HK Edited

18ECC302J Microwave & Optical
Communications
SRM Institute of Science and Technology

College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Sub Code: 18ECC302J Year/Semester: III / VI

Sub Title: Microwave & Optical Communications Course Time: Jan–May 2024
List of Experiments
Exp 1. Characteristics of Reflex Klystron

Exp 2. Study of power distribution in Directional coupler, E plane, H plane and Magic Tee
Exp 3. Impedance measurement by slotted line method
Exp 4. Gain and radiation pattern of Horn antenna
Exp 5. Characteristics of filters, Microstrip patch antenna and parallel line coupler
Exp 6. Design of RF Filters and Amplifier using computational tool
Exp 7. Analysis of field patterns of various modes inside a rectangular waveguide
Exp 8. DC characteristics of LED and Laser diode
Exp 9. DC characteristics of PIN and APD photo-diode
Exp 10. Measurement of Numerical Aperture, propagation and bending losses of optical
fiber
Exp 11. Analysis of Analog optical link
Exp 12. Analysis of Digital Optical link
Exp 13. Design of basic Optical Communication system using computational tool
Exp 14. Power budgeting and rise time budgeting in fiber optic link
Exp 15. Study experiment - Gunn Diode (Microwave) and Optical WDMA (Optical)
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
1. Turn off power and unplug from the wall before working on
circuits, except when absolutely necessary.
2. Complete all your wiring and check it carefully before turning on
the power supply.
3. Do not work on electrical equipment in a wet area or when touching
an object that may provide a hazardous earth ground path.
4. Turn off power and unplug equipment before checking or replacing
fuses, locate and correct the cause of a blown fuse or tripped circuit
breaker before replacing the fuse or resetting the circuit breaker.
5. Immediately report and do not use defective cords and plugs,
inspect cabling for defects such as frayed wiring, loose
connections, or cracked insulation.
6. Remove metal jewellers, watches, rings, etc., before working on
electrical circuits.
7. Never overload circuits.
8. Never leave unprotected systems unattended.
9. Horseplay can lead to serious accidents, especially in the
laboratory. Act in a mature manner and respect your group
members.
10. Make sure equipment chassis or cabinets are grounded. Never
cut off or defeat the ground connection on a plug.
Laboratory Report Cover Sheet
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
College of Engineering & Technology
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
18ECC302J Microwave & Optical Communications
VI Semester, 2023-24 (Even Semester)
Name :
Register No. :
Venue :
Title of Experiment :
Date of Conduction :
Date of Submission :
Marks
Particulars Max. Marks
Obtained
Pre-Lab 10
Post Lab 10
Lab Performance 15
Viva-voce 05
Total 40
REPORT VERIFICATION
Staff Name :
Signature :
Date :
MICROWAVE COMPONENTS AND MICROWAVE BENCH SETUP
RECTANGULAR WAVE GUIDE
Wave guides are manufactured to the

highest mechanical and electrical
standards and mechanical tolerances.
L and S band wave guides are fabricated by
precision brazing of brass-plates and all
other wave guides are in extrusion quality.
W.G. sections of specified length can be
supplied with flanges, painted outside and
silver or gold plated in side.
SPECIFICATIONS
X Band EIA No. : WR -90

Frequency : 8.2 - 12.4GHZ
Width : 2.286cm Height: 1.1016cm Width: 2.54cm
Height : 1.27cm ± Tol.(µm):7.6 Material: Brass/Copper.
FIXED ATTENUATORS
Series 5000 fixed Attenuators are meant for

inserting a known attenuation in a wave
guide system. These consists of a lossy vane
inserted in a section of wave guide, flanged
on both ends. These are useful for isolation
of wave guide circuits, padding and
extending the range of measuring
equipment’s.
Fixed Attenuators are available for 3.6 or
10dB attenuation values, but any attenuation
valve between 0 and 30dB can be provided.
SPECIFICATIONS
Model No: X-5000 / Frequency: 8.12 - 12.4 GHZ Attenuation (dB): 3,6,10/
Callibration Accuracy: ± 0.2dB/ Avg Power: 2W/Max VSWR: 1.10/ Max Insertion Loss
(dB): 0.2/W.G. Type: WG – 90/Flange Type (UG/U): 39.
A precision-built probe carriage has a centimeter scale with a vernier reading of 0.1mm
least count and a dial gauge can be mounted easily if precise readings are required.
Model No. : X – 6051

Freq (GHz) : 8.2 - 12.4
Max Residual VSWR : 1.01
WGtype(WR-) : 90
Flange Type (UG-/U) : 39
TUNABLE PROBE
Model 6055 Tunable probe is designed for

use with model 6051 slotted sections. These are
meant for exploring the energy of the EF in a
suitably fabricated section of wave guide.
The depth of penetration into a wave guide

