LAYOUT OF THE AIRCRAFT WITH HYDROGEN-ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS

YE. UKRAINETS*, S. SHEVCHENKO*, S. SHKURUPII*

* Kharkiv National Air Force University named by Ivan Kozhedub, 77/79, Sumska str., Kharkiv, Ukraine, 61023,
eukrainez@gmail.com

Abstract

Dependence assessment of aerodynamic quality and fuel efficiency of the advanced aircraft type Celera 500L on the
degree of laminarity of the wing and fuselage is shown. Such means of improving aerodynamic quality as natural
laminarization of the wing and fuselage with the rejection of the traditional mechanization of the leading edge of the wing
to prevent premature turbulence and reduce the profile drag of the aircraft; artificial laminarization of the wing and fuselage
were evaluated.
The research was conducted using modular software systems "Integration" and "Vint", which are based on numerical
and semi-empirical methods of aerodynamics and flight dynamics. The determination of the range limits was carried out
for a typical flight profile of a regional aircraft.
According to the results of the research, it is shown that without taking into account the energy costs of artificial
laminar flow, full laminarization of the wing, plumage and fuselage of the Celera 500L aircraft can increase the
aerodynamic quality of the aircraft by about 23% compared to natural laminarization and almost twice compared to the
complete absence of laminarization. It is shown that the laminarization of the wing is achieved by the rejection of the
traditional mechanization of the wing and controls, while the rejection of the pre-flap allows to increase the aerodynamic
quality of the aircraft by about 16% compared to the natural laminarization of the wing.
The main characteristics of the propeller were obtained after the design and verification calculation in the modular
software package "Vint" based on the altitude characteristics of the engine. These characteristics became the input data
for determining the maximum range capabilities of the aircraft in the modular software package "Integration". It is shown
that with artificial laminarization of the aircraft, the kilometer fuel consumption in cruise flight mode was approximately
0.121 liters.
Keywords: aerodynamic quality, fuel efficiency, natural laminarization, artificial laminarization, wing mechanization.

1. Introduction
The tightening of ICAO requirements to minimize the environmental impact of aviation [1] is highlighting the need
for research into aircraft propulsion systems that do not use conventional hydrocarbon fuels. Hydrogen propulsion systems
(HPS) and liquefied natural gas (LNG) propulsion systems require significantly higher internal fuel system capacities to
maintain a range consistent with conventional hydrocarbon-powered aircraft [2]. The increase of the mid-section and the
washed surface of the fuselage causes an increase in the drag of the aircraft, thus worsening its aerodynamic quality and
reducing the flight range. Aerodynamic characteristics deterioration of an airplane with an APU (LNG), and reduction of
fuel weight carried on board, negatively affect the range of such an airplane which fuel efficiency decreases. Negative
impact minimization on the fuel efficiency of an aircraft with an APU (LNG) is possible through the integrated integration
of an APU (LNG) and an aircraft airframe. Thus, research into the design of aircraft with APU (LNG) to improve their
fuel efficiency is topical [3].

2. Literature analysis and problem statement

The idea of an airplane with an APU(LNG) is not new. For example, in the Soviet Union, a Tu-154 passenger aircraft
was modified into a Tu-155 flying laboratory [4] by installing in the right nacelle a turbojet twin-circuit NK-88 engine
based on the production NK-8-2.
The fuel tanks were located in place of part of the passenger compartment, which was heavily insulated because
liquefied hydrogen had to be stored at temperatures below -253°C. To control the power plant units, a special helium
system was created, which completely replaced the electrical wiring, and to avoid gas leaks, the compartment was
constantly blown with nitrogen and air. Aircraft Tu-155 made more than 100 flights, 5 of them - using liquid hydrogen,
later the plane was modified to fly on liquefied natural gas (Tu-156), which can be stored at a much higher temperature -
160 °C.
The design of the Tu-206 aircraft was based on the production Tu-204-100 as a wide-body airliner with a two-level
layout: on the ground floor a passenger cabin with 210 seats and the second floor contained external tanks for liquefied
natural gas.
The Tupolev Tu-136 is a project of a regional cargo-passenger aircraft powered by cryogenic fuel developed by the
Tupolev Design Bureau in the 1990s.
 During choosing the aerodynamic design of the Tu-136, the specifics of the layout of the elements of the cryogenic
fuel system on the aircraft, combined with large-volume fuel tanks, were taken into account. Tu-136 was designed to carry
53 passengers or 5 tons of payload for a distance of up to 2,000 km.
European airliner manufacturer Airbus announced in 2020 that in 15 years it could begin producing "zero-carbon"
aircraft [5]. For example, shows a concept for a hydrogen-powered airliner. Shows a concept of an Airbus hydrogen-
powered 200-passenger airliner with a range of about 3,700 kilometers, a range one and a half times shorter than that of
similar planes with conventional propulsion systems.
An Airbus flying-wing aerodynamic concept for 200 passengers with a range of about 3,700 kilometers has been
announced for 2020. It should be noted that a similar capacity modern A321 has a range of 2,000 kilometers more [6].

