of information.
Realia
Many proponents of CLT have advocated the use of authentic materials in the
classroom. These might include language based realia (signs, magazines, and so
on) or visual(maps, pictures, and so on) around which communicative activities
can be built.
Procedure
CLT procedure is evolutionary. That is to say, it is the reinterpretation of the
traditional procedures which were sequenced by Littlewood (1981) as follows
(Figure 13) (cited in Richards and Rodgers, 2001):
Figure 13: Activities in CLT
The Role of Students’ Native Language in CLT

Judicious use of students’ native language is permitted in CLT. However, target
language should be primarily used whenever possible, not only during
communicative activity, but also for explaining the activities to the students or in
assigning homework (Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
Responding to the Errors in CLT

Errors of forms are tolerated during fluency-based activities and are seen as
natural outcome of development of communication skills. In fact, the teacher may
167
not correct the errors during fluency activities and return to them later with an
accuracy-based activity (Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
Conclusion
CLT is best considered as an approach rather than a method. It refers to a set of
principles that reflect a communicative view of language (Figure 14) (Richards
and Rodgers, 2001).
Figure 14: CLT’s principles
CLT has passed through a number of different phases since its inception, so its
advocators have sought to apply its principles to different dimensions of the
teaching/learning process. These phases are shown in figure 15 (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001):
I. First phase: a primary concern was the need to develop a syllabus that was
compatible with notion of communicative competence. This need to
proposal of the organization of syllabuses in terms of notion and function
rather than structures.
II. Second phase: CLT focuses on procedures for identifying learners’ need
and this result in proposal to make need analysis an essential component of
communicative methodology.
168
III. Third phase: CLT focuses on kinds of classroom activities that could be
used as the basis of communicative methodology, such as group work,
task-work and information-gap activities.
Figure 15: Three phases in developing CLT
Johnson and Johnson (1998) identify five core characteristics that underlie current
of applications of communicative methodology (Figure 16):
1. Appropriateness: language use reflects the situation of its use and must
be appropriate to that situation depending on the setting. Thus, learners
may be needed to be able to use formal as well as casual styles of
speaking.
2. Message focus: learners need to be able to create and understand
messages, that is, real meanings. Hence, the focus on information sharing
and information transfer in CLT activities.
3. Psycholinguistic processing: CLT activities seek to engage learners in the
use of cognitive and other processes that are important factors in SLA.
4. Risk taking: learners are encouraged to make guesses and learn from their
errors.
5. Free practice: CLT encourages the use of holistic practice involving the
simultaneous use of variety of subskills, rather than practicing individual
skills one piece at a time.
169
Figure 16: Five core characteristics that underlie current of applications of communicative
methodology
170
171
172
NATURAL APPROACH
Background
In 1977, Tracy Terrell, a Spanish teacher in California, outlined a proposal for a
new philosophy of language teaching named Natural Approach which was an
attempt to develop a language teaching proposal incorporating the naturalistic
principles that have been identified by researchers in studies of second language
acquisition. At the same time, Terrell joined forces with Stephen Krashen, an
applied linguist, to elaborate a theoretical rational for Natural Approach, focusing
on Krashen’s influential theory of second language acquisition (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001).
Krashen and Terrell identified the Natural Approach with what he called
traditional approaches to language teaching. He elaborates them as the
approaches based on which the use of language in communicative situations is
taken into consideration without resource to the native language. Krashen and
Terrell noted that such approaches have been called natural, psychological,
phonetic, new, reform, direct analytic, imitative and so forth. In fact, the authors
of Natural Approach relate their approach to the Natural Method. However, there
exist some important differences between the Natural Approach and Natural
Method (Richards and Rodgers, 2001)
The Natural Method is another form of Direct Method. As the term natural
suggests, direct or natural method conforms to the principles of naturalistic
language learning in young children. Similarly, Krashen and Terrell believe that
Natural Approach conforms to the naturalistic principles found in successful
second language acquisition. However, regarding the differences, unlike the
Direct Method, Natural Method places less emphasis on teacher monologues,
direct repetition, and formal questions and answers, and draws less attention to the
173
Natural Approach
accurate production of the target language sentences. In addition, in the Natural

Approach exposure, or input, rather than practice is primarily emphasized. The
emphasis on the central role of comprehension in the NA associates it with other
comprehension-based approaches in language teaching (Richards and Rodgers,
2001).
Figure 1: Natural Approach vs. Natural Method
Approach
Theory of Language
NA is considered as an example of communicative approaches since Krashen and
Terrell see communication, the primary function of language, as the main concern
for their approach in which teaching communicative abilities are under focus.
However, language theory is less attended. What these developers do describe
about the nature of language puts emphasis on the primacy of meaning.
Consequently, a view of language that consists of lexical items, structures, and
messages is left to be taken into account (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
174
Lexical items
The importance of vocabulary suggests the view that language is essentially
consists of lexicon and the grammar determining how the lexicon is exploited to
produce message. In other words, both perceiving and producing lexicon are
critically considered and given pivotal role in the construction and interpretation
of messages (Richards and Rodgers, 2001)
Structure
Besides being an avowed communicative approach to language, Natural
Approach, like audiolingualism, draws attention to the mastery of structures by
stages. To this end, the input hypothesis states the progression order for the
acquirer to reach the next stages. More succinctly, the learners are required to
understand the input language including a structure which is related to part of the
next stage. Krashen refers to this with the formula "I+1" (i.e., input that contains
structure slightly above the learner’s present level). The NA, thus, assumes a
linguistic hierarchy of structural complexity that one master through encounters
with input containing structures at the "I+1" level. Lexical items in messages are
necessarily grammatically structured; the more complex messages the more
complex grammatical structure. However, Krashen and Terrell feel that there is no
need for language teacher, language learner and also language teaching materials
to pay attention to the grammatical structure or explicitly analyze them (Zero
option) (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Messages
Massages are considered of primary importance in Natural Approach. Krashen
and Terrell stated that acquisition can take place only when people understand
messages in the target language.
175
Natural Approach
Figure 2: In NA language consists of lexical items, structures, and messages. This figure
shows the relationship between these three components.
Theory of Learning
Krashen and Terrell claimed that NA is a unique method. This uniqueness view of
learning has been presented through the following sections and hypotheses
The Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis

Based on this hypothesis, acquisition and learning are seen as two distinctive
ways of developing in a second language. Acquisition is the natural way which
refers to an unconscious process involving the naturalistic language proficiency
developed through understanding language and through using language for
meaningful communication. Learning, by contrast, refers to a process in which
conscious rules about a language are developed. It results in explicit knowledge
about the forms of language. Learning, according to the theory, cannot lead to
acquisition (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
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The Monitor Hypothesis

Conscious learning takes place only when a monitor or editor checks the output of
the acquired system; therefore, learners may call upon learned knowledge to
correct themselves when they communicate; it is the only function of this
hypothesis. The successful use of monitor depends on three conditions; namely,
time, focus on form, and knowledge of rules (Figure 3) (Richards and Rodgers,
2001).
Figure 3:Three conditions limit the successful use of monitor
The Natural Order Hypothesis

According to this hypothesis, the acquisition of grammatical structures proceeds
in a predictable order. Research shows that certain grammatical structures are
acquired before others in first language and, similarly, in second language
acquisition. Errors are sings of natural development process, and during
acquisition, similar errors occur in learners no matter what their native language is
which are considered as the developmental signs (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Developmental error: First or second language learners may make an error in the
language use which is consequence of a normal pattern of development; it is
called a developmental error. For example, in English such forms as goed and
comed are considered developmental errors (U-shaped learning). These
overgeneralizations are natural or developmental stage in language learning
(Longman Dictionary).
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Natural Approach
The Input Hypothesis

According to this hypothesis, the relationship between what the learner is exposed
to a language (the input) and language acquisition is explained which conforms
four main issues (Richards and Rodgers, 2001,p.181):
1. It is related to acquisition, and not to learning.