- section is adjustable by the knob of the probe.
The tip pick up the RF power from the line and
this power is rectified by crystal detector, which
is then fed to the VSWR meter or indicating
instrument.
/Model No. : X6055 /Freq (Ghz) : 8.2 - 12.4

/output Connector : BNC(F) /Detector : IN23.
WAVE GUIDE DETECTOR MOUNT (TUNABLE)
Model 4051 Tunable Detector Mount is simple
and easy to use instrument for detecting
microwave power through a suitable detector. It
consists of a detector crystal mounted in a
section of a Wave guide and shorting plunger ModelNo. : X - 4051
for matching purpose. The output from the Freq.Range(GHz) : 8.2 - 12.4
O/PConnector : BNC (F)
crystal may be fed to an indicating instrument. Wave guide type (WR-): 90
In K and R bands detector mounts the plunger is FlangeType(UG/U) : 39
Detector : IN23
driven by a micrometer.
KLYSTRON MOUNT
Model 2051 Klystron mounts are meant for

mounting corresponding Klystrons such as
2K25, 723A/B, 726A or RK - 5976 etc.
These consists of a section of wave guide
flanged on one end and terminated with a
movable short on the other end. An octal base
with cable is provided for Klystron. Model No. X – 2051
:
Freq.Range(GHz) 8.2 - 12.4
CIRCULATORS :
WG Type (WR-) 90
:
FlangeType(UG/U) 39
:
Model No. X – 6021
:
Freq.Range(GHz) 8.2 - 10.6 or
10.2-12.2
:
Min. Isolation (dB) 20
:
Model 6021 and 6022 are T and Y types of Max. Insertion 0.4 Max.
Loss(dB)
three port circulators respectively. These are
:
precisely machined and assembled to get the VSWR 1.20
desired specifications. Circulators are matched
three port devices and these are meant for
allowing Microwave energy to flow in
clockwise direction with negligible loss but
almost no transmission in the anti-clockwise
direction.
SLIDE SCREW TUNERS

Model 4041 slide screw tuners are used for
matching purposes by changing the penetration
and position of a screw in the slot provided in
the centre of the wave guide.
These consists of a section of wave guide

flanged on both ends and a thin slot is provided
in the broad wall of the Wave guide. A carriage Model No. X – 4041
carrying the screw, is provided over the slot. A
:
Freq.Range(GHz) 8.2 - 12.4
VSWR upto 20 can be tuned to a value less than
1.02 at certain frequency. :
WG Type (WR-) 90
:
MULTIHOLE DIRECTIONAL COUPLERS Flange type (UG/U) 39
Model No. : X - 6003

Frequency Range (GHz): 8.2 - 12.4
Model 6000 series Multi hole directional couplers Coupling(dB) : 3,10,20,40
are useful for sampling a part of Microwave Directivity(dB) : 35
energy for monitoring purposes and for measuring Wave guide type (WR-) : 90
reflections and impedance. These consists of a Flange type (UG/U) : 39
section of Wave guide with addition of a second
parallel section of wave guide thus making it a four
port network. However, the fourth port is
terminated with a matched load. These two
parallel sections are coupled to each other through
many holes, almost to give uniform
coupling; minimum frequency sensitivity and high
directivity. These are available in 3,6,10,20 and
40dB coupling.
E PLANE TEE
Model 3061 E - plane tee are series type T -
junction and consists of three section of wave
guide joined together in order to divide or
compare power levels. The signal entering the
first port of this T-junction will be equally
dividing at second and third ports of the same
magnitude but in opposite phase.
Frequency Range (GHz): 8.2 -
12.4
WGType(WR-) : 90
FlangeType(UG/U) : 39
H - PLANT TEE
Model 3065 H - Plane Tee are shunt type T -
junction for use in conjunction with VSWR
meters, frequency-meters and other detector
devices. Like in E-plane tee, the signal fed through
first port of H - plane Tee will be equally divided
in magnitude at second and third ports but in same
phase.
Frequency Range (GHz): 8.2 - 12.4
WG Type(WR-) : 90
Flange Type(UG-/U) : 39
MAGIC TEE
Model 3045 E - H Tee consists of a section of
wave guide in both series and shunt wave guide
arms, mounted at the exact midpoint of main
arm. Both ends of the section of wave guide and
both arms are flanged on their ends. These Tees
are employed in balanced mixers, AFC circuits
and impedance measurement circuits etc. This
becomes a four terminal device where one Model No. : X - 3045
terminal is isolated from the input terminal. Frequency Range (GHz): 8.2 -
12.4
WG Type (WR-) : 90
Flange Type (UR-/U) : 39
MOVABLE SHORT