3. The purpose of the research

The aim of the work is to establish the dependence of aerodynamic characteristics and fuel efficiency of advanced
aircraft type Celera 500L on the degree of laminarization of the wing and fuselage based on a theoretical study.
In order to achieve the goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:
 To develop a methodology for determining the basic aerodynamic of the aircraft characteristics and its propeller
propulsion system;
 To develop a methodology for determining the basic flight characteristics of an aircraft;
 To carry out parametric studies of the aircraft layout with increased fuselage volumes and conventional propulsion;
 To calculate typical flight cases of an aircraft with a conventional propulsion system and an APU.

4. Aerodynamic and flight characteristics research methods of an advanced propeller airplane

The promising Celera 500l aircraft was chosen as the object of the study (Fig. 1) [10]. In January 2018, a prototype
aircraft of the Celera 500L form by Californian start-up Otto Aviation made its first flight. The company claims that this
design can provide a radical increase in speed, range and the Celera 500L aircraft's propeller thrust propeller is specifically
designed to achieve fuselage laminarisation in flight.

Fig. 1. Photo of a Celera 500L aircraft [11], [12]

Despite the progress in theoretical and experimental aerodynamics, the determination of aircraft aerodynamic
characteristics by semiempirical relationships in the early stages of design remains the main and most reliable tool in the
development of new layouts. Studies were conducted using the modular software packages "Integration 2.1" and "Vint".
The modular software packages (MSP) are based on numerical and semiempirical methods of aerodynamics and flight
dynamics. The range limit capability has been determined for a typical flight profile of a regional airplane.
The designed modular software system has been logically built based on the procedure for estimation of the life cycle
of an aircraft’s engine in the system of the aircraft and includes all required technical and economic indicators [7-10]. All
estimation units are interconnected, thereby making it possible to study the characteristics of aircraft at both subsonic and
supersonic flight speeds (Fig. 2).
Basic aerodynamic characteristics determination procedure variable pitch propeller consists of the following basic
modules (Fig. 3): initial data; blade design calculation; blade strength calculation; blade calculation verification; 3D model
of the designed (verified) blade; control law of the blade; calculation results; reference data (database of profiles, engine
characteristics, material characteristics, aircraft engines, propellers).
The algorithm of functioning of MSP "Vint" represents a closed cycle of researches with the initial data correction
possibility and repeated carrying out of calculations.
Fig. 2. Structure of modular software system
 Fig. 3. Block diagram of the MSP "Vint"

5. Results of a theoretical study of the aerodynamic characteristics of the aircraft and its propeller propulsion
system
The Celera 500L has a short elongated fuselage, a slim straight wing with winglets, the wing does not contain fuel
tanks, and is equipped with an electric de-icing system. The fuselage shape allows for a large cabin (448ft³) with a height
of 6ft 2in and space for six business class seats and a lavatory (Figure 8). According to Otto Aviation, this is equivalent to
the passenger capacity of a light/medium aircraft and 10% more than the King Air 350 cabin [12].
According to Otto Aviation, the laminar streamline of the Celera 500L has reduced its drag by 59% compared to an
aircraft of similar size. Otto Aviation claims that the Celera 500L aircraft will have:
- A maximum cruising speed of more than 460 mph;
- A range of 4,500 nautical miles;
- Eight times lower fuel consumption (18-25 miles per gallon, compared with 2-3 miles per gallon for a similar jet)
- 5-7 times lower operating costs than comparable jets ($328 per hour operating cost for the Celera 500L compared to
$2,100 per hour for a comparable jet) (Fig. 4).
It also has a planning ratio of less than 22: 1, which means that at 30,000 feet the Celera 500L can glide up to 125
miles without an engine. The Celera 500L is powered by a five-bladed push-pull propeller mounted in the narrowed tail
section of the fuselage. The propeller is driven by the Raiklin Aircraft Engine RED A03, certified to run on Jet A1 or
biodiesel (Fig. 5).
 Fig. 4. Comparison of fuel efficiency of a Celera 500L Fig. 5. Altitude response of the REDA03-200S engine of
and a business jet of comparable size [11] the Celera 500L [12, 13]