2. People acquire language best by understanding input that is slightly
beyond their current level of competence (I+1 stage).
3. The ability to speak fluently cannot be taught directly; rather, it emerges
independently in time, after the acquirer has built up linguistic competence
by understanding input.
4. If there is sufficient of comprehensible input, I+1 will usually be provided
automatically.
Comprehensible Input: spoken language that can be understood by the
listener even though some structures and vocabulary may not be known.
This input contains linguistic items that are slightly beyond the learner’s
present linguistic competence (I+1 level).
Second language learners are provided with simple code that facilitates second
language comprehension. One such code is caretaker speech, in first language
acquisition, and foreigner talk, in second language acquisition (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001).
Caretaker Speech (also motherese, mother talk, baby talk): the simple speech
used by parents when they talk to young children. Some of the characteristics of
caretaker talk are shorter utterances, grammatically simple utterances, few
difficult words with a lot of repetition, and clearer pronunciation (Longman
Dictionary).
Foreigner Talk: the types of speech often used by native speaker when speaking
to a foreigner who are not proficient in the language. Some of the characteristics
of foreigner talk are slower rate of speech, repetition, restating, and use of yes/no
question instead of wh-word questions (Longman Dictionary).
The affective Filter Hypothesis

The learner’s emotional state or attitude is seen as an adjustable filter by Krashen
that freely passes, or blocks input necessary to acquisition. A low affective filter is
desirable. He identified three kinds of affective variables related to SLA (second
language acquisition); namely, motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety (Figure
178
4). The affective filter hypothesis states that acquirers with a low affective filter
seek and receive more input, interact with more confidence, and are more
respective to the input they receive (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Figure 4: three kinds of affective variables related to SLA
179
Natural Approach
180
Figure 5: Krashen’s learning hypothesis
Design
Objectives
The Natural Approach is for beginners and is designed to help them become
intermediate. It provides the students with the following expectations (Richards
and Rodgers, 2001):
1. Being able to function adequately in the target language.

2. Understanding the speaker of the target language.
3. Being able to convey their requests and ideas.
4. Being able to make the meaning clear but not necessarily in all details of
grammar.
However, specific objectives depend on learner needs and the skill and level being
taught.
The Syllabus
Course organization has been approached by Krashen and Terrell (1983) from two
points of view. First, some typical goals for language courses are listed to suggest
which of these goals are the ones at which the NA aims. They list such goals
under four areas below (Richards and Rodgers, 2001):
1. Basic personal communication skills: oral

2. Basic personal communication skills: written
3. Academic learning skills: oral
4. Academic learning skills: written
They then observe that communication goal may be expressed in terms of

situations, functions, and topics. The functions are not specified, but are felt to
drive naturally from the topics and situations.
Second, the purpose of a language course will vary according to the needs of the
students and their particular interests. So, the goals of NA class are based on an
assessment of student needs.
Besides fitting the needs and interests of students, content situation should aim to
create a low effective filter by being relaxed and providing a friendly atmosphere,
should provide a wide exposure to vocabulary that may be useful to basic personal
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Natural Approach
communication, and should resist any focus on grammatical structures (the

necessary grammatical structures are automatically provided in input).
NA employs a topical and situational syllabus which mirrors the target settings
(ELT, 1999).
Figure 6: course organization in NA

Presenting comprehensible input in the target language from the very beginning is
the main concern in NA class. To minimize stress, learners are not required to say
anything until they feel ready, but they are expected to respond to teacher
commands and questions in other ways which follows a gradual progression
(Figure 7). Students are not expected to use a word actively until they have heard
it many times. There are three kinds of activities in NA; namely, acquisition
activities, command- based activities, and group-work activities illustrated below
1. Acquisition Activities: These kinds of activities focus on meaningful

communication rather than language form.
2. Command-Based Activities: include activities from TPR and DM
activities in which mime, gesture, and context are used to elicit questions
and answers.
3. Group-Work Activities: sharing information in order to complete a task
and whole class discussion.
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Figure 7: gradual progression for asking question in NA
Learner Roles
Learning a language in NA does not take place in the usual sense. The language
acquirer is seen as processor of comprehensible input who is challenged by input
that is slightly beyond their current level of competence. Moreover, they are able
to assign meaning to this input through active use of context and extralinguistic
information. The processors’ roles are, consequently, seen to change according to
their stage of linguistic development (Figure8). Learners are expected to
participate in communication activities with other learners (Richards and Rodgers,
2001).
Learners have four kinds of responsibilities in NA classroom (Richards and

Rodgers, 2001):
1. Provide information about their specific goals.

2. Take an active role in ensuring comprehensible input.
3. Decide when to start producing speech and when to upgrade it.
4. Where learning activities are to be a part of program, decide with the
teacher the relative amount of time to be devoted or complete and correct
them independently.
183
Natural Approach
Figure8: Learners’ roles according to their stage of linguistic development
Teacher Roles
The Natural Approach teacher has three central roles (Richards and Rodgers,
2001, p.185):
1. The teacher is primary source and generator of comprehensible input. The

Natural Approach demands a much more center-stage role for the teacher
than to many contemporary communicative methods.
2. The teacher creates a classroom atmosphere that is interesting, and there is
a low affective filter for learning. For example teacher should not demand
speech from the students before they are ready for it, or should not correct
the students’ errors, and should provide subject matter of high interest to
students.
3. The teacher must choose and orchestrate a rich mix of classroom activities.
The teacher is seen as responsible for collecting materials and designing
their use. These materials are not based just on teacher perception but on
elicited students’ needs and interests.
The Role of Instruction Materials

Materials in NA come from the world of realia rather than from textbooks.
Pictures and visual aids are essential because they supply content for
communication. Other recommended materials include schedules, brochures,
advertisements, maps and books. Games, in general, are seen as useful classroom
materials, since games, by their very nature, focus the students’ attention on what
they are doing. They, in fact, use the language as tool for reaching the goal rather
than as a goal in itself.
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The primary goal of materials (Richards and Rodgers, 2001):
To make classroom activities as meaningful as possible: by supplying the

extralinguistic context that helps the acquirer to understand.
To promote comprehension and communication.
Procedure
1. Start with TPR commands
2. Use TPR to teach names of the body parts and to introduce numbers and
sequences
3. Introduce classroom terms and props into command
4. Use name of physical characteristics and clothing to identify members of
the class
5. Use visuals to introduce new vocabulary
6. Combine use of picture with TPR
7. Combine observation about pictures with commands and conditionals
8. Using picture, ask students to point
Krashen and Terrell, 1983
Conclusion
The NA is associated with traditional language teaching methods which were
based on observation and interpretation of how learner acquires both first and
second language in non-formal setting. Like CLL, the Natural Approach is
evolutionary rather than revolutionary in its procedures (Richards & Rodgers,
2001).
185
Natural Approach
186
187
Cooperative Language Learning
COOPERATIVE LANGUAGE LEARNING

Background
Cooperative Language Learning is part of a more general instructional approach
known as Collaborative Learning. It is believed that learning is dependent on the
socially structured exchange of information between learners in groups; therefore,
cooperative learning is considered as a group-work activity in which each learner
is held accountable for their own learning and is motivated to increase the
learning of others. Cooperative Learning sought to do the following (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001).
1. Raise the achievement of all students

