e initially, the Company acquired the territory just es oe protect their commercial interests. politicn s Brtishers realised internal feud in local a which they can take advantage and, in the Parlingen ture their interests, But, the British eee after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 Coumed a greater role in policy formulation of the ompany and sought to acquire territories and establish an empire. Puritans the administrators sent by the # sh government worked to advance the desired goal. Administrators like Lord Wellesley adopted aggressive application of the subsidiary alliance system to extend British dominion in India. With the conclusion of the Battle of Plassey and Buxar, the East India Company emerged as a key player in Indian politics. With substantial resources of Bengal, the English sought to increase their influence and protect their progress against their competitors such as the French and Dutch, In addition, the 18" century is characterised as a period of aspiring States to claim their supremacy. Under these circumstances, conflict was evident. a It was under these conflicts that the Company found ways to interfere in internal matters of native kingdoms, such as the Carnatic wars. The consolidation of a Company to an Empire broadly followed the method of demanding concession, interfering in internal matters and challenging the authority, waging, war, and annexing the territories. FACTORS OF SUCCESS Inspired by the vision of creating an all India empire, the British devised their political, economic, social and foreign policies. = Robust Finances: Loyalty of the officers and soldiers were ensured through a regular system of payment of salaries and a strict regime of discipline, In comparison, most of the Indian rulers did not have enough money to pay salaries regularly as, (BGM Onision Pusticanions CHAPTER-3 RISE AND CONSOLIDATION OF i ed evident from the fact that the Marathas employed their troops to collect revenue or chauth for the payment of salaries. Overwhelming dependence on mercenaries compromised defence of the empire as they could turn rebellious in the face of luring offers, With the conclusion of the Battle of Plassey, access to rich revenue of Bengal enabled the Company to maintain large contingents of troops and pay them regularly United Front: The Indian States were ina constant scuffle with each other and Europeans. The decline of Mughal Empire and defeat of Marathas in the Third Battle of Panipat further aggravated the crisis of central power which could challenge the domination of Europeans, especially the English. Also, the rivalry among the native states was used, promoted and exploited by the Europeans to achieve their interests. The British faced a divided India which lacked a central leadership and was fragmented in several polities. On the other hand, the British were filled with zeal for materialist goal to achieve national glory Weak Successors: Indian states, though had leaders like Ranjit Singh, Haider Ali, Tipu Sultan and Marthanda Verma, their successors lacked the vision and energy of their predecessors. In contrast, the English had second line leaders like Sir Eyre Coote, Lord Lake and Arthur Wellesley - who were well versed with the policies of their predecessors. Military Superiority: The firearms used by the English, which included muskets and cannons, were better than the Indian arms both in speed of firing and in range. On realising this, many Indian rulers such as Tipu Sultan and Ranjit Singh imported European arms and employed European officers to train their troops, but unfortunately most of the native military officers and the ranks could not match the discipline of English officers and soldiers. The prosperous trade of Indian Ocean enabled the Company to pay rich dividends to their shareholders and also finance the English wars inise and Consolidation of British Power India. The material progress supplemented the military affairs in India and also in the sea. = Priority to Skill: The British sidelined caste, clan and personal ties in matters of employment and promotion in both army and civil administration which ensured efficient functioning of their titutions. However, in sharp contrast the case ‘was opposite in the case of most of the Indian states. ANGLO-FRENCH RIVALRY By the mid of the 18% Century, the rivalry between the European companies left English and the French East India Companies as the two important rivals in India. Soon, the political and economic ambitions of the French came into direct confrontation with the British interests and led to several Anglo-French confrontations also known as Carnatic wars. = In 1740, the political situation in south India was chaotic, Nizam-ul-Mulk of Hyderabad was old and fully engaged with the Marathas in the western Deccan while his subordinates were speculating consequences of his death. = Further south, the Coromandel coast had no strong ruler instead there was the remnant of the old Vijayanagara empire in interior Mysore, Cochin and Travancore in the Malabar coast, and on the east the small states of Madura (Madurai), Tanjore (Thanjavur) and Trichinopoly (Thiruchirapally). = The decline of Hyderabad marked the incursion of English and on the pretext of Maratha kingdom of Tanjore, the Peshwa of Pune too interfered. First Carnatic War (1746-48) The first Anglo-French war emerged in the Camatic (ie, the Coromandel coast and its hinterland) as an extension of the Austrian War of Succession which had started in March 1740. Subsequently, the English under Barnett seized some of the French ships. a France retaliated by capturing Madras in 1746 with the aid of Admiral La Bourdonnais, the French governor of Mauritius. This marked the beginning of the first Carnatic War. = Eventually, the English were compelled to appeal for help against the French. = Battle of St. Thome: On the banks of the River Adyar, forces of the French and Anwar-ud-din, the Nawab of Carnatic fought each other. © Asmall French army under Captain Paradise defeated the strong Indian army under Mahfuz Khan. Orishti The conflict revealed that even a small disciplined army could easily defeat a much larger Indian army. © Further, this war adequately brought out the importance of naval force in the Anglo-French conflict in the D = Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle: The first Carnatic war came to an end with the termination of hostilities in Europe. The Austrian War of Succession ended. with the signing of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle and as per the terms of this treaty, Madras was returned to the English and in turn French regained their territories in North America. Second Carnatic War (1749-54) Important Terms Nizam was the title of the ruler of the princely state of Hyderabad. In official terminology, he was referred to as subahdar or provincial governor of the Deccan. His stature was closer to the Mughal Emperor as he acted like an independent king He held several Nawabs (semi-autonomous rulers) under him. Nawab title was bestowed by the reigning Mughal Emperor to semi-autonomous Muslim rulers, of a subdivision of a princely state. Often this was accompanied with grants and large jagirs. In 1748, with the death of Nizam-ul-Mulk of Hyderabad and the release of Chanda Sahib (the sor in-law of Dost Ali, who was the Nawab of Carnatic) by the Marathas in the same year, ensued succession disputes leading to the Second Carnatic war. Contenders: = Nasir Jung for Nizamat or Governorship of Deccan and Anwar-ud-din for of Nawabship of Carnatic ~ both of them supported by the English. = Muzaffar Jung for Nizamat and Chanda Sahib for Nawabship of Carnatic - supported by the French, The combined armies of Muzaffar Jang, Chanda Sahib and the French defeated and killed Anwarud- din at the Battle of Ambur (near Vellore) in 1749. = Muzaffar Jang became the subahdar of the Deccan, and Dupleix was appointed governor of all the Mughal territories to the south of the River Krishna. = However, Muzaffar’s reign was short as he was soon killed, and Salabat Jung (3"!son of Nizam-ul- Mulk) became Nizam. Dristm Pusuicarions \|\Ndrishti = A French contingent under Bussy was stationed in Hyderabad to secure French interests. = Territories near Pondicherry and also some areas on the Orissa Coast (including Masulipatnam) came under French control. "=| Muzaffar Jung and Chanda Sahib were able to ‘Modern India and World History = By 1752, Muhammad Ali executed Chanda Sahib. Impact = The French authorities, annoyed at the heavy financial losses that Dupleix’s policy involved, decided to recall him in 1754. ™ Godeheu succeeded Dupleix as the French Governor-General in India. Godeheu adopted a policy of negotiations with the English and concluded a treaty with them. The English and the French agreed not to interfere in the quarrels of the native princes. Also, each party was left in possession of the territories actually occupied by them at the time of the treaty. capture Arcot while Nasir Jung’s subsequent death allowed Muzaffar Jung to take control of Hyderabad. = In 1751, however, Robert Clive led British troops to capture Arcot, and successfully defend it. The war ended with the Treaty of Pondicherry, signed in 1754, which recognised Muhammad Ali Khan Walajah as the Nawab of the Carnatic. Joseph Francis Dupleix, born in 1697, was colonial administrator and governor-general of the French territories in India. In December 1726, he was suspended owing to drastic change in the constitution of the French company and some confusions arising out of that. = In 1730, Dupleix was appointed as governor of Chandernagore. = In 1741, he was appointed as the Director-General of French colonies in India. Later, he was conferred the title of Nawab by the Mughal emperor and the Subahdar of Deccan, Muzzaffar Jang. Dupleix was an efficient administrator, a diplomat, and a leader who had political insight witha broad vision, = In 1741, Dupleix became the Governor-General of Pondicherry. He encountered several problems facing French in India such as Maratha invasion, famine, uncultivated land and chaotic conditions in the Carnatic = Owing to the priority given to the French colonies in North America, the Directors of the Company sought a drastic cut in expenditure of the French East India Company. Thus, Dupleix reduced public expenditure and balanced income and expenditure, coupled with a cut on salaries of officers, He enhanced the defences of Pondicherry, even spending a large sum from his personal wealth. Thus, making Pondicherry the centre of commerce in south India = Later, the Directors of the Company praised Dupleix for taking the right decisions, even in contradiction of the directors. = Dupleix was the first European to interfere in the internal politics of the Indian rulers. He supported Muzzaffar Jang for Hyderabad and Chanda Sahib for Carnatic and his candidates emerged successful and, in return, gave great concessions to Dupleix. = Dupleix was, in fact, the brain behind the practice of subsidiary alliance in India. He placed a French contingent in Hyderabad at the expense of the subahdar. Owing to the defeat of the French army in the Second Carnatic War and the heavy cost incurred by the company due to Dupleix’s political decisions, Dupleix was recalled in 1754. = The recall of Dupleix by the directors is evaluated by many as a blunder though it was a result of a compromise between France and England over issues in America = Dupleix had following shortcomings: © Dupleix suffered from over optimism as an over-sanguine temperament as he hoped too often for too long which put him in a disadvantageous position in critical situations, © His autocratic behaviour often attracted criticism from his peers and subordinates. In sharp contrast to his rival like Clive, he never led an army in the battlefield which demotivated his troops. (EBM O20 Pusticaronsise and Consolidation of British Power = According to historians, the fear of serious repercussions in America prompted the French to suspend hostilities in India. = Italso became evident that Indian authority could be subordinated to advance foreign interests as evident in the case of Nawab Muhammad Ali of Carnatic and Nawab Salabat Jang of Hyderabad. Third Carnatic War (1758-63) In Europe, the Seven Years War (1756-63) which began with the Austria’s attempt to recover Silesia, escalated into armed conflict between Britain and France leading to the Third Carnatic War. 1n 1758, Count de Lally, commander of the French army, captured the English forts of St. David and Vizianagaram. In response, the English inflicted heavy damage on the French fleet, which was under Admiral D’Ache at Masulipatnam. Seven Years War (1756-63) ‘The war arose out of the attempt of the Austrian Habsburgs to win back the rich province of Silesia, which had been wrested from them by Frederick II (the Great) of Prussia during the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-48). In this conflict, France, Austria, Saxony, Sweden, and Russia were aligned on one side against Prussia, Hanover, and Great Britain on the other. Battle of Wandiwash (22 January 1760) = Fought at Wandiwash (or Vandavasi) in Tamil Nadu on 22 January 1760, the English forces under General Eyre Coote crushed the French army under Thomas Arthur de Lally and took Bussy as a prisoner. = For eight months, Pondicherry offered stiff resistance under Lally until its surrender on January 16, 1761 = Lally, after being taken as a prisoner of war in London, returned to France, where he was ;prisoned and executed in 1766. = With the loss of Jinji and Mahe, French presence India crumbled. Impact = Though the Treaty of Peace of Paris (1763) restored to the French their possessions in India, but they could no longer be fortified, however, the French political influence was diminished. drishti = The English were successful in sidelining the French, like their Portuguese and Dutch counterparts in India to commerce. = The victory of British forces over the French left the English as the sole modern army in the Indian subcontinent which was set to extend their influence. Significantly, in the Battle of Wandiwash, natives served in both the armies as sepoys. It makes one think that there was an inevitability about the fall of India to European invaders, irrespective of which side won. There was a lack of sensitivity to the geopolitics of the day as well as a lack of foresight on the part of native rulers. Decline of the French = Structure: Being under the direct control of the state, the French company was controlled and regulated through government policies, which caused delays in decision-making leading to failures. In sharp contrast, the English East India Company (EIC), though under the purview of British Parliament, was a private enterprise which gave space to the administrators to make immediate decisions. = Naval Superiority: The French navy was inferior to the English navy, which enabled the English to cut off vital sea link between the French possessions within India and France. Naval superiority of the English enabled them to hold possession of crucial ports like Calcutta, Bombay and Madras whereas the French had only Pondicherry = Priorities: The French over-emphasised their territorial ambitions, which led to the subordination of their commercial interests leading to a shortage of funds. On the other hand, the British never neglected their commercial interests and every decision made by the EIC conformed to their desired commercial objective. Thus, they were always ina sound financial condition. For instance, the Battle of Plassey ensued when Nawab curbed British trading activities, subsequently waging a war and victory led to EIC gain hold over rich province of Bengal. This, in turn, let British consolidate their position by financing their trading and military operations in India such as Anglo- French wars. = Lack of Leadership: The French side lacked efficient leadership except Dupleix, when compared to the British side which had several leaders like Sir Eyre Coote, Major Stringer Lawrence, Robert Clive and many others. Drisim Pusuicarions |\\\\WEEN,J drishti ACQUISITION OF BENGAL Bengal, the richest province of the Mughal Empire included present day Bangladesh, and the present day states of Bihar and Odisha. Nearly sixty percent of the British imports from Asia were from Bengal. The supplies were ensured by EIC through their settlements in Balasore, Hooghly, Kasimbazar, Patna and Dacca. Exports from Bengal to Europe consisted of raw products such as saltpetre, rice, indigo, pepper, sugar, silk, cotton textiles, handicrafts, etc. Almost all the Nawabs of Bengal strongly opposed and kept strict vigilance over the special privileges enjoyed by the English company as it meant a huge loss to the provincial exchequer. = In 1741, Alivardi Khan became the Nawab of Bengal and ruled for 15 years. During these years, the incursion of the Marathas in Bengal was halted, though the English were able to fortify their settlements on the pretext of security concern regarding the Marathas. "= The Carnatic wars were closely observed by Alivardi Khan, Subsequently, he realised the threat which the European companies posed to the Empire. However, his