The studies were carried out with the help of the developed modular software package "Integration-2.1" based on the
methodology described in the papers [11]. The methodology for determining the basic aerodynamic characteristics
implemented in the modular software package "Integration-2.1" produces slightly overestimated values of the aircraft
drag, which is necessary to account for the deterioration of the aircraft aerodynamic characteristics in real operation, to
compensate for the difference between the prospective characteristics of engines and real ones.
The Reynolds number is calculated from the aerodynamic chord bA of the wing (fins) and the parameters of the
incoming flow in front of the bearing surface: Re = М bA f(H) The position of the laminar-turbulent transition point xт
on the streamlined smooth surface (the height of the roughness tubercles is not more than 10-5mm) is determined as the
average value between the two values obtained for the lower and upper surfaces. As the angle of attack increases, the
transition point shifts forward on the upper surface and backward on the lower surface, but the mean value remains almost
constant. If there were different sources of turbulence on the streamlined surface, the transition point was located at the
source location.
Figure 6 shows the maximum aerodynamic quality Кmax value of the Celera 500L prospective aircraft obtained in this
way for the calculated natural wing laminarisation, given total and totally non-existent laminarisation.

Fig. 6. Value of maximum aerodynamic quality

The analysis of the presented data makes it possible to conclude that aircraft surface degree laminarization has a very
significant effect on the value of its maximum aerodynamic quality. Thus, the maximum aerodynamic quality of an aircraft
streamlined in a fully laminar flow is almost twice as high as that of an aircraft streamlined in a fully turbulent flow.
 As known [12], there are various types of the wing leading edge mechanization - winglets, nose flaps of various types,
deflectable nose flaps. The greatest use on aircraft are pre-fenders, as they are more efficient than other known types of
the wing leading edge mechanization. The leading edge flaps affect the glide ratio and the maximum lift coefficient of the
cr . The maximum lift
coefficient Суа max in the presence of the preflap is increased by the lifting force of the preflap itself and the lack of
separation on the wing. To maximize the effectiveness of the preflap (increasing the Суа max cr), it is necessary to
apply the pre-flap along the entire leading edge of the wing. Artificial and natural streamline laminarization are promising
ways to reduce friction drag on subsonic aircraft. For example, specially shaped profiles with favourable pressure gradients
at the leading edge of the wing allow for natural laminarisation on the aircraft wing and thus reduce frictional drag. The
presence of leading edge mechanisation is a hindrance to laminarisation.
Figure 7 shows the maximum aerodynamic quality Кmax of a promising aircraft type Celera 500L under the condition
of natural laminarization of the wing and the presence of a pre-flap, which occupies 10% of the wing chord and turbulences
the flow behind it.

Fig. 7. Value of maximum aerodynamic quality Кmax

The analysis of the data shows that the presence of the winglet reduces the maximum aerodynamic quality Кmax of the
Celera 500L by approximately 16%.
High load-carrying properties of aircraft in take-off and landing flight modes are ensured by the use of powerful wing
trailing edge mechanization in the form of retractable slotted flaps. Increased flap efficiency is achieved by applying the
principle of flap and pre-flap to a single-slit flap, which is the basis for the development of multi-slit flaps of various types.
At low flaps deflection angles of f  15°…25° which do not reveal their torn-off character, the gain of additional lift from
one-, two- or three-slit flaps is not very significant. At these flap deflection angle values, wing mechanization is practiced
to achieve maximum aerodynamic quality of aircraft in take-off modes. Single-slot retractable flaps are more conducive
to reducing drag at a given lift due to the minimum profile and surface friction resistance of the washed surface. Additional
slots on the retractable flap lead to a noticeable increase in wing lift in the case of f  30°, at which flap stall occurs.
In order to ensure large angles of attack ( = 7…8°) during planning on approach, critical angles of attack for aircraft
in landing configuration should be at least 20...30°, which is ensured by the use of efficient leading edge mechanization.
Thus, in order to increase flight safety, aircraft with a powerful mechanized trailing edge without winglets must necessarily
have a holding area, which leads to a significant increase in the required landing distance. And it means, that for landing
runway length reduction it is necessary simultaneously with increase of efficiency of mechanization of a wing to increase
efficiency of a propeller reversal and to increase efficiency of wheel braking devices for the purpose of maintenance of
high values of the reduced factor of friction at run frunnin dist = 0,3…0,4 instead of frunnin dist = 0,2...0,25 at present [1].
Figure 8 shows the maximum aerodynamic quality Кmax of an advanced Celera 500L aircraft as a function of the wing
area occupied by the flap turbulizing the flow behind it.
 Fig. 8. Value of maximum aerodynamic quality Кmax