2. Help the teacher build positive relationship among students.
3. Give students the experiences they need for healthy social, psychological,
and cognitive development.
4. Replace a competitive organizational structure with a team-based, high-
performance organizational.
In second language teaching CL has been embraced as way of promoting

communication, interaction in the classroom and is seen as an extension of the
principles of Communicative Language Teaching. It is viewed as a learner-
centered approach. Its goals in language teaching have been shown in Figure 1;
188
Figure1: The goals of Cooperative Learning in language teaching
Approach
Theory of Language
Some basic premises about the interactive/cooperative nature of language and
language learning have provided Cooperative Language Learning underlying
theory (Figure 2).CLL is used to support both structural and functional models as
well as interactional models of language advocated in CLL due to the CLL
activities focusing on language form and practicing particular language
functions(Richards & Rodgers, 2001).
Figure 2: Cooperative Language Learning premises
189
Theory of Learning
Cooperative learning advocates draw on theoretical work of developmental
psychologists Jean Piaget and Vygotsky, both of whom stress the central role of
social interaction in learning. As it has been indicated, a central premise of CLL is
that learners developed communicative competence in language by speaking in
socially or pedagogically structured situations (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
CLL also aims to develop learners’ critical thinking skills, which are central to
learning of any sort. Critical thinking has been elevated by some authors to the
same level of focus as that of the basic language skills of reading, writing,
listening, and speaking. Question Matrix is concerned as the approach for
fostering critical thinking development. This kind of activity is derived from the
matrix encouraging learners to ask and respond to deeper array of alternative
question types and is known taxonomy of educational objectives devised by
Bloom (1956). It in fact assumes a hierarchy of learning objectives ranging from
simple recall of information to forming conceptual judgments.
CLL seeks to develop classroom improving cooperation rather than competition in

learning. Since students work cooperatively, they maximize their own and other’s
learning (Richards and Rodgers, 2001)
190
Figure 3: the role of critical thinking
Figure 4:Six learning advantages for ESL students in CLL classroom
191
Design
Objectives
CLL objectives include overall objectives and specific objectives listed below
(Richards and Rodgers, 2001, p.195):
Overall objectives:
1. To foster cooperation rather than competition

2. To develop critical thinking skills
Specific objectives:
They will derive from the context in which they are used.
The syllabus
No particular form of language syllabus is referred to CLL, since activities from a
wide variety of curriculum orientations can be taught via cooperative learning.
What defines CLL is the systematic and carefully planned use of group-based
procedures in teaching rather than teacher-fronted one (Richards and Rodgers,
2001).

Johnson (1994) described three types of cooperative learning group (Figure5).
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Figure5: types of cooperative learning group
The success of CL heavily depends on the nature and organization of group work.
Olsen and Kagan (1992) suggest the following key elements of successful group-
based learning in CL (Figure 6).
193
Figure 6: following key elements of successful group-based learning in CL
Coelho (1992) describes three major kinds of cooperative learning tasks

(Figure7).
194
Figure7: three major kinds of cooperative learning tasks
In continue, CLL activities have been illustrated by Olen and Kagan (1992)
(Figure8):
195
Figure 8: some examples of CLL activities
Learner Roles
1. The primary role of the learner is as a member of group.
2. Learners have to learn teamwork skills.
3. Learners are directors of their own learning; they are taught to plan,
monitor, and evaluate their own learning (Richards and Rodgers, 2001,
p.197).
196
Teacher Roles
A highly structured and well-organized learning environment ought to be created
by the teacher in the classroom. Setting goals, planning and structuring tasks,
establishing the physical arrangement of the classroom, assigning students to
group, and selecting the materials and time are counted as the other main
responsibilities of the teacher. Above all, the important role for the teacher is that
of facilitator of learning (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Teacher provides broad questions to change thinking. They give few commands to
impose less disciplinary control and may also have the task of restructuring
lessons in order to make students work on them cooperatively; it consists of some
steps shown in Figure 9 (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Figure 9: Three steps of reconstructing a lesson in Cooperative Learning

Materials play an important part in creating opportunities for students to work
cooperatively. Although the same materials can be used in other types of lessons,
variations are required in how those materials are exploited. Materials may be
especially designed for CLL learning; they can be also modified from existing
materials, or borrowed from other disciplines (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Procedure
As an example of how achieving a goal based on CL (Richards and Rodgers,
2001, p.2000):
197
1. teacher pairs students , a good reader in each pair

2. one student describes the other takes note and gives back the outline
3. they change role
4. students individually research the material
5. they work together to write the first paragraph
6. they write the composition individually
7. when composition is completed , they proofread
8. they revise it
9. reread and sign to indicate it is error-free
Conclusion
Teaching language advocates the use of discussion group, group work and pair
work. Typically such groups are used with the purpose of changing the normal
pace of classroom events as well as increasing the amount of student participation
in lessons. Such activities, however, are not necessarily considered cooperative. In
fact, cooperative learning is defined as group activities, that are major mode of
learning and part of a comprehensive theory and system, are utilized as group
work in the teaching. These group activities are carefully planned for maximizing
students’ interaction and facilitating students’ contributions to each other’s
learning (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
However, CLL is not without its critics. These include(Richards and Rodgers,
2001):
1. Some have questioned its use with learners of different proficiency levels.
Suggesting that some groups of students (intermediate and advanced
learners) may obtain more benefits from it than other.
2. It places considerable demands on teachers.
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199
200
CONTENT-BASED INSTRUCTION
Background
Content-Based Instruction (CBI) is an approach to second language teaching set
out around the content or information that students will acquire, rather than
linguistic or other types of syllabus. By content, the substance or subject matter is
implied which is learned or used for communication through language rather than
the language use. Krahnke (1987) offers the following definition:
“It is the teaching of content or information in the language being learned with
little or no direct explicit effort to teach the language itself separately from the
content being taught”(cited in Richards and Rodgers, 2001,p.204).
Saint Augustine, an early proponent of Content-Based Language Teaching

(CBLT), quoted some recommendations regarding meaningful content in
language teaching. CBI likewise draws on principles of Communicative Language
Teaching. In fact, it was argued that classroom should focus on real
communication and the exchange of information. To this respect, an ideal
situation for second language learning would be one where the subject matter of
language teaching is not grammar or function but content. Thus, students would
learn the language as a “by-product” of learning about real-world content
(Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.204).
The Role of Content in other Curriculum Design

Some educational initiatives since the late 1970s some principles of acquiring
content through language rather than the study of language for its own sake were
emphasized by some educational initiatives. They include: Language across the
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Content-Based Instruction
Curriculum, Immersion Education, Immigrant On-Arrival Programs, Programs for

Students with Limited English Proficiency, and Language for Specific Purposes
(Richards & Rodgers, 2001). These principles will be explained one by one before
shedding more lights on the specific claims of CBI.
Language across the Curriculum

It was proposed for native language education and came up from the
recommendation of a British governmental commission through which a focus on
reading and writing in all subject areas of curriculum, and not merely in the
subject called language arts was suggested. In fact, it was required to teach
language skills in the content subjects and teachers were not exclusively
responsible for teaching language skills. The slogan of this curriculum design was
"every teacher, an English teacher". Consequently, subject-matter texts including
exercises dealing with language practice were appeared, and the need for
collaboration between subject matter teachers and language teachers was taken
into consideration (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Immersion Education
It is a type of foreign language instruction in which the regular school curriculum
is taught through the medium of the foreign language. The foreign language is not
taken as the subject of instruction into account; instead, it is seen as the vehicle for
content instruction (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Students’ goals of an Immersion Education include (Richards and Rodgers,

