i) The ACID properties of transactions:

ACID stands for Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability. These properties ensure that database
transactions are processed reliably. Atomicity ensures that either all the operations within a transaction
are completed or none of them are. Consistency ensures that the database remains in a consistent state
before and after the transaction. Isolation ensures that the operations within a transaction are isolated
from other concurrent transactions. Durability ensures that once a transaction is committed, its effects
are permanent.

ii) COMMIT:

In SQL, the COMMIT statement is used to permanently save the changes resulting from a transaction.
Once a COMMIT statement is executed, the changes made by the transaction become permanent and
visible to other transactions.

iii) SAVEPOINT:

SAVEPOINT is used to mark a point within a transaction to which you can later roll back. It allows you to
divide a transaction into smaller parts and roll back to a specific point within the transaction.

iv) ROLLBACK:

The ROLLBACK statement is used to undo transactions that have not been committed. It reverts the
database to its previous state before the transaction was initiated.

v) TWO-PHASE COMMIT:

The two-phase commit is a protocol that ensures all participating databases either commit or roll back a
transaction together. In the first phase, all databases are asked if they are prepared to commit, and in
the second phase, they are instructed to either commit or roll back.

For the second question, I'll provide a brief overview of the alternative data models:

a) Object-oriented:
In an object-oriented data model, data is represented as objects, similar to how objects are represented
in object-oriented programming. These objects contain both data and methods. Data is stored in the
form of objects and processed using inheritance, encapsulation, and polymorphism. Examples include
C++ and Java programming languages.

b) Relational:

The relational data model organizes data into tables with rows and columns. Data is stored in a
structured format, and relationships between entities are established using keys. Data is processed
using SQL queries. Examples include MySQL, PostgreSQL, and Oracle databases.

c) Graph:

In a graph data model, data is represented as nodes and edges, where nodes represent entities and
edges represent relationships between the entities. Data is stored and processed using graph databases,
which are optimized for handling complex relationships. Examples include Neo4j and Amazon Neptune.

d) Hierarchical or Tree structured:

In a hierarchical or tree-structured data model, data is organized in a tree-like structure with parent-
child relationships. Each parent can have multiple children, but each child has only one parent. Data is
stored and processed using hierarchical databases. Examples include XML and LDAP.

e) Network:

In a network data model, data is organized as a collection of records and sets. Records can have multiple
owners, and sets can contain multiple records. Data is stored and processed using network databases,
which allow for more complex relationships than hierarchical databases. Examples include IDMS and
RDM.

For the third question:

i) HAVING:

The HAVING clause is used in combination with the GROUP BY clause to filter the results of a query
based on a specified condition. It is used to filter the results of aggregate functions.
ii) UNION:

The UNION operator is used to combine the result sets of two or more SELECT statements into a single
result set. It removes duplicate rows by default.

iii) LIKE:

The LIKE operator is used to search for a specified pattern in a column. It is often used with wildcard
characters such as % (matches any string of any length) and _ (matches any single character).

iv) GROUP BY:

The GROUP BY clause is used to group rows that have the same values in specified columns into
summary rows. It is often used with aggregate functions like COUNT, SUM, AVG, etc.

v) INTO:

The INTO keyword is used in SQL to specify the name of a new table into which the result of a SELECT
statement will be inserted.