The analysis of the presented data leads to the conclusion that the reduction of the maximum aerodynamic quality
value Кmax of the prospective Celera 500L aircraft starts with a flap occupying more than 30%.
The design of an air propeller in the MSP "Vint" is carried out according to the vortex theory. The task is to design a
propeller that requires quite a certain power for its rotation and has a sufficiently high efficiency coefficient. At the
beginning of the calculation it is necessary to find the circulation value, which determines the propeller power, the law of
its distribution over the blade, affecting the propeller efficiency, and so select the blade sections so that the profile
parameters and angle of attack would provide the required circulation at a given radius.
First of all, the circulation distribution law along the propeller blade is selected; an unsuccessful circulation distribution
type can lead to a low value of the propeller efficiency. The problem of finding the most profitable circulation law
distribution (the "most profitable propeller" problem) has already been solved - the best circulation distribution along the
working part of the blade is semi-elliptical; in practice such propellers are designed quite often, as they are smooth in
shape and the efficiency of such propellers is close to the most profitable. If any other circulation distribution law is
selected, the calculation methodology remains the same.
Using the characteristics of any series of propeller profiles, it is possible to select the profile, width, thickness, and
section installation angle so that the flow-blade relationship equation is satisfied. This results in a propeller that has the
same circulation as the given one, therefore this propeller produces the calculated thrust and requires the given power for
its rotation (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9. Shape of the designed blade in plan

During the control law formation, the input data for determining the propeller blade angle is the altitude-velocity
response of the engine, namely the available power at a given altitude and different flight speeds. The propeller speed will
be maintained if the available power is equal to the power consumed by the propeller (Fig. 10).
 Fig. 10. Dependence of available propeller thrust on flight speed

The sequence for plotting the series diagram of an aero-rotor (Fig. 11) is as follows:
 Dependency construction =f();
 Finding the relative propeller pitch and power factors β, corresponding to constant efficiencies;
 The "upper" and "lower" branches of the fixed efficiencies are plotted using the values obtained.

1,00

0,90

0,80

0,70

0,60

0,50

0,40

0,30

0,20
1,00 1,20 1,40 1,60 1,80 2,00 2,20

Fig. 11. Series diagram of the designed propeller

Thus, the propeller characteristics derived from the MSP "Vint" are the input data for the evaluation of the range and
flight time limits of an advanced Celera 500L type aircraft.

6. Aerodynamic performance results discussion of the study and its impact on aircraft flight performance.
While calculating range, flight time and fuel reserves, have been taken into account:
– fuel used for starting, engine testing and taxiing;
– fuel consumed for take-off;
– fuel consumed for climbing;
– fuel consumed during the horizontal section of the flight;
– fuel consumed during descent from echelon to circle altitude;
– fuel reserve (air navigation and compensation fuel);
– unexploited residual fuel.
The investigated typical flight profile of an advanced Celera 500l type aircraft is shown in Fig. 12.
 Fig. 12. Typical aircraft flight profile under study

The flight range L depends on the available fuel on board the aircraft and on the average fuel consumption per kilometre
ԛcr over the flight route. It is determined as the sum of horizontal ranges at altitude, descent and range in the horizontal
flight section. Flight duration is defined as the sum of time spent on take-off, climb, horizontal flight, descent and landing.
The amount of fuel consumed in horizontal flight is determined taking into account fuel consumption during other phases
of flight and the air navigation reserve.
In order to determine the total range and flight duration, the characteristics of climb, horizontal flight and descent must
be known. Ground fuel consumption for engine testing and taxiing prior to take-off is not included in the take-off weight
of the aircraft and is refuelled in excess of the estimated total reserve for the flight.
Fig. 13-15 show the obtained horizontal section length of the Celera 500l prospective aircraft and the average kilometer
fuel consumption of the aircraft propulsion system at cruising mode under natural and full artificial laminarization.

Fig. 13. Horizontal flight path length of the aircraft

 Fig. 14. Average kilometer fuel consumption of the aircraft propulsion system at cruising mode

Fig. 15. Average kilometer fuel consumption of the aircraft propulsion system at cruising mode

7. CONCLUSIONS

The analysis of the results presented leads to the following conclusions: the obtained fuel consumption per kilometer
under natural (0.132 kg/km) and full artificial laminarization (0.097 kg/km) flow conditions are in the range stated by Otto
Aviation as 0.095 to 0.131 kg/km.

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