death in April 1756 left the matters to his grandson, Siraj-ud-daula, = The officials of the Company misused its trade privileges that adversely affected the Nawab’s treasury. = The English gave sanctuary to a political fugitive, Krishna Das, son of Raj Ballabh who had fled with immense treasures. = They also fortified Calcutta without the Nawab’s consent on suspicion of French intrigues with Nawab to oust them, = Eventually, Siraj led assault on the Fort William of English at Calcutta, thereby escalating tensions. = Siraj-ud-daula is believed to have imprisoned 146 English persons who were lodged in a very tiny room due to which 123 of them died of suffocation. ‘The incident is known as the Black Hole Tragedy, Many discard this incident citing that the number of victims must have been much smaller. = While the Nawab retreated to his capital after appointing a Subedar at Calcutta, Robert Clive initiated his march from Madras. (EEMMMI| Onsien Pusuicarons ‘Modern India and World History Battle of Plassey = The decisive Battle of Plassey took place on 23: June 1757, between the fifty thousand strong arm, of the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-daullah and the small army of Clive consisting of 1100 Europeans, 200 Indians, and a few irregulars. = Clive began his operation from an attack on the French colony of Chandernagore, a French settlement and then reached Plassey = Before the battle, Clive had built a secret alliance with Mir Jafar, Jagat Seth, and Rai Durlabh against the Nawab. = Under this agreement, Mir Jafar was to be made the Nawab of Bengal and in turn will extend privileges to the Company. = As per the pre-Plassey transactions, Mir Jafar ordered the retreat of Bengal forces during the battle = The retreating Bengal forces were attacked from behind by the Company's troops and defeated. = Siraj was captured and executed by Mir Jafar’s son Miran Bahadur. = The defeat of the Nawab in the battle changed the character of the English company. © Therefore, it is said that ‘there is no other battle soshort with consequences, so vast, so immediate, and so permanent as the Battle of Plassey’ = Conspirators in Battle of Plassey: © Mir Jafar - the Mir Bakshi (head of the military), Manik Chand - the officer in charge of Calcutta, Omichand - a rich and influential merchant, Jagat Seth - the biggest banker of Bengal and Raj Durlabh - a commander of Nawab's army. Significance of the Battle Although the Battle of Plassey was not significant in military terms, its political and economic significance were far reaching for the fate of the East India Company (EIC) in India. = Political Significance: © From being a trading company, the EIC transformed itself into a ruling power. The EIC emerged as a kingmaker in the politics of Bengal as it chose to depose the Nawab in favour of Mir Jafar and subsequently Mir Jafar in favour of Mir Kasim. © As the Mughal emperor remained a mute spectator in the whole process, his claims over sovereignty and control over affairs of Bengal received a setback.Rise and Consolidation of British Power drishti © The ElC became strong enough, both in military as well as economic terms, to decisively defeat other European powers like the French and the Dutch. Henceforth, it could depend upon the huge resources of Bengal to fund its wars and defences. = Economic Significance: @ The battle paved the path for a continuous exploitation of Bengal. The English not only received free trading rights in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa but were also given the Zamindari rights of 24 parganas. ‘© Several senior officials of the company received a hefty sum of money in gifts and bribes from the Nawab Developments Post-Plassey ‘After the Battle of Plassey, Mir Jafar was made the Nawab of Bengal. = He soon realised that the state could not bear the burden of increasing demands of the Company. = As Mir Jafar showed reluctance in meeting the demands of the English and sought to win the favour of the Dutch, he was replaced by Mir Kasim. = This marked the ascendance of the Company, which virtually controlled the affairs of the State. m= Thereon, every Nawab was expected to extend privileges to the Company which backfired on the state of the economy of Bengal. = The Company enjoyed the privileges without any responsibility while the Nawab was left to look after all the responsibilities with reducing resources at his disposal. Mir Kasim Mir Jafar was annoyed by the interference of Clive. Thus, he hatched a conspiracy withthe Dutch at Chinsura. But, the Dutch were defeated by the EIC at Bedara in November 1759. Treaty of 1760: Under the treaty between Mir Kasim and the Company signed in 1760, Vansittart, the new Governor of Calcutta, agreed to support Mir Kasim’s claim on Nawabship of Bengal against the claims of Mir Jafar’s grandsons. Under this treaty, following was agreed: = Mir Kasim agreed to cede to the Company the districts of Burdwan, Midnapur and Chittagong. = The Company would get half of the share in chunam trade of Sylhet. = He agreed to pay off the outstanding dues to the Company = Healso promised to pay a sum of rupees five lakh, towards financing the Company's war efforts in southern India. = Heagreed to the clause that the Company’senemies will be his enemies, and vice-versa. = Itwas agreed that tenants of the Nawab's territory would not be allowed to settle in the lands of the ‘Company, and vice-versa. Subsequently, Mir Kasim ascended as Nawab of Bengal by paying a hefty sum of 29 lakh as a tribute to the Company. However, after realising the vicious designs of the EIC, he took following steps which antagonized the company. = He shifted his capital to Munger in Bihar, started an ordinance factory and attempted to model his troops on European lines. = Nawab also removed all the taxation on the internal trade in Bengal. This facility was earlier given only to the company and therefore this policy hurts the profitability of the Company. = When Mir Kasim raised the issue of misuse of Dastaks by the private English merchants known as’Interlopers’, the Company was annoyed as their officials were indulged in facilitating these private merchants by allowing them to use their dastaks. = Mir Kasim was defeated by the English in the battle of Giria near Vardhaman after which Mir Kasim escaped to Awadh and formed a common front against the English with the Nawab of Awadh Shuja-ud-daula and the later Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II who was living at Patna. This led to the Battle of Buxar. Battle of Buxar = The actions of Mir Kasim were understood as a threat to the Company's interest which compelled them to wage a war against him and reinstate Mir Jafar as the Nawab of Bengal. = Thecombined forces of Mir Kasim, Shuja-ud-daula and Shah Alam II were defeated by the Company army led by Hector Munro at the Battle of Buxar fought on 22! October, 1764. m= The Battle of Buxar was one of the most significant victories of the British East India Company as it extended the frontiers of territorial influence upto Delhi and enabled Company to have considerable influence over the Mughal Emperor. Daim PuauicaTions \\\\\E— ‘Modern India and Worig History drishti f Bengal Signific Also, the administration of Bengal was to be jog Siancance thehand ofa deputy Subedar who was ming The Company secured its victory on the basis of Superior military tactics along with tampering with court politics as in the Battle of Plassey. It transformed EIC from a ‘de jure’ to a ‘de facto’ power in Bengal, The victory brought more prestige to the company as a formidable power in Indian politics After the victory of the Company, Lord Clive signed two treaties with the defeated powers knownas the First and Second Treaty of Allahabad. First Treaty of Allahabad (12 August 1765): This treaty was signed between Clive, Mughal emperor ‘Shah Alam II and Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula of Bengal on the following terms: © The company received the Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha. © The company took the districts of Kara and Allahabad from the Nawab of Awadh and gave it to the Mughal emperor for the upkeep of his Allahabad Court. © The Mughal emperor was promised an annual pension of twenty six lakh rupees in liew of the granted Diwani rights * A provision of 253 lakh to the company in return for Nizamat functions (military defence, police, and judiciary functions). Second Treaty of Allahabad (16" August 1765): This treaty was signed between Clive and Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula of Awadh, Its important terms were: Awadh, except the districts of Kara and Allahabad was to be restored to the Nawab. The Nawab was to maintain a British contingent at his own expense in Awadh. The Company was granted free trading rights in the province of Awadh. %50 lakh was to be paid to the company as war indemnity. Diarchy in Bengal (1765-72) Earlier, the Nawab of Bengal used to carry out two functions ~ Nizamat which implied military power and criminal justice and Diwani which stood for revenue collection rights and administration of civil justice. The Treaty of Allahabad of 1765 resulted in dual administration or diarchy in Bengal. ‘The British got the Diwani rights (the authority to collect revenue) and power to dispense criminal justice. [EEA 0250 Pussicanions the company and could not be removed w; i permission from the British. = Thus, the British not only had the military er and the rights to collect revenue but also contrat judicial and police powers. This implied that the Company had all the power, but no responsibility while the Nawab had to bear a the responsibility without any actual power. Why Diarchy in Bengal? The reasons behind thy British policy to employ the system of Diarchy ig Bengal were several. = If the Company had directly taken over the administration in its own hands, its imperial designs could have been exposed before the people = Secondly, the Company lacked the manpower ang resources to take over the complete control of the administration in its own hands as it required goo knowledge of local customs and practices, = The Court of Directors of the Company was more interested in the economic and material benefits without any administrative responsibilities on its shoulders. = Further, the political power in the hands of the Company could have resulted in increased intervention and regulation by the British Parliament. = Lastly, the power equation in 18* century stil accommodated Mughal Emperor as de jure head of India with Nawab as his subordinate (although theoretically) and challenge to that order would prove as huge challenge to the British as legitimacy through farmans was still the device by which ‘Company operated in India. Impact of Diarchy: This diarchy created an inefficient and impractical system in the long run which led to anarchy and chaos in Bengal. = The Company relegated the responsibilities of the Nizamat to various sub diwans due to which inefficiency in law and order started appearing = The company refused to accept any responsibility while the Nawab found himself lacking the necessary means to do so. = Further, the Directors of the Company directed the officers to manage affairs of Bengal in such a fashion that Bengal should bear the expenses of Bombay and Madras Presidencies and the Company's exports should be borne by the thouise and Consolidation of British Power Orishti revenues of the newly annexed territories of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa - thereby, making India pay for its own exploitation. ‘= The responsibility of revenue collection was auctioned off to the highest bidders and this affected the peasant the most. Development of agriculture was neglected which was one of the reasons of the disastrous famine of 1770s. The handicrafts (e.g., silk industry) were destroyed as they could not resist the onslaught of foreign products which were duty free while their own products were taxed. The resultant monopoly of the English in trade made it unprofitable for the artisans and small manufacturers to continue in their professions and they were reduced to the status of landless peasants. = By the time Warren Hastings was appointed the Governor of Bengal in 1772, the failure of the system of administration of Bengal introduced by Clive was already evident. Therefore, he did away with the dual administration and took the reins of administration directly into his own hands. Hence, in less than two decades, the Company emerged as the sovereign master of Bengal. Murshid Quli Khan Shuja-ud-Din 1727-39 Sarfaraz Khan 1739-40 ‘| Alivardi Khan 1740-56 Siraj-ud-Daula 1756-57 | Mir Jafar 17 Mir Kasim | 1760-63 Mir Jafar (2% time) 1763-65 Nazm-ud-Daula 1765-66 Saif-ud-Daula | 1766-70 Mubarak-ud-Daula 1770-75 ANGLO-MARATHA RELATIONS = The Maratha arose as a formidable force in the years of declining Mughal power. = However, the defeat in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 gave a serious blow to their ambitions of emerging as an all-India power. = Though they managed to regain some of their strength during the reign of Madhav Rao, disunity prevailed among them after his death. a= It was during a succession dispute that the British got a chance to interfere in the affairs of the Marathas as they wanted to make similar arrangements as made by Clive in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa = Marathas were divided into many states under different chiefs (sardars) belonging to dynasties such as Scindia, Holkar, Gaikwad and Bhosle. m= These chiefs were held together in a confederacy under a Peshwa (Principal Minister) who became its effective military and administrative head based in Pune. First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82) = Raghunath Rao, uncle of Narayan Rao hatched a conspiracy and got Narayan Rao murdered to claim the position of Peshwa. = But other Maratha chiefs did not accept him as the Peshwa and supported the claim of newborn son of Narayan Rao. Twelve Maratha chiefs (Barabhai), led by Nana Phadnavis, made an effort to name the infant as the new peshwa and rule for him as regents. = Raghunath Rao appealed to the British and signed a treaty known as the Treaty of Surat in 175. ® This led to a war between the Maratha Chiefs and the British. The war went on for seven years and both sides received several setbacks. m= Ultimately, peace was restored by the Treaty of Salbai in 1782. Raghunath Rao was pensioned off and Madhav Rao (son of Narayan Rao) was accepted as the Peshwa by the British. = Inreturn, their claims over Salsette and Durg were recognized and it was promised that Marathas would not allow the French to establish their posts within the Maratha territory. Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-1805) = In 1800, the death of Nana Fadnavis, the able Maratha minister who kept the English at bay with his diplomatic skills, dealt a severe blow to the Marathas. = The East India Company under Wellesley tried to convince Peshwa Baji Rao II to sign the Subsidiary Alliance with the British which was initially rejected by him. Drisim PuaucaTions NINAdrishti However, when he was attacked by Jaswant Rao Hotkar, the Peshwa was forced to sign a treaty with the English for his protection in 1802, The treaty came to be known as Treaty of Bassein and its main conditions were: © The Peshwa must renounce hisclaim over Surat and Baroda. © The Peshwa could not enter into any other treaty or declare war without first consulting, the Company. © A British force of around 6,000 troops would be permanently stationed within the territory of Peshwa. © The Peshwa must exclude all Europeans from, his service. © Peshwa also transferred his right to recover ‘Chauth’ from the Nizam to the British. Major Maratha ‘Associated Chiefdoms Chieftains Nagpur Bhonsle Baroda Gwalior Holkar Indore This treaty was disgraceful for the Maratha chiefs, First of all, Rag) ;, was defeated and had to sign the ion in 1803 auji Bhonsle I challenged the British, howevs @ Similarly, other Maratha chiefs also failed to presenta united frontand were defeated separately by the British and were forced to sign treati = Scindhia was too forced to sign the Treaty of Surji Anjangaon in 1803, while Holkar was ated and signed the Treaty of sepa Rajp Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-19) ‘The British attack on Pindaris during, the tenure of Governor General Hastings wasseen asa provocation by the Marathas and it led to the beginning of this war. In 1817, the Marathas finally attempted to overthrow the British but were decisively defeated (EEMII| Ovvs11 Punvicarions plung in India Modern india and World History Pindari, historically, an irr horseman, or forager attached toa Muslin army 1 allowed to plunder in fiew of pay. The Pindaris followed the Maratha bands who raided the Mughal territory from the late 17" century. With the collapse of the Mughal Empire in the 18" century, these camp followers organized themselves into groups, each usually attached to one of the leading, Maratha chiefs, Butas those chiefs themselves grew weak at the end of the century, the Pindaris became largely alaw unto themselves and conducted raids from hideouts