Frequency Range (GHz) : 8.2 - 12.4
WG Type(WR-) : 90
Model 4081 movable shorts consists of a section Flange Type(UG-/U) : 39
of waveguide, flanged on one end and
terminated with a movable shorting plunger on
the other end. By means of this non contacting
type plunger, a reflection co-efficient of almost
unity may be obtained.
MATCHED TERMINATION
Model 4000 are low power and non-reflective type
of terminations. It consists of a small and highly
dissipative taper flap mounted inside the centre of
a section of wave guide. Matched Terminations
are useful for VSWR measurement of various
Frequency Range (GHz) : 8.2 - 12.4
wave guide components. These are also employed
Max VSWR : 1.04
as dummy and as a precise reference loads with
Av Power : 2W
Tee junctions, directional
WG Type (WR-) : 90
couplers and other similar dividing devices.
PYRAMIDAL WAVEGUIDE HORN ANTENNA

Model 5041 pyramidal Wave guide Horn
antenna consists of waveguide joined to
pyramidal section fabricated from brass sheet.
The pyramidal section shapes the energy to
concentrate in a specified beam. Wave guide
horns are used as feed horns as radiators for
Freq. Range (GHz) : 8.2 - 12.4
reflectors and lenses and as a pick up antenna
Max VSWR : 1.20
for receiving microwave power.
WG Type (WR-) : 90
GUNN OSCILLATORS
Model 2151 Gunn Oscillators are solid state
microwave energy generators. These consists of
wave guide cavity flange do none end and
micrometer driven plunger fitted on the other
end. A gunn-diode is mounted inside the Wave
guide with BNC (F) connector for DC bias. Model No. : X - 2152
Each Gunn oscillator is supplied with Freq. Range (GHz) : 8.2 - 12.4
calibration certificate giving frequency vs Min output power : 10 MW
micro WG Type (WR-) : 90

PIN MODULATORS
Model 451 pin modulators are designed to
modulate the CW output of Gunn Oscillators. It
is operated by the square pulses derived from
the UHF(F) connector of the Gunn power
supply. These consists of a pin diode mounted
inside a section of Wave guide flanged on it’s Model No. : X - 451
both end. A fixed attenuation vane is mounted Freq. Range (GHz) : 8.2 - 12.4
inside at the input to protect the oscillator. Max RF Power : 1W

WG Type (WR-) : 90
GUNN POWER SUPPLY

Model X-110 Gunn Power supply comprises of a
regulated DC power supply and a square wave
generator, designed to operate Gunn-Oscillator
model 2151 or 2152, and pin modulators model
451 respectively. The DC voltage is variable from
0-10V. The front panel meter monitors the gunn
voltage and the current drawn by the Gunn diode.
The square wave of generator is variable from 0 -
10V. in amplitude and 900 - 1100 Hz in frequency.
The power supply has been so designed to protect
Gunn diode from reverse voltage application over
transient and low frequency oscillations by the
negative resistance of the Gunn-diode.
SPECIFICATIONS
Amplifier Type : High gain tuned at one frequency
Frequency : 1000 Hz ±2%
Sensitivity : 0.1 microvolt at 200 for full scale
Bandwidth : 25 - 30cps
Range : 70dB min in 10 dB steps
Scale selector : Normal Expand
Gain control : ‘Coarse’ &‘Fine’
Mains power : 230V,50Hz
ISOLATORS
The three port circulators Model 6021 may be converted into isolators by terminating
one of its ports into matched load. These will work over the frequency range of
circulators. These are well matched devices offering low forward insertion loss and high
reverse isolation.

Frequency Range (GHz) : 8.6-10.6 or 10.2-12.2
Min Isolation (dB) : 20
Max Insertion Loss (dB) : 0.4 Max
VSWR : 1.20
BLOCKDIAGRAM: Microwave Bench Setup

EXP NO: 1 MODE CHARACTERISTICS OF REFLEX KLYSTRON
1.1 OBJECTIVE
1. To study and plot the reflex klystron output and frequency characteristics.
2. To find mode number, transit time, electronic tuning range (ETR) and Electronic
tuning sensitivity (ETS)
1.2 HARDWARE REQUIRED