2001,p.205):
1. Developing a high level of proficiency in the foreign language

2. Developing a positive attitude toward those who speak the foreign
language and toward their culture
3. Developing English language skills commensurate with expectations for
students’ age and abilities
4. Gaining design skills and knowledge in the content areas of curriculum
Immigrant On-Arrival Programs

These programs focus on the language of newly arrived immigrants in a country
who need it to be survived. Such learners are typically required to learn how to
deal with variety of real-world contents underlying social survival (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001).
202
Programs for Students with Limited English Proficiency (SLEP)

Based on these programs, any school-age children whose language competence is
insufficient to participate fully in normal school instruction are provided with in-
class instruction. Unlike the early versions of such programs which were largely
grammar-based, more recent SLEP programs focus on giving students the
language and other skills required for entering the regular school curriculum
Language for Specific Purposes (LSP)

It is a movement with the purpose of providing learners with the language needs
necessary for carrying out specific roles (e.g., student, engineer, nurse). In other
words, learners are needed to acquire content and real-world skills through a
medium of a second language rather than master a language for its own sake
Approach
CBI is grounded on the following two central principles (Richards & Rodgers,
2001, p.207):
1. People learn a second language more successfully when they use the
language as a means of acquiring information rather than as an end in
itself.
2. CBI better reflects learners’ need (academic or mainstreams) for learning a
second language.
Theory of language
A number of assumptions about the nature of language underlined CBI(Richards
& Rodgers, 2001):
Language is text-and discourse-based

The role of language is regarded as a vehicle for learning content in CBI.
Therefore, linguistic entities longer than single sentences are the central concern,
because the way through which meaning and information are communicated and
constructed through texts and discourse are considered as the focus of teaching. It
is also required to be noted that the linguistic units that are central are not limited
to the level of sentences and substantial units (clauses and phrases). These units
account also for how longer stretches of language are used and linguistic features
that create coherence and cohesion within speech events and text type are
203
considered as well. Consequently, study of the textual and discourse structure of

written texts should be involved.
Language use draws on integrated skills

According to CBI, language use includes several skills together. Hence, in
content-based classes students are engaged in activities linking several skills
together, because this is how the skills are generally involved in the real world.
Topic-or theme-based courses provide a good basis for such integrated skills
approach because the selected topics provide coherence as well as continuity
across skill areas; that is, they focus on the use of language in connected discourse
rather than isolated fragment. Based on this view, it is implied that grammar is
seen as a component of other skills rather than being considered as a separated
dimension of language. Grammar can also be presented through a content-based
approach. The relevant grammatical and other linguistic focuses should be
identified by the developer to complete the topic or theme of activities (Richards
and Rodgers, 2001).
Language is purposeful
Language is used for specific purposes. The purpose may be academic,
vocational, social, or recreational but all follow the same purpose of giving
direction, shape, and ultimately meaning to discourse and texts. Learners to
receive maximum benefit from CBI are required to understand its purposes as
well as the language codes signaling and linking these expressions of purpose.
Language contains great potential for communicating meaning. In order to make

content comprehensible to learners, teacher needs to make it simple. Teachers and
learners involved in CBI consciously and unconsciously make foreigner talk
modification in the language they use in teaching (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Areas of language that is emphasized in CBI (Larsen-Freeman, 2011, p.140):
1. The content determines what language is worked on.

2. The language includes not only vocabulary items and grammar structures,
but also how this contributes to the discourse organization of texts.
3. All four skills are integrated in authentic context.
Theory of learning
As it was mentioned, in CBI and based on its main principles, learning a second
language occurs successfully when language is used as a means of acquiring
204
information rather than as an end per se. Therefore, when a target language
material is used in a meaningful, contextualized form with the primary focus on
acquiring information, successful learning takes place (Richards and Rodgers,
2001).
Other assumptions derived from the core principles of CBI have been described in
the following sections *(Richards and Rodgers, 2001):
People learn second language most successfully when the information they are
acquiring is perceived as interesting, useful and leading to desired goals.
The informational contents which are in relevance with learners are used to
increase motivation in the language courses, and consequently to promote more
effective learning. It is believed that language learning is motivating when
information is relevant and focuses on something other than language such as
ideas, issues, and opinions. If content is chosen with a high level of interest, the
language may be acquired more willingly.
Some content areas are more useful as a basis for language learning than
others
Certain areas of content are tough to be more effective as a basis for CBI than
others:
 Geography: for the use of maps, charts, realia, visuals, spatial and
contextual
 Psychology: it is recommended because of students’ interest and because
of high structured nature of content, factual information.
 Other areas: Soviet life and world view, aphorism, proverbs, popular
sayings
Students learn best when instruction addresses their needs
Authentic texts –both written and spoken- are considered more useful as the
starting point for developing a syllabus, because students may encounter them in
the real world; hence, they are so relevant to learners and address their needs.
Teaching builds on learners’ previous experiences
Learning starts with presenting a theme-based lesson, what the students already
know about the content.
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Design
Objectives
The objectives in a typical CBI course are stated as objectives of the content
course. Achievement of content course objective is considered as necessary and
sufficient as language learning objectives. However, theme-based instructional
syllabus is the exceptional factor to this generalization (Richards and Rodgers,
2001).
Objectives in theme-based instructional model of CBI

In theme-based instructional model of CBI language learning objectives are
achieved through the selection of theme topics; that is, there are often set
linguistic objectives in the curriculum, and thematic modules are selected for the
degree to which they provide compatible contexts for working towards those
objectives.
An example of objectives in CBI comes from theme-based intensive language

course for that include:
1. to activate and develop existing language skills
2. to acquire learning skills and strategies that could be applied in language

development
3. to develop general academic skills applicable to university studies in all

subjects
4. to broaden students’ understanding of English-speaking people
Syllabus
In most CBI courses, the syllabus is derived from the content areas which are
obviously various widely in details and format (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Theme-Based syllabus
It is typically only CBI following the theme-based model in which content and
instructional sequence is chosen based on language learning goals. The theme-
based model uses the syllabus type referred to as a topical syllabus (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001).
206

There exist a number of descriptions of activity types in CBI. Stoller (1997)
provides a list of activities classified according to the instructional focus (cited in
Richards & Rodgers, 2001). The classification categories she proposes are shown
in Figure 1.
Figure 1: the classification categories of activities
Mohan (1986) describes an approach to content-based ESL instruction at the

secondary level (Figure 2).
207
Figure 2: An approach to content-based ESL instruction
Learner Roles
Learners in CBI, as one of its main goal, are trained to become autonomous so
that they understand their own learning process and feel responsible for their own
learning from the very beginning. In addition, in CBI classes students are
expected to support each other in collaborative modes of learning. In fact, CBI is
in the "learning by doing" school of pedagogy. Learners are thus assumed to have
active roles from several perspectives: interpreting input, willing to tolerant
uncertainty, willing to explore alternative learning strategies, and willing to seek
multiple interpretations of oral and written texts to name a few (Figure 3).
Richards and Rodgers (2001) also consider learners as the source of content and
joint participants in the selection of topics and activities. This anticipation has
been found to be highly motivating to them.
208
Figure 3: CBI pedagogy
Teacher Roles
Knowledge in the subject matter and ability to elicit that knowledge from students
are concerned as the main roles for teachers. At a more detailed level, context and
comprehensibility have to be kept foremost in teachers’ planning. Instructors
should take the charge of selecting and adopting authentic materials for use in the
class; therefore, they become student needs analyst, and have to create truly
learner-centered classroom (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Essential skills for CBI instructor (Stryker and leaver 1993):
1. vary the instruction format