in central India The majority of their leaders were Muslims, but they recruited from all classes After the regular forces of the Marathas had been broken up by the British during, the First and Second Anglo-Martha Wars, the Pindaris made their headquarters in Malwa, under the tacit protection of the rulers of Gwalior and Indore They usually assembled in November to set forth over British-held territory in search of plunder, In one such raid on the Masulipatam coast, they plundered 339 villages, killing, and wounding 682 persons, torturing,3,600 others, and carrying, ‘off much valuable property. In 1808-09 they plundered Gujarat, and in 1812, Mirzapur, In 1814 they numbered between 25,000 and 30,000 horsemen, half of them well armed Subsequently, in 1816, the British organized the campaign known as the Pindari War (1817-18). The Pindaris were surrounded by an army of about 120,000 men, which converged upon them from Bengal, the Decean, and Gujarat under the command of the gove al Lord Hastings, nor The Pindaris’ protectors. in. Gwalior were overawed and signed a treaty (1817) against the Pindaris, Their other allies against the British took up arms, but were separately defeated, The Pindaris themselves offered fittle resistance; most of the leaders surrendered, and_ their followers dispersed. Results “The Peshwa was relocated toa small establishment of Bithur near Kanpur on a small pension and his wexed territory waflse and Consolidation of British Power drishti 5 The Maharaja of Satara was restored as the ruler of his territory after the defeat, as a princely state However, in 1848 this territory was also annexed by the Bombay Presidency under the Doctrine of Lapse policy of Lord Dalhousie. Bhonsle was defeated in the battle of Sitabuldi and Holkar in the battle of Mahidpur. The defeat of Bhonsle and Holkar also resulted in the acquisition of the Maratha kingdoms of Nagpur and Indore by the British. = Along with Gwalior from Scindia and Jhansi from the Peshwa, all of these territories became Princely States acknowledging, British control. Reasons for Defeat of the Marathas ‘The infighting among the Marathas and ambitions ‘of separate and independent dominions weakened the Maratha Principalities. The court intrigues also allowed the British interference in the internal matt of the Maratha State. The Marathas were left with limited sources of revenue against the formidable enemies with far better sources of revenue. The Maratha army observed the rituals of caste differences, It did not allow the army to develop as a unified and formidable force, The Marathas had a highly deficient espionage system and their policy decisions in the war suffered as a consequence. ‘The factors for failure of Marathas can be broadly divided into the following: = Lack of Central Leadership: By the 18" century, Maratha polity transformed intoa loose confederacy, under the nominal leadership of the Peshwa and powerful chiefs like the Gaikwad, the Holkar, the Sindhia and the Bhonsle - who wielded substantial power, often overwhelming the Peshwa. Hostility, among, these chieftains was a common affair and cooperative spirit among, the Maratha chiefs was, also observed. 1 Despotic Leadership: The Maratha state depended on the personality state. Thereby, the later Maratha chieftains like Bajirao II, Daulatrao Scindia and Jaswantrao Holkar owing to their vested interests were unable to protect the Maratha polity from assaults by the English, ‘The Marathas heavily relied on Chauth and sardeshmukhi for their revenues, which meant weak ties with their neighbourhood and constant state of conflict. The discontent of the neighbouring states was utilized by the British which offered them freedom from the clutches of Marathas. "= Military System: The Marathas were overpowered by the English due to their lack of organisation in terms of discipline and leadership, inferior war weapons and negligence of artillery. = Economic Policy: The Maratha polity sought their larger share of finances from raids on the neighbouring kingdoms and collecting taxes from the subservient states. This system was not sustainable and was inferior to the lucrative and robust institution of the EIC which was based on trade and commerce. = Inferior Communication System: The Marathas paid less attention in developing a reliable information system which puts them in a disadvantageous position. In sharp contrast, the English had a robust espionage system which enabled them to gather information about their enemy. ANGLO-MYSORE RELATIONS m= The reasons for the beginning of Anglo-Mysore rivalry were primarily related to trade. = Being at Malabar coast, Mysore’s geographical position ensured that it controlled the lucrative trade of pepper and cardamom. = The British were tempted by the prospects of monopoly over this lucrative trade, = Besides, they were aware of the dangers posed by the strong Mysore Kingdom which was known to have sympathy towards the French ‘= Theseconditions paved the path for the interference of the East India Company in the affairs of Mysore. = The Company followed the policy of direct intervention and four wars were fought between the two powers. First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69) = The English signed treaties with the Nizam and the Marathas in an attempt to outmanoeuvre Mysore and subdue it politically. = But Haider Ali (the ruler of Mysore) attacked the British and managed to bribe, cajole and convince the Marathas and the Nizam by his diplomatic efforts. = Asaresult, the English suffered many reverses and were ultimately forced to sign a humiliating Treaty of Madras in 1769. Dristn Pusicarions |l\1 oad Orishti = The Treaty stated that both the powers will return the areas of each other won during the war and henceforth treat each other as allies. Both the Powers would come to support the other in case of an attack by a third party Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84) "= Haider Ali accused the British of not providing help when he was attacked by the Marathas in 1771 as agreed to in the Treaty of Madras. = The English were upset by the turn of events in America where the Americans were supported by the French against the English in the American War of Independence. = Therefore, the English attacked the Mahe port which wasa French settlement but it wasa territory under the protection of Mysore. = In this war, the English were able to enlist the support of the Marathas and the Nizam. = Still, Haider Ali boldly faced the challenge but was defeated at the Battle of Porto Novo (Tamil Nadu) in November 1781 = Subsequently, Haider died during the course of the war in December 1782 and the war was continued by his son Tipu Sultan. = Both sides agreed to end the war by signing the Treaty of Mangalore in 1784 under which they returned, areas of each other they won during the war. Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-92) The pretext for the war was a conflict between Tipu and the state of Travancore. = Travancore had purchased Jalkottal and Cannanore in the Cochin state which was sold by the Dutch = Tipu considered the purchase as a violation of his, authority because Cochin was his feudatory. Subsequently, in April 1790 Tipu led assault on Travancore. = The English sided with Travancore and attacked Tipu with the aid of the Marathas and the Nizam = In this war, Tipu was defeated and had to sign the ‘Treaty of Seringapattam. Under this treaty, he was forced to cede half of his territory to the English and. had to pay a heavy war indemnity within a year. ‘Modern India and World History ‘= TipuSultan took over the reins of Mysore in 1782 after the death of his father Haider Ali, who died amidst Second Anglo-Mysore war. = He continued the war and ultimately signed Treaty of Mangalore in 1784. = He sent off his missions to Turkey and France to enlist support against the British but could not achieve success, ‘© Between 1785 and 1787, he was involved in the struggle with the Marathas = After a short duration of peace, the English accused him of allying with French and attacked him along with the Marathas and the Nizam in 1790 m= Tipu was defeated and forced to sign the Treaty of Seringapattam under which he had to surrender half of his kingdom and pay 3 crores as war indemnity. = In 1799, British repeated the same charge and attacked him under Wellesley. Tipu died defending his capital on 4" May, 1799. = Tipu was a great warrior and administrator. He was a member of ‘Jacobin Club’ and also planted a tree of liberty at his capital Seringapattam. He introduced new coins, modern calendar as well as donated to the Sringeri math. He is also said to have begun his own trading Company. Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799) = The arrival of Lord Wellesley was followed by the ‘Company’ insistence that Mysore sign Subsidiary Alliance with them. = Onthe one hand, Tipu refused the offer and on the other increased his interactions with the French. = He welcomed a group of French soldiers, became a member of the Jacobin Club, called himself ‘Citizen Tipu’, and also planted a “tree of liberty” at Seringapatam. = This further estranged the British who accused Tipu of forging a conspiracy against them. = The English declared war along with the and the Nizam. Tipu’s army was heavily outnumbered and he died defending his capital Seringapatam Marathas (BMI Ovsx0 Pusuicaronsrishti fee een nee Rise and Consolidation of British Power Results Large part of the State was annexed by the British while a part was divided among the Marathas and the Nizam. = A small part was left as the Mysore State to be succeeded by the Wodeyars who were the rulers before the ascent of Haider Ali. = Subsidiary Alliance was imposed on Mysore by the British and it was rendered powerless to pose any threat to the British designs in India, Estimate of Tipu Sultan = His religious legacy has become a source of considerable controversy in the subcontinent. = Some groups proclaim him a great warrior for the faith or Ghazi, while others revile him as a bigot who massacred Hindus. = However, he made numerous charities and endowments to several Hindus and Hindu institutions (e.g. construction of the idol of Goddess. Sarda in the Sringeri temple). = He granted several villages to the Hindus for building Hindu temples and mutts. = Healso granted permission for the construction of a mosque on the side of a Hindu temple. = Inaddition to that, Tipu also granted a life pension to some ‘Acharyas’ and to pagodas, donating different articles for the temples and religious places. ANGLO-SIKH RELATIONS Acquisition of Punjab The modern kingdom of Punjab, which existed between 1799 and 1849 was established by Ranjit Singh. In 1809, he signed a treaty of peace and friendship with the British which came to be known as the Treaty of Amritsar - which prevented incursions of the British in Punjab, and allowed the British to focus on Sindh. The Treaty also stated that river Sutle} shall act as the boundary line between his dominions and the Company's. Under him, the Punjab emerged a powerful state. = However, after his death in 1839, a lot of anarchy followed asa result of quick death of his successors like Kharak Singh and prince Nav Nihal as well as, court intrigues to capture the throne. In September 1843, Duleep Singh, the youngest son ‘of Maharaja RanjitSingh was proclaimed the Maharaja of Sikh Kingdom with Rani Jindan as regent. Maharaja Ranjit Singh belonged to the Sukerchakia Misl and brought the other 11 misls under his common banner. He repeatedly thwarted invasions by outside armies, particularly those arriving from Afghanistan, and established friendly relations with the British. = He introduced reforms, modernisation, investment into infrastructure and general Prosperity. = Under him, Khalsa army and government included Sikhs, Hindus, Muslims and Europeans. His legacy includes a period of Sikh cultural and artistic Renaissance, including the rebuilding of the Harimandir Sahib in Amritsar as well as other major Gurudwaras, including Takht Sri Patna Sahib, Bihar and Hazur Sahib Nanded, Maharashtra under his sponsorship. = The geographical reach of the Sikh empire under Singh included all lands north of the Sutlej river, and south of the high valleys of the northwestern Himalayas. The major towns at this time included Srinagar, Attock, Peshawar, Bannu, Rawalpindi, Jammu, Gujarat, Sialkot, Kangra, Amritsar, Lahore and Multan. = Singh made his empire and the Sikhs a strong political force, for which he is deeply admired and revered in Sikhism. = However, his era also marked a general decline in religious and moral fervour towards a life of, alcoholism and licentiousness, along with a demoralisation of the Sikh court and nobility. = He failed to establish a lasting structure for aSikh government or a stable succession, and the Sikh empire rapidly declined after his death. = The British subsequently defeated the confused and demoralised Khalsa forces and disbanded them into destitution. However, Sikhism itself id not decline. First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46) Ranjit Singh maintained an uneasy alliance with the East India Company, while increasing the military strength of the Sikh Khalsa Army, which also saw itself as the embodiment of the state and religion. To deter the British aggression against his state and to expand Sikh territory to the north and northwest, he captured territories in Afghanistan and Kashmir. Drusim PuaucaTions \\\\\GEMArishti = When Ranjit Singh died in 1839, the Sikh empire began to fall into disorder. There was a succession of short-lived rulers at the central Durbar (court), and. tension increased between the Army and the Durbar. = The declining power of the Sikhs prompted the British to increase the presence of their army on the borders of the Punjab in denial of the terms of the treaty signed with Ranjit Singh. Consequently, the First Anglo-Sikh War began in 1845. After a series of inconclusive battles, the British prevailed over Sikhs and the defeated Khalsa were forced to sign the Treaty of Lahore in 1846. Through this Treaty, the Sikhs were made to surrender the valuable region (the Jullundur Doab) between the Beas and the Sutlej. The Lahore Durbar was also required to pay an indemnity of 15 million rupees. As it could not readily raise this sum, it ceded Kashmir, Hazarah and all the forts, territories, rights and interests in the hill countries situated between the Rivers Beas and Indus to the East India Company. Later, in a separate arrangement (the Treaty of Amritsar), the Raja of Jammu, Gulab Singh, purchased Kashmir from the East India Company fora payment of 7.5 million rupees and was granted the title Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, = Maharaja Duleep Singh remained ruler of the Punjab and at first his mother, Maharani Jind Kaur, remained as Regent. = However, the Durbar later requested that the British presence remain until the Maharaja attained, the age of 16. = The British consented to this and on 16 December 1846, the Treaty of Bhyroval provided for the Maharani to be awarded a pension of 150,000 rupees and to be replaced by a British resident in Lahore supported by a Council of Regency, with agents in other cities and region = Thiseffectively gave the East India Company control of the government, Henry Lawrence was appointed. as the resident in the Punjab Court. The strength of Sikh forces was limited to twelve thousand Cavalry and twenty thousand artillery soldiers. Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-49) ‘The might of the Sikh power was considerably weakened in the aftermath of the first Anglo-Sikh War. (ERIM Onsun Puo.icanions ‘Modern india and World History The presence of a British resident and his interference in the affairs of Punjab were resented by the Khalsa Besides, Dalhousie wanted to annex the kingdom of Punjab as it no longer served as a strong buffer state between British regions and Afghan borders. = The opportunity arose when the Governor of Multan revolted and soon there were revolts in hig support at many places across the Sikh empire, = The English armies decisively defeated the Sikhs in the Battle of Gujarat also known as ‘War of Cannons’ in 1849, = The whole of Punjab was annexed on 29" March 1849. Rani Jind Kaur was imprisoned and the 11, year old Maharaja Duleep Singh was abducted the British. The Kohinoor diamond was also taken from him, = A few years later, he was sent to England and was made to retire on pension. It resulted in the fall of the Sikh Empire, and the annexation of the Punjab by the East India Company. It subsequently became the North-West Frontier Province, BRITISH POLICY OF SUBSIDIARY ALLIANCE Lord Wellesley was wary of the possibilities of emergence of alliances between Indian states and the areh rival of British, i. the French. To nullify any such threat, he introduced the system of Subsidiary Alliance. It was the French Governor Dupleix who first employed a similar system, but Wellesley developed it and applied it systematically to contain the French influence and also increase the British power. Features of Subsidiary Alliance = An Indian ruler entering into the Subsidiary Alliance with the British