Klystron Power Supply, Klystron with mount, Isolator, Frequency meter, Variable
Attenuator, Slotted section with Probe carriage, CRO, Movable Short.
1.3 INTRODUCTION
Klystron is a microwave vacuum tube employing velocity modulation. These
electrons move towards the repeller (ie) the electrons leaving the cavity during the positive
half cycle are accelerated while those during negative half cycle are decelerated. The faster
ones penetrate further while slower ones penetrate lesser in the field of repeller voltage. But,
faster electrons leaving the cavity take longer time to return and hence catch up with slower
ones. In the cavity, the electrons bunch and interact with the voltage between the cavity
grids. It consists of an electron gun producing a collimated electron beam. It bunches pass
through grids at time the grid potentials is such that electrons are decelerated they give by
energy. The electrons are then collected by positive cavity wall near cathode. To protect
repeller from damage, repeller voltage is applied before accelerating voltage.
Transit time is defined as the time taken for the electron to travel in to the reflector
space and back to the gap t1=n+3/4, n is an integer. It depends on beam and reflector voltages.
Several combinations of beam – reflector voltages provide oscillations for the particular
value of n. Each value of n corresponds to a different mode. Modes corresponding n=2 and
n=3 are often used for optimum efficiency.
ETR – Electronic tuning range i.e, the frequency band from one end of the mode to
another is calculated by
ETR = f1max – f1min (GHz) for N1 mode f1max, f1min → half power frequencies
ETS – Electronic tuning sensitivity
𝑓1𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑓1𝑚𝑖n
ETS= (𝑀𝐻𝑧/𝑉)
𝑣1𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑣1𝑚𝑖𝑛
f1max, f1min → half power frequencies

V1max, V1min→ corresponding repeller voltages for a particular mode.
1.4 PRELAB QUESTIONS

1. Will microwave affect human?
2. What are all the precautions should be taken to avoid microwave Hazards
3. What is the effect of cavity gap (Interaction space) on electron bunching?
4. Explain about the mode in reflex klystron.
5. Higher order mode occurs at repeller voltage.
6. When is the output power of reflex klystron maximum?
7. What is transit time?
8. Draw the apple gate diagram of reflex klystron.
1.5 PRECAUTIONS
1. During operation of Klystron, repeller does not carry any current and as such it may
severely be damaged by electron bombardment. To protect repeller from such
damage, the repeller negative voltage is always applied before anode voltage.
2. The repeller voltage should be varied in one direction to avoid hysterisis.
3. While measuring output power frequency meter should be detuned each time.
4. An isolator or attenuator should be used between klystron and other equipment in
the set up to avoid loading of the klystron.
5. Before switching on power supply the control knobs of klystron power supply
should be kept as below.
Meter select :V
Modulation : AM
Beam voltage knob : fully anticlockwise (min)
Repeller voltage : fully clockwise(max)
AM–Amplitude : fully clockwise (max)
AM – Frequency knob : mid position.
1.6 BLOCK DIAGRAM:
Klystron
Power supply C.R.O
Klystron with Variable Frequency Dectector

Isolater Motor
Mount Attenuator Meter
1.7 MODEL GRAPH:
Figure 1: Output voltage VsRepeller Voltage
Figure 2: Frequency Vs Repeller Voltage

1.8 EXPERIMENT
PROCEDURE
1. Assemble the components as shown in fig.
2. After following the necessary precautions, the Klystron Power Supply is switched ON.
3. Adjust the variable attenuator to obtain maximum output.
4. Vary the repeller voltage from it’s maximum negative value and increase
it in steps of V and record output power and frequency.
5. Measure the frequency by tuning the frequency meter corresponding to a dip in the output
voltage each time.
6. The frequency meter is detuned before measuring the output power each time.
7. Plot the mode characteristics of Reflex Klystron. (i.e. Output Voltage Vs Repeller voltage
and Frequency Vs Repeller voltage)
1.9 CALCULATIONS
(i) Knowing mode top voltages of two adjacent modes, mode numbers of the modes
is computed from the equation,
𝑁2 𝑉1 (𝑛 + 1) + 3/4
= =
𝑁1 𝑉2 𝑛 + 3/4
Where V1 and V2 are the values of repeller voltages required to operate
the klystron in mode numbers N1 and N2.
(ii) Knowing mode number, transit time of each mode is calculated from
𝑛+3/4 𝑁1
𝑡1 = 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
𝑓01 𝑓01
f 01 → frequency of microwave operation in one mode.