2. use group work and team-building techniques
3. organize jigsaw reading arrangement
4. define background knowledge and skills required for success
5. help learner develop coping strategies
6. use process approach to writing
7. use appropriate error correction technique
8. develop and maintain high level of student esteem

The materials facilitating language learning are seen as the materials used
typically with the subject matter of the content course. a rich variety of material
types with the centrality of the notion of being authentic should be identified and
used. To this respect, it is recommended to use realia such as tourist guidebook,
technical journals, newspapers, and the like (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
209
Responding to the students’ errors

The teacher corrects students’ errors by giving students the correct form or
allowing them to have self-correction. They, in fact, note the errors, and recycle
content to ensure that students are acquiring the language they will need in a
school context (Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
Procedure and Techniques

Dictogloss:
It includes three sessions that is illustrated in Figure 4. (Larsen-Freeman, 2011)
Figure 4: the process of Dictogloss
210
Graphic Organizers (Larsen-Freeman, 2011) :
Figure 5: Graphic Organizers
Process Writing:
Initially, ideas about the topics and the writing itself are brainstormed. Then,
students share them with the teacher and other students in order to receive
feedback on their writing and make revisions (Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
211
Conclusion
Advantages and disadvantages of Content-Based approaches, which have been
used in a variety of different settings, have been illustrated in Figure 4;
Figure 4: the advantages and disadvantages of CBI
212
213
214
TASK-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING

Background
According to this approach, as the name suggests, the core unit of planning and
instruction in language teaching is exploiting tasks. It is logically implied that
through Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) communicative language
teaching is developed. Even Larsen-Freeman (2011) states that TBLT is an
example of strong version of communicative approach, because language is
acquired through use. The following principles also shed further lights on this
assumption:
1- real communication in activities is essential for learning

2- activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful learning
task promote learning
3- language that is meaningful for learner supports the learning process
In the mid-1980s, researchers drew attention to tasks as SLA research tools

because they believed that they can be concerned as the building blocks of second
language instruction. Studies reveal that the role of formal grammar instructions
in the language teaching is required to be reassessed. In fact, the grammar-focused
type of teaching activities used in many language classrooms has failed to reflect
the cognitive learning processes employed in naturalistic language learning
situations outside the classroom. To this respect, working on tasks provides
learners with a better context and activates the learning processes far better than
grammar-focused activities. In other words, students are required to be immersed
in comprehensible inputs as well as tasks so that they are capable of negotiating
meaning and are engaged in naturalistic and meaningful communication (Richards
and Rodgers, 2001).
215
Task-Based Language Teaching
Figure 1: task vs. grammar-focused activities
It should be pointed out that there exists a difference between task-based syllabi
and Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT). In Task-based syllabi
grammatical items are absent. In fact, although task-based syllabi are analytic in
nature, they are criticized for not expressing future-grammar structures. On the
other hand, Task-based teaching engages students in structure-based
communicative task, which are designed with the purpose of automotizing
students to put the internalized structures into practice (Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
Figure 2: the difference between task-based syllabi and TBLT.
216
What Is a Task?
Larsen-Freeman in illustrating the Task itself concerns communication as its core
feature. In her words, tasks are meaningful having clear outcomes. In this regard,
teacher and students can come up with the fact that whether the communication
has been successful or not (Larsen-Freeman, 2011). In a same vein, Richards and
Rodgers (2001) view task as an activity or goal conducted by using language.
According to Skehan (1996), success of a task depends on the achievement of its
outcome and its resemblance to the real-life language use. More succinctly,
Nunan (1989) points out that task is a piece of classroom work which engages
learners’ attention principally on meaning rather than form through
comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language.
Nunan also declares that task should possess a sense of completeness and be
considered as a communicative act in its own right.
Prabhu (1987) in defining task puts more emphasis on outcome and states that
learners are required to achieve the desired outcome from given information
through some processes of thoughts which are regulated by teachers.
In defining a task as a piece of work or an activity, Crookes (1986) believes that it

is undertaken as part of an educational course, at work, or used to elicit data for
research.
Task is an activity in which (Brown, 2001, p.50):
1. meaning is primary
2. there is some communicative problem to solve
3. there is some sort of relationship to comparable real-world activities
4. the assessment of the task is in terms of outcome
217
Figure 3: definition of task
The key assumptions of Task-based instruction are summarized byFeez (1998,

p.17):
1. The focus is on the process rather than product.

2. Basic elements are purposeful activities and tasks that emphasize
communication and meaning.
3. Learners learn language by interacting communicatively and purposefully
while engage in tasks and activities.
4. Activities and task can be either:
•Those that learners might need to achieve in real life;
•Those that have a pedagogical purpose specific to the classroom.
5. Activities and tasks are sequenced according to the difficulty.
218
6. The difficulty of a task depends on a range of factors: previous

experiences, complexity of the task, the language required to undertake the
task, and the degree of the support available.
In order to develop a curriculum several key areas of concern have been identified
by Task-based training illustrated in Figure 4 (Richards and Rodgers, 2001):
Figure 4: process of developing curriculum in TBLT
As it has been discussed up to here, initially solo job performance was taken into
account by task analysis and instructional design on manual tasks. However, the
attention later turned towards team tasks in which communication is the main
concern (Nieva, Fleishman, & Rieck, 1978). Figure 5 shows four major categories
of team performance.
Figure 5: four major categories of team performance function
219
Approach
Theory of Language
TBLT motivated primarily by a theory of learning rather than a theory of
language. However, several assumptions about the nature of language can be said
to underlie current approaches to TBLT. These assumptions have been listed
below.
Language is primary a means of making meaning.
Skehan (1998) noted that in task-based instructions, meaning is primary and the
assessment of the task is in terms of outcome.
Multiple models of language inform TBI.
TBI is associated with all three models of language consist ofstructural,

functional, interactional rather than being linked to one of them.
Lexical units are central in language use and language learning.
According to Skehan (1996), native language speech processing is frequently

lexical-oriented. That is to say, speech processing is based on the production and
reception of whole phrase units larger than the word.
Conversation is the central focus of language and the keystone of language

acquisition.
Because communicating with others is the basis and core principle for second
language acquisition in TBI, the majority of tasks that are proposed within TBLT
involve conversation.
Theory of Learning
Language learning underlying Communicative Language Teaching is taken as
TBI learning theory as well. However some additional learning principles play a
central role in TBLT theory. These principles have been described in the
following sections.
Tasks provide both the input and output processing necessary for language
acquisition.
220
Full opportunities for both inputs and outputs requirement are provided by tasks,
which are concerned as the key process in language learning through which
meaning is negotiated. Some researchers have looked at negotiation of meaning as
the necessary element in language acquisition. They believe that meaning
negotiation draws learner’s attention to some part of an utterance needing
modification. In other words, negotiation can be seen as the trigger for
acquisition.
Task activities and achievements are motivational.
Learners’ motivation is improved through tasks and therefore learning is

promoted because tasks are provided with authentic language which is concerned
as learners’ needs. Tasks are various in formats and include physical activities.
They also involve partnership, and encourage a variety of communication styles.
Learning difficulty can be negotiated and fine-tuned for particular

pedagogical purposes.
Another claim for tasks is that specific tasks can be designed to facilitate the use
and learning of particular aspects of language. Long and Crookes (1991) claim
that tasks provides a vehicle for the presentation of appropriate target language
samples to learners and for the delivery of comprehension and production
opportunities of negotiable difficulty.
More difficult, cognitively demanding tasks reduce the amount of attention the
learner can give to the formal features of messages, something that is thought to
be necessary for accuracy and grammatical development. In other word, if the task
is too difficult, fluency may develop at the expense of accuracy. Therefore, tasks
can be designed along a line of difficulty so that learners can work on tasks that
enable them to develop both fluency and awareness of language form (Skehan,
1998).
Design
Objectives
Like other communicative approaches, goals in TBLT are ideally determined by
the specific needs of particular learners. Selection of tasks should be based on a
careful analysis of the real-world needs of the learners.
221
The Syllabus
Nunan (1989) suggests that a syllabus might specify two types of tasks (Figure 6);
Figure 6: syllabus in TBI might specify two types of tasks

Literature on TBLT suggests that efforts have been made to categorize tasks.
Willis (1996) proposes six task types built on more or less traditional knowledge
hierarchies. She labels her task examples as follow (Figure 7) (cited in Richards &
Rodgers, 2001).
Figure 7: task types
222
Prabhu (1987) also identified three types of task: namely, an information-gap task,
an opinion-gap task, and a reasoning-gap task (Figure 8).
figure8: three types of task
223
According to Ellis (2009), TBLT tasks can be categorized in two types of

unfocused or focused (Figure9);
Figure 9: TBLT tasks can be unfocused or focused
224
Ellis (2009) also makes distinction between input-providing and output-promoting

tasks (Figure 10);
Figure 10: the distinction between input-providing and output-promoting tasks
225
Pica, kanagy, and Falodun (1993) on the other hand classify tasks according to the
types of interaction taking place in task accomplishment (Figure 11);
Figure 11: classification of tasks according to the types of interaction
226
Other characteristic of tasks have also been described as follow (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001):
1. One-way or two-way exchange of information

2. Convergent or divergent goal
3. Collaborative or competitive
4. Single or multiple outcomes
5. Concrete or abstract language
6. Single or complex cognitive processing
7. Simple or complex language
8. Reality-based or non-reality based tasks
Loschky and Bley-Vroman (1993) view students’ engagements in structure-based

communicative tasks, which are designed to have students, automatize the use of a
structure that they have already internalized, valuable. Such tasks are designed in
such encouraging ways to make students notice a particular target language
feature, possibly by means of input enhancement, such as using boldface type
for a particular structure in reading passage, or input flooding, which means
using particular vocabulary items or grammar structure with great frequency in
the input (Figure 12)(Larsen-Freeman, 2011).
Figure 12:Two ways that for encouraging students to notice a particular target language
feature
227
Learner Roles
Learners in TBI are expected to have a number of specific roles listed below
(Richards and Rodgers, 2001, p.235):
1. Group participant: many tasks will be done in pairs or small group.

Students are required to adopt themselves with whole-class-work.
2. Monitor: learners need to attend not only to the messages in task work,
but also to the form in which such massages typically come packed.
3. Risk-takers and Innovators: practice in restating, paraphrasing, using
paralinguistic signals, and so on, will often be needed. The skills of
guessing from linguistic and contextual clues, asking for clarification, and
counseling with other learners may also need to develop.
Teacher Roles
Additional roles are also assumed for teachers in TBI, including (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001, p.234):
1. Selector and sequencer of the tasks.

2. Preparing learners for the tasks: such activities might include topic
introduction, clarifying task instruction, helping students learn or recall
useful words and phrases to facilitate task accomplishment. Such cuing
may be inductive and implicit or deductive and explicit.
3. Consciousness-raising: current views of TBLT hold that if learners are to
acquire language through participating in tasks they need to attend to or
notice critical features of language they use and hear. This is referred as
focus on form.

Pedagogical materials
Materials that can be exploited for instruction in TBLT are limited only by the
imagination of the task designer. Many contemporary language teaching texts cite
a task focus or task-based activities among their credentials, though most of the
tasks that appear in such books are familiar classroom activities for teachers who
employ collaborative learning, communicative language teaching, or small-group
activities.
228
Realia
TBI proponents favor the use of authentic tasks supported by authentic materials
wherever possible. Popular media such as newspaper, television, and Internet
provide rich resources for such materials.
Procedure
Willis (1996) recommended a sequence of activities:
Figure 13: procedures of a task-based activity (1)
229
Figure 14: procedures of a task-based activity (2)
Conclusion
TBLT offer a different rational for the use of tasks as well as different criteria for
the design and use of tasks it is dependence on task as the primary source of
pedagogical input in teaching and the absence of a systematic grammatical or
other types of syllabus that characterizes current version of TBLT and that
distinguishes from the use of task in Competency-Based Language Teaching,
another task-based approach but one that is not wedded to the theoretical
framework and assumptions of TBLT (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
230
231
232
POST-METHODS ERA
Introduction
The survey of approaches and methods discussed up to here disclose the fact that
wide range of research has been conducted during the last one hundred years in
order to come up with more effective ways of teaching second languages. In other
words, new teaching approaches or methods were presented in order to find out
fruitful solutions for the language teaching program. Consequently, this trend led
to the era called brand-name method which has been defined as packaged
solutions with useful description applicable anywhere in the world (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001).
Approach versus Method

Both approaches and methods have been described in this book. By approaches, a
set of beliefs and principles comes to mind that comprise the basis for teaching
language. Most of the approaches have a core set of theories and beliefs which
are associated with the nature of language and language learning, as well as a
derived set of principles for teaching language in common. However, these core
features cannot lead to a set of prescriptions based on which the way the
principles can be applied is illustrated. In this regard, since various interpretations
and applications may be possible, approaches tend to have long shelf life. Hence,
individual interpretation and application are allowed and approaches also can be
revised and updated over time as new practices emerge. Figure 1 shows some
examples of approaches that have been described in this book.
On the other hand, specific instructional design or system based on a particular

theory of language and of language learning are associated with method. It takes
details specifications of content, roles of teachers and learners, and teaching
procedures and techniques into account. In addition, unlike approach, method is
233
Post-Methods Era
relatively fixed in time and there exists generally little room for individual
interpretation; teachers are expected to follow the method and apply it precisely
according to the rules. Therefore, it is implied that methods tend to have relatively
short shelf life. More succinctly, very specific claims and prescribed practice are
linked to methods; thus, the more unfashionable they become the more they fall
out of favor (Richards and Rodgers, 2001). Figure 2 shows some examples of
methods.
Figure 1: examples of approaches
Figure 2: examples of methods
However, methods have some advantages over approaches. First, the general
nature of approaches has failed to provide sufficient details for coming up with
application of their assumptions and principles in the classroom. This loss of
234
information makes teachers particularly the ones with little training or experience
frustrated and irritated. In fact, there is often no clear right or wrong way of
teaching according to an approach and no prescribed body of practice waiting to
be implemented. Methods, in contrast, have already made decisions about what
and how to teach; to this respect, many of these problems could be solved via
methods description.
Moreover, method is capable of gathering enthusiastically a professional

community sharing a common purpose, ideology, and vernacular. In other words,
the proponents of a specific method with like-minded teachers conduct a group
with the purpose of sharing ideas and experiences. Methods can also be seen as a
rich recourse of activities. Above all, a detailed set of sequential steps to be
followed in the classrooms is offered to the novice teachers via methods (Richards
and Rodgers, 2001).
235
Post-Methods Era
Figure 3: approach
236
Figure 4: method
237
Post-Methods Era
Criticisms of Methods and Approaches

The role of contextual factors
The starting point in language program design, that is consideration of context
including cultural, political and the local one as well as the context constituted
between teacher and learners, is sometimes ignored by the teachers when they
make an effort to apply approaches and methods (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
The need for curriculum development processes

Choice of teaching method cannot be determined in isolation from other planning
and implantation practices.
Lack of research basis

Many of the books written by method experts are full of claims and assertions
about how people learn languages, and very few numbers of them are based on
second language acquisition research. They have scarcely been empirically tested.
To this respect, Skehan (1996) exemplifies Situation Language Teaching method
in which the standard lesson sequence is taken for granted and some other ones
comprising Presentation, Practice, and Production phases (P-P-P lesson model) to
point out that principles of second language acquisition in these methods are
missing (cited in Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Similarity of classroom practices

One consistent problem with approaches and methods is finding out whether
teachers put the underlying philosophies of a specific method into practice in their
classrooms or not when they present related materials to a specific method
(Morgan, 1982).
Brown (1997) believes that methods are generally quite distinctive at the early and
beginning stages of language course. At later stages, they are not distinguished
from each other. He sheds further lights on this problem by exemplifying the first
few days of Community Language Learning class in which a unique set of
experiences is witnessed by the students who whisper the translated language in
their ears. But within a matter of weeks, such classrooms can look like any other
learner-centered curriculum.
238
Figure 5: Criticisms of Methods and Approaches
Beyond the Approaches and Methods

Methods and approaches have played a central role in teaching profession and will
be considered useful for both teachers and students to acquire familiarity with the
major ones. In particular, in-service and novice teachers are required to acquire
the necessary techniques and procedures to gain confidence and come up with
some strategies for presenting the lesson. However, the approaches and methods
should be used creatively and flexibly by the teachers because they should apply
the procedures which were developed by others. To this end, as they gain
experience they need to develop individual approach and personal method based
on established ones but reflect their individual beliefs uniquely (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001).
Personal beliefs and principles of a teacher determine:
 his/her role in the class

 nature of effective teaching and learning
 difficulties learners face and how to address them
 successful learning activities
 the structure of an effective lesson
239
Post-Methods Era
 And provide the source for teachers’ plan and instructional decisions.
The following are examples of such principles (Bailey, 1996, p.237):
- engage all learners in the lesson

- make learners , not teacher , focus of the lesson
- provide max opportunity for learner participation
- develop learners' responsibility
- be tolerant of their mistakes
- develop learner’s confidence
- teach learning strategies
- respond to learner difficulty
- use max student-student activities
- promote cooperation
- practice fluency and accuracy
- address learners’ need and interest
Teachers conduct their classes in different way because (Clark and Peterson,
1986, p.256):
 Core teachers’ beliefs are formed on the basis of their schooling as young
students
 an innovation will be accommodated as an alternative belief or principle
 day to day interaction influences particular relationship among beliefs and
principles
 professional development engages teachers in explaining their beliefs
and principles provide greater self-awareness
 teacher conceptualization of language , learning and teaching are placed
within a wider belief system including human nature , culture , society ,
education and so on.
Therefore, teacher development is of much more importance than learning how to

use different approaches or methods.
The Logic of Post-method

The essentials of coherent post method pedagogy should be seriously considered
due to the demanding condition of the post method. Kumaravadivelu (2006)
presents the necessities of post method pedagogy in terms of pedagogic
parameters and pedagogic indicators.
240
Pedagogical Parameters
Post-method pedagogy can be seen as a three-dimensional system consisting of
three pedagogical parameters: particularity, practicality, and possibility.
The parameter of particularity:

The most important aspect of post method pedagogy is its particularity based on
which sensitivity of any post method pedagogy to particular group of teachers
teaching a particular group of learners pursuing in a particular sociocultural milieu
comes into consideration (Kumaravadivelu, 2001).
The parameter of practicality:

The parameter of practicality draws attention to teachers’ reflection and action,
which are also based on their insights and intuition. Different quarters have called
this parameter in different terms: Prabhu (1990) called it teachers’ sense of
plausibility; that is to say, it is teachers’ personal conceptualization of how their
teaching leads to desired learning, in the light of causation that has a measure of
credibility for them.
Hargreaves (1994) called it the ethic of practicality that refers to the teacher’s
powerful sense of what works and what does not work.
The parameter of possibility:

The parameter of possibility is originally derived from the educational philosophy
of Paulo Freire who puts focus on the link existing between pedagogy and power
and dominance in order to create and sustain social inequalities. For this respect,
he stresses that students’ and teachers’ individual identity should be
acknowledged and highlighted to encourage them to question the statusquo that
keeps them subjugated. Moreover, he states that theories, forms, and social
practices working with the experiences that people bring to the pedagogical
setting are required to be developed.
In short, experiences of students and teachers, language ideology, and learners’

identity are the main concerns of the parameter of possibility (Kumaravadivelu,
2005).
241
Post-Methods Era
Pedagogic Indicators
Pedagogic indicators refer to those functions and features that are considered to
reflect the key role of participants which can be influenced by some functions and
features in the L2 learning and teaching operations governing Post method
pedagogy. These functions and features are considered as the pedagogic indicators
which consider the degree to which shared decision is incorporated into the
planning and implementation of classroom aims and activities, especially the
decision making process shared by post method learners, teachers, and teacher
educators (Kumaravadivelu, 2005).
The Post Method Learner

Post method pedagogy is in favor of making the most use of learner investment
and learner interest. They are, in fact, given, to the extent feasible, a meaningful
role in pedagogic decision making and, thus, are treated as active and
autonomous players (Kumaravadivelu, 2005).
Two views of learner autonomy, a narrow view and a broad one are taken into
account by post method pedagogy (Kumaravadivelu, 2003). They have been
illustrated in the following sections.
The narrow view of learner autonomy (Academic autonomy)

According to this view, the capacity of learning to learn is developed in learners.
That is, learning a language is considered as an end per se. In other words, this
view stands for academic autonomy enabling learners to be effective learners.
Helping learners learn to learn involves developing in the ability "to take charge
of one’s own learning" (Holec, 1988). Taking charge according to the Holec
means to:
1. have and to hold the responsibility of determining learning objectives

2. for defining contents and progressions
3. for selecting methods and techniques to be used
4. for monitoring the procedures of acquisition
5. for evaluating what has been acquired
242
Figure 6: Taking charge of one’s own learning according to the Holec (1988)
Generally, learning to learn means learning to use appropriate strategies to realize

desired learning objectives. Several metacognitive, cognitive, social, and affective
strategies are used by learners with the purpose of achieving their learning
objectives. There are many individual ways of learning a language successfully.
More successful learners use a greater verity of strategies and use them in the
ways appropriate to the language learning task, and the less successful learners
not only have fewer strategy types in their repertoire, but also frequently use
strategies that are inappropriate to the task.
The broad view of learner autonomy (Liberatory autonomy):

Based on this view the capacity of learning to liberate is developed in learners.
Therefore, learning a language is concerned as a means to an end, and learning to
liberate is the main end. That is, this view stands for libratory autonomy
empowering learners to be critical thinkers. Thus, liberatory autonomy goes much
further by actively seeking to help learners recognize sociopolitical impediments
that prevent them from realizing their full human poetical, and by providing them
with the intellectual and cognitive tools necessary to overcome them.
Meaningful liberatory autonomy can be promoted in the language classroom by

the following instances (Kumaravadivelu, 2005, p.178):
243
Post-Methods Era
1. encouraging learners to assume, with the help of their teachers, the role of
mini-ethnographer so that they can investigate and understand how, for
instance, language is ideology serves vested interests;
2. asking them to reflect on their developing identities by writing dairies and
journals entries about issues that engage their sense of who they are and
how they relate to the social world;
3. helping them in formation of learning communities where they develop
into unified, socially cohesive, mutually supportive groups seeking self-
awareness and self-improvement; and
4. Providing opportunities for them to explore the unlimited possibilities
offered by online services on the World Wide Web, and bringing back to
the class their own topics and materials for discussion, and their own
perspectives on those topics.
Figure 7: Two views of learner autonomy (Kumaravadivelu, 2003)
244
The Post Method Teacher

An autonomous teacher plays a central role in post method. In fact, they are seen
as the heart of post method pedagogy (Kumaravadivelu, 2005).
Post method pedagogy:

Wallace (1991) indicated the following instances for the teachers’ status in post
method;
1. Recognizes the teacher’s prior knowledge

2. Recognize Teacher’s potential to know not only how to teach but also
know how to act autonomously within the academic and administrative
constrains imposed by institutions, curricula, and textbooks.
3. Promotes the ability of teachers to know how to develop a reflective
approach to their own teaching.
4. Promotes the ability of how to analyze and evaluate their own teaching
acts
5. Promotes the ability of how initiate change in their classroom.
6. Promotes the ability of how to monitor the effects of such changes.
In the same vein, Kumaravedivelu (2005) puts emphasis on developing an eclectic

method as the main concern for teachers’ responsibilities. To this end, they have
to increasingly rely on their prior and evolving personal knowledge of learning
and teaching.
Furthermore, teacher cognition, that is “what teachers know, believe and think”
(Borg, 2003), is of great importance and plays a pivotal role in facilitating teacher
self-development. In consequence, teacher self-development leads to teacher
autonomy. In other words, the more willing and able to embark on a continual
process of self-development teachers are, the more autonomous they can become.
A study conducted by Breen and his colleagues (Breen Hird, Milton, Oliver, and
Thwaite, 2001) clearly bring out the possible relationship between teacher beliefs,
guiding principles, and classroom actions making, and their unfailing impact on
immediate, ongoing thinking and decision making. Consider figure8.
Breen et al. (2001) found that teacher’s beliefs include a set of guiding principles
that, in turn, "appeared to derive the nature of the broader educational process, the
nature of language, how it is learned, and how it may be best taught" (p.440).
245
Post-Methods Era
According to them, the pedagogical principles mediate between experientially

informed teacher beliefs and teacher’s ongoing decision making and actions with
a particular class of learner in a particular teaching situation. These principles are
"reflexive in both shaping what the teacher does while being responsive to what
the teacher observes about the learners’ behavior and their achievements in the
class" (p.470).
Figure 8: Teacher conceptualizations and classroom practices (Breen et al., 2001)
Postmethod teachers perform teacher research involving the triple parameters of

particularity, practicality, and possibility in order to pursue their professional self-
development goal. Teacher research is initiated and implemented by them, and is
motivated mainly by their own desire to self-explore and self-improve. Teachers
can conduct teacher research by developing and using investigative capabilities
derived from the practices of exploratory research (Allwright, 1993), teacher-
246
research cycle (Freeman, 1998), and critical classroom discourse analysis

(Kumaravadivelu, 1999).
The Post Method Teacher Educator

The role of Postmethod teacher educator becomes one of the following
(Kumaravadivelu, 2005, p.182):
1. Recognizing and helping student teachers recognize the inequalities built

into current teacher education programs, which treat teacher educators as
procedures of knowledge, and practicing teachers as consumers of
knowledge;
2. Enabling prospective teachers to articulate their thoughts and experiences,
and share with other students. Teachers in class their evolving personal
beliefs, assumptions, and knowledge about language learning and teaching
at the beginning, during , and at the end of their teacher educator program;
3. Encouraging prospective teachers to think critically so that they may relate
their personal knowledge with the professional knowledge they are being
expose to , monitor how each shapes and is shaped by the other, assess
how generic professional knowledge could be used to derive their own
personal theory of practice;
4. Creating condition for student teachers to acquire basic, classroom
discourse analytical skills that will help them understand the nature of
classroom input and interaction;
5. Rechannelizing part of their own research agenda to do empowering
research. That is, research with rather than on their student teachers; and
6. Exposing student teachers to pedagogy of possibility by helping them
critically engage author who has raised our consciousness about power and
politics, ideas and ideologies that inform L2 education.
247
Post-Methods Era
Figure 9: Post method pedagogy
248
Looking Forward
How will teaching profession move ahead in future? Some responses to this
question take the new form of approach or methods; others may lead to reshaping
of existing approach. The initiatives for changing programs and pedagogy may
come from teachers, theoreticians, researchers.
Factors that have influenced language teaching trends in the past and are expected
to continue in future have been below by Richards and Rodgers (2001):
1. Government policy directives
2. trends in the professions
3. Guru-led innovations
4. responses to technology
5. Influences from academic discipline
6. research influences
7. learner –based innovations
8. crossover educational trends
9. Cross over from other disciplines.
249
Post-Methods Era
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A Synthetic Approach to Methods in Language Teaching-Finalized- (1)

Data · December 2016

Majid Elahi Shirvan Tahereh Taherian

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The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Majid Elahi Shirvan (Ph.D)

Tahereh Taherian (M.A)

Parisa Taheri (M.A)

Editors: Mehran Baradran

‫‪A Synthetic Approach to Methods in Language Teaching‬‬

‫مجید الهی شیروان‪ ،‬طاهره طاهریان‪ ،‬پریسا طاهریان‬

A Synthetic Approach to Methods in Language Teaching can be used as a

A Synthetic Approach to Methods in Language Teaching can improve English

.Majid Elahi Shirvan

THE NATURE OF APPROACHES AND METHODS IN

Approach, Method, and Technique

The arrangement is hierarchical. The organizational key is that techniques carry

 Approach is a set correlative assumption dealing with nature of language

selected approach. A method is procedural. Within one approach, there

According to Anthony’s model, approach is the level at which assumptions and

Figure1: Anthony model

Although Anthony’s original proposal has the advantage of simplicity and

In order to provide a comprehensive model for analysis of approaches and

Figure 2: Summery of elements that constituted a method

Figure 4: Different theoretical views of language Theory

Learning theories associated with a method at level of approach may emphasize

Figure 5: Theory of language learning

THE GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD

GTM, generally, is confined to memorizing rules and facts to understand and

1. Translation of a literary passage: students translate a reading passage

Cognate: a word in one language which is similar in form and meaning to

The Role of Students

The Role of Teacher

The Role of Student’s Native Language

The Role of Materials

The Role of Teacher

The Role of Materials

LANGUAGE TEACHING INNOVATIONS IN

F. Gouin and the Series Method

He asserted that language learning is primarily a matter of changing perceptions

Figure 1: Principles of Series Method

Sample of series method (Titone, 1968):

1. I walk near the door.

THE REFORM MOVEMENT

The International Phonetic Association was established in1886, and its

Figure1: principles of IPA

Linguistics became interested in conversation as well. The related issues were

1. Careful selection of what is to be taught.

Linguistic Theory of Reform Movement

He strongly criticized the drawbacks of grammar translation method and stressed

Learning Theory of Reform Movement

THE DIRECT METHOD

Figure1: Natural Method’s principles

1. Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target language.

1. Never translate: demonstrate

Figure 2: the principles of Direct Method

The View of Language

Some areas of language that are emphasized:

Vocabulary is emphasized over grammar. Although work on all four skills

Pronunciation also receives attention right from the beginning of a course

The Role of the Teacher and Students

Responding to the Errors in DM

THE ORAL APPROACH AND SITUATIONAL