had to accept British forces within his territory and pay for the maintenance of troops. = The ruler would accept a British Resident in his state or else give a part of his territory. = An Indian ruler who entered into a subsidiary alliance would not enter into any further alliance with any other power, would not employ any Europeans other than the British, nor would he declare war against any power without the permission of the British. m= The ruler would acknowledge the East India ‘Company as the paramount power in India.ise and Consolidation of British Power Orishti m= Inreturn, the Company undertook to protect the state from external dangers and internal disorders. = Therulers were promised that the company would not interfere in the internal matters of the state. a The order in which States accepted Subsidiary Alliance: Hyderabad (1798), Mysore (1799), Tanjore (1799), Awadh (1801), Peshwa (1802), Bhosle (1803), Scindia (1804), DALHOUSIE’S DOCTRINE OF LAPSE = The Doctrine of Lapse implied that the Company could take over an Indian State in the absence of a legitimate heir to the throne. ‘= Dalhousie used this policy to extend the Company's control over the Indian territories. = Dalhousie divided the Indian states into three categories: © The first category consisted of those states in whose formation the company had played a direct or indirect role. The rulers of such states were completely prohibited from adopting heirs to their throne. ¢ Thesecond category was of those states which were subsidiary to the Company and they were required to take its permission before appointing any adopted son as the legal heir. © The third category was of the Princely States who were free to adopt heirs to their throne. Implementation of the Doctrine It should be remembered that this policy was articulated by the Court of Directors in 1834, much earlier than Dalhousie came to India. But it was he who implemented it vigorously to extend the frontiers of the Company's dominio Following were the important states annexed under the pretext of this policy: Satara in 1848, Jaitpur and Sambhalpur in 1849, Baghat in 1850, Udaipur in 1852, Jhansi in 1853 and Nagpur in 1854. In 1856, Awadh was included in the British Empire on the basis of mis-governance, at that time Nawab of Awadh was Wazid AliShah and he was the last Nawab of Awadh. Criticism of the Doctrine = Thedivision of the Indian States in three categories was in excess of the British position in India, as legally the Mughal ruler was the emperor of India and Princely States were subordinate to him, = The Company had no right to interfere in the legitimate and traditional practice of adopting an heir to the throne in the absence of a natural heir. = This policy created a feeling of discontent among aggrieved Princes. = A vast number of population participated in the Great Revolt of 1857 and the British adopted the policy of Subordinate Union (1858-1935) towards the Princely States. BRITISH POLICY TOWARDS PRINCELY STATES Though the British did not have any fixed official policy towards the Princely States; to acquire and sustain the paramount political position in India, their policies and attitude towards Princely States can be broadly categorised into different types starting from 1765 till India’s independence. Policy of Ring Fence (1765-1813) = From 1765 onwards, when the British assumed the Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, the Company followed the policy of Ring Fence which meant: © Maintaining equality based status quo with Indian Kings. © Tocreate buffer states to maintain the security of their own dominions, like Awadh was used asa buffer state against the threat of Marathas. However, there were deviations from this policy as well. Wellesley’s siege of Mysore in 1899 is one of the examples. Policy of Subordinate Isolation (1813-58) During this phase, the British pursued free trade policy for which it was necessary to establish control over the local kingdoms. Therefore, in this period, we find the Company attempting to establish itself as the paramount power of the country. ™ States were made to sign treaties accepting subordinate cooperation with the British by surrendering their external sovereignty and keeping themselves limited to the internal affairs of the state = Thisalso ensured that the States could be politically segregated from each other. Drssin Puaucanions \IINWEM,Modern india and World History Orishti = The Charter of 1833 ended the monopoly of the ‘Company trade with India. Therefore, the Company focused on its political role. = The company in 1834 devised the policy of the Doctrine of Lapse, which was later employed zealously by Dalhousie to annex many kingdoms like Jhansi, Satara and Nagpur, ete = Treaties were signed with the Marathas and Rajputs tocontain them and during the tenure of Bentinck, the kingdoms were annexed even under the pretext of misrule. Policy of Subordinate Union (1858-1935) = The revolt of 1857 made it clear to the British that the policy of annexation followed by them gave rise to discontent among the Indians. = The removal of the fictional authority of the Mughal emperor and subsequent proclamation of the Queen of England as the empress of India ('Kaiser- i-Hind’) in 1876 automatically meant that the Indian States had accepted British as the paramount power in India, = Therefore, the policy of annexation was dropped, though the head of the States could be punished or deposed in the interest of the affairs of the state. The rights of the Princely States to adopt an heir to their throne was given back to them © Britishers not only could interfere in the internal matters of the State but also held the right to represent India in the international affairs of diplomacy, war, treaties, ete. Policy of Equal Federation (1935-47) ® ~TheGovernment of India Act, 1935, coined the idea of development of a federation of States, though it could never be actually realized. = This period also saw the other significant developments and propositions like Cripps Mission (1942), Wavell Plan (1945), Cabinet Mission (1946), etc, The Mountbatten Plan (1947) talked of ending the British supremacy in India. = Ultimately, the Indian Independence Act was passed in 1947 and India gained its independence from the British Rule. BRITISH POWER AND NEIGHBOURING COUNTRIES. ‘The British had captured almost the whole of India by 1818, except Punjab and Sindh, After establishing (BERIT Orsi Puscarons their colonies in India, the British implemented the dual policy that aimed on one hand to establish a better governing system and on the other to safeguard the boundaries of the occupied territories. In some areas, the interests of the British coincided with the Indian interests, especially in the regions which faced potential danger from China, Russia and Persia, Conquest of Sindh In the early 19 century, the English started to show an interest in Sindh where they enjoyed some trade facilities authorised by a farman of the Mughal Emperor in 1630, The farman provided the English with such privileges in the ports of Sindh which they enjoyed elsewhere. In the eighteenth century, prior to the rule of Talpuras Amirs, Sindh was ruled by the Kallora chiefs, By 1758, an English factory was built at Thatta and other Europeans were debarred from trading in Sindh Inthe 1770s, a Baluch tribe called Talpuras acquired and soon usurped power in Sindh = In 1783, the Talpuras, under the leadership of Mir Fath (Fatah) Ali Khan ousted the Kallora prince and got his claim confirmed from the then Durrani monarch. = Subsequently, Sindh was divided among Mir Fath and his brothers (popularly known as ‘Char Yar) After Fath’s death in 1800, the Char Yar divided the region among themselves, calling themselves the Amirs or Lords of Sindh, = These Amirs extended their dominion on all sides, conquering Amarkot, Karachi, Shaikarpurand Bukkar, British Presence in Sindh In 1799, behind Lord Wellesley’s efforts to revive commercial relations with Sindh was the hidden aim tocounteract the presumed alliance of the French, Tipu Sultan and Shah Zaman, the Kabul monarch Negotiations were opened with Fath Ali Khan, But under the influence of anti-British sections, the Amir on October 1800, ordered the British agent to quit Sindh, Treaty of ‘Eternal Friendship’: To counter the alliance between Tilsit with Alexander Lof Russia and Napoleon Bonaparte (June 1807) which laid out a condition of a combined invasion of India by the land route, the British under Lord Minto sent delegations led by different emissaries to forge alliances: Metcalf ‘nt to Lahore, Elphinstone to Kabul, Malcol