(iii) ETR – Electronic tuning range i.e, the frequency band from one end
of the mode to another is calculated by
ETR = f1max – f1min for N1 mode (GHz)
f1max – f1min → half power frequencies
(iv) ETS – Electronic tuning sensitivity
𝑓1max −𝑓1min
ETS= (𝑀𝐻𝑧/𝑉)
𝑣1𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑣1𝑚𝑖𝑛
f1max, f1min→ half power frequency

V1max, V1min→ corresponding repeller voltages for a particular mode.
1.10 TABULATION:
Mode Frequency (GHz) Repeller voltage (V) Output Voltage (mV)
1.11 POST LAB QUESTIONS:

1. What is the effect of transit time?
2. Why only discrete modes of operation are possible in reflex klystron.
3. Which mode number is most frequently used? Why?
4. Velocity modulation of electrons can result in density modulation of the same.
Comment.
5. Which microwave tube used in microwave ovens?
6. How the reflex klystron can be used in radar application?
7. Find the maximum input voltage of a two cavity klystron amplifier with the
following parameters: V0 = 1 KV, I0 = 25 mA, R0 = 40 Ω, f = 3 GHz, Gap
spacing in either cavity: 1 mm, Spacing between two cavities: 4 cm, Effective
shunt impedance excluding beam loading = 30 kΩ; J1(X) = 0.582, X = 1.481.
1.12 RESULT
The mode characteristics of reflex klystron has been studied and plotted.
Transit time, ETR and ETS are determined for each mode of operation.
Modes Transit Time(µs) ETR (GHz) ETS (MHz/V)
Mode 1
Mode 2
Mode 3
EXP NO: 2.1 STUDY OF POWER DISTRIBUTION IN DIRECTIONAL COUPLER
2.1.1 OBJECTIVE
To study the power distribution in various ports of directional coupler and measure
the following parameters:
i) Insertion loss
ii) Coupling factor
iii) Directivity
And also design a multi hole directional coupler to find its directivity.
2.1.2 HARDWARE REQUIRED

Klystron power supply, Klystron with mount, Isolator, variable attenuator, CRO,
Directional Coupler, Matched termination
2.1.3 INTRODUCTION
A directional coupler is a hybrid waveguide joint, which couple power in an auxiliary
waveguide arm in one direction. It is a four-port device but one of the ports is terminated
into a matched load (Refer figure 1).
Characteristics of a Directional Coupler

An ideal directional coupler has the following characteristics.
i. If power is fed into port (1) the power is coupled in ports (2) and (3) i.e., power
flows in the forward direction of the auxiliary arm port (3) but no power couples
in port (4) i.e., in backward direction. Similarly power fed in (2) couples into
ports (1) and (4) and not in (3).
ii. All the four ports are matched, i.e. if three of them are terminated in matched
loads, the fourth is automatically terminated in a matched load.
iii. If power couples in reverse direction, power fed in (1) appears in ports (2) and
(4) and nothing in (3), then such type of coupler is known as backward directional
coupler. The conclusion is that in the auxiliary section the power is coupled in
only one direction.
We will measure coupling coefficient, directivity and the main line insertion loss as a
function of frequency.
Figure 1: Directional coupler as a three – port device: Uni directional coupler
2.1.4 PRELAB QUESTIONS

1. How does power couple in directional coupler.
2. Give the applications of directional coupler.
3. What is the purpose of measuring directivity and coupling factor?
4. Give the S matrix for directional coupler.
5. What is the relation between directivity and isolation?
2.1.5 EXPERIMENT
2.1.5.1 PROCEDURE:
INSERTION LOSS
1. Set the equipment by connecting detector mount to the input end (without
directional coupler).
2. Set mode 3 and observe the input voltage Vi. Do not alter till the end of the
experiment.
3. Insert the directional coupler; terminate port 4 with matched termination.
4. Connect detector mount to port 2 and measure V12.
5. Calculate insertion loss as per the formula.
COUPLING FACTOR
1. To measure coupling factor, terminate port 2 with matched termination, connect
detector mount to port 4 and measure V14.
2. Calculate coupling factor as per the formula.
DIRECTIVITY:
1. Setup the equipment as shown in fig. Terminate port 2 with matched termination
and connect detector mount to port 4.
2. Measure the voltage at port 4 and note it as V14.
3. Connect the directional coupler in reverse direction. ie, port 2 - input, port 1-
matched termination, port 4 – detector mount.
4. Measure the voltage as V24
5. Calculate directivity D as per the formula.
2.1.5.2 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Observations
Vi =
V12 =
V14=
V24=
INSERTION LOSS (L)
L = 20log10 (Vi/V12) dB
COUPLING FACTOR(C)
C = 20log10 (Vi/V14) dB
DIRECTIVITY (D)
D = 20log10 (V14/V24) dB
2.1.5.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Mode 3 setup:
Insertion Loss (V12) measurement
Coupling Factor (V14) measurement

2.1.5.4 DESIGN:
Design of a five-hole 30 dB directional coupler with Chebyshev distribution for wavelength

ratio