Tehran and Nicholas Smith to Sindh. = Subsequently, Amirs of Sindh agreed toa treaty in 1809 - their first-ever treaty with the EnglishOrishti «= After professing eternal friendship, both sides agreed to exclude the French from Sindh and to exchange agents at each other's court. = The treaty was renewed in 1820 with the addition of anarticle excluding the Americans and resolvinj some border disputes on the side of Kachchh after the final defeat of the Maratha confederacy in 1818, Treaty of 1832 In 1832, William Bentinck sent Colonel Pottinger toSindh to signa treaty with the Amirs, The provisions of the treaty were as follows: = Prohibition on English merchant to settle down in Sindh, and provision of passports for travellers. = Free passage through Sindh would be allowed to the English traders and travellers and the use of Indus for trading purposes; though no warships or any war materials could be carried. = To tackle the menace of robbers of Kachchh with the aid of the Raja of Jodhpur. a The old treaties will be honoured and the parties would trust each other. In 1836, Lord Auckland, the Governor-General, considered Sindh as a buffer state between potential Russian invasion and countermeasure to the Afghans. = With Ranjit Singh capturing a frontier town of Sindh, Rojhan, a new treaty with the Amirs was signed in 1838. = This treaty offered protection to the Amirs on the condition that the Company troops would be kept in the capital at the former's expense. = The treaty enabled the English to intervene in the disputes between the Amirs and the Sikhs and to havea British resident in Sindh turning the region into a British protectorate. In June 1838, the Company signed with Ranjit Singh a tripartite treaty agreeing to British mediation in his disputes with the Amirs, and also compelled Emperor Shah Shuja to give up his sovereign rights on Sindh, in return for tribute. In 1839, the Company through their threat of superior force, made the Amirs to accept a treaty under whicha British subsidiary force and the maintenance of the Company's troops was to be under Amir’ expenses. Further, the Amirs were compelled to give up their foreign communication in favour of the Company. Takeover of Sindh During the first Anglo-Afghan War (1839-42), the ‘Amirs of Sindh were asked to pay for all war expenses of British in Sindh operations. = They were charged with hostility against the British government despite paying the war expenses. Lord Ellenborough sent Outram to Sindh to negotiate a new treaty under which the Amirs were required to cede important provinces as the price of their past transgressions, to supply fuel to the Company's steamers plying on the Indus, and to stop minting coins. Subsequently, the British also interfered in succession dispute and waged a war when the Amirs rose in revolt. Eventually, the Amirs were defeated and ousted from Sindh and in 1843, Governor-General Ellenborough merged Sindh into the British Empire and appointed Charles Napier asts first governor. Anglo-Nepal Relations = The British established contacts with Nepal during, the time of Bengal Nawab Mir Kasim. = By the time Lord Hastings (1813-23) arrived, Nepal had transformed into a vast and powerful state. Therefore, Nepalese started extending their influence towards Bengal and Awadh in the south. = When the British established control over Gorakhpur in 1801, the British Empire began sharing boundaries with Nepal. Thus, both the sides began claiming the lower regions of the Himalayan valley. This led to Anglo-Nepalese War (Gorkha War) in 1814-16, owing to Nepal's seizure of Sheoraj and Butwal in the north of Basti district. But the British soon recovered these territories back, defeating Gorkhas and concluding a Treaty of Sugauli, 1816 with them. Treaty of Sugauli Nepal could not stand as a military power in front of the British and in 1816 they had to sign the Sugauli Treaty. As a result of this treaty, the British gained claim over Kumaon and Garhwal Nepal took back its claim over Sikkim and accepted the presence of a British resident in Kathmandu. This treaty resulted in the end of strife between the two forces in the North and also made Nepal an ally of Britain, Importance of Nepal British forces made good use of fierce and brave Gorkha forces of this land. These Gorkha forces remained loyal to the British during the rebellion of 1857. They also helped in extending the British colonies. Daisim Pusucanions INCEOrishti Nepal played the role of a buffer state between British, and China and Tibet in protecting In from this, Nepal never supported’ anti sentiments. It is important to note that only the British diplomatic mission was allowed to enter Nepal and none other. Anglo-Burma Relations The British faced no opposition in Burma prior to the mid 18" century, but in the later half of that century when the King of Burma started pursuing expansionist policies, strife between the two became unavoidable. First Anglo-Burmese War (1824-26) When the King of Burma conquered Tenasserim, Arakan and Manipur, the boundaries of his empire met with the borders of the British India. = During this time, he also asked the British government to hand over the people who had fled Burma and sought asylum in British India. = But the British refusal to do so led to further tensions between the British and the Burmese. = Atlast, when the king of Burma took control over Shahipur Island in Chatgaon, it resulted in the eruption of war between the two. Burma was defeated in this war and after that, the Treaty of Yandabo was signed in 1826. Treaty of Yandabo: Asa result of this treaty, Burma had to hand over Tenasserim and Arakan to British. = They also had to submit one crore rupees as a penalty for the war. The Burmese government promised that they will not interfere in the affairs of Assam, Cachar and Jaintia. = Burma accepted a British resident in Rangoon and the British government accepted a Burmese diplomat in Kolkata. = Due to this treaty, the lower parts of Burma were now controlled by the British. This resulted in the expansion of the British Empire. Lord Amherst was given the title of Earl of Arakan because of the success of this war. Second Anglo-Burmese War (1852-53) The Treaty of Yandabo could not be held for a long time. = The main reason for this was the violation of the Burmese laws by the British merchants in Burma. Also, the Burmese government was reluctant to follow the conditions of the treaty (EMMI Ons: Pusuicanons Modern Indla and World History = The new king of Burma, Tharawadi rejected the treaty and decided to punish the British merchants for violation of the Burmese law. = Threatened by king Tharawadi, the British merchants complained about the Burmese government to Lord Dalhousie. = Dalhousie in 1852 sent battleships to Rangoon under the leadership of Commodore Lambert and asked the Burmese government for compensation Refusal of the Burmese government to do so led to a second war between their forces. = By 1852, the British government had captured entire region of lower Burma. Dalhousie had no intentions of capturing upper Burma because that region would not have been beneficial for British interests = Keeping the situation in mind, a talk for another treaty started but the Burmese government refused to sign any treaty, ‘Therefore, Dalhousie included entire Pegu or lower Burma in the British Empire, without signing any treaty, Third Anglo-Burmese War (1885-86) ‘The third Anglo-Burmese War started mainly due to strife between the Bombay-Burma Merchant Corporation and Burmese Government. = The main reason of this strife was tax evasion by the Company. Besides, the Burmese King had been establishing commercial or diplomatic relations with Italy, Russia and particularly France which was active in the eastern Indo-China region, = The British won over Burma through military operations in just two months after the war started in November 1885 a= There were expensive campaigns against Guerilla warriors of Burma. Through a dictum issued in 1886, British annexed entire Burma in their British Indian empire, = With Government of India Act 1935, Burma ceased to be a part of British India since 1937. Anglo-Afghan Relations Relation between Britain and Russia were not very good when Lord Auckland (1836-1842) arrived as the Governor-General of India. = Russia was trying to make Afghanistan and Persia itsstronghold. British feared Russian attack on India, = Thus, they also tried to increase their influence in Afghanistan, The British official proposed a treaty to Afghan ruler Dost Mohammad. Mohammad also wanted to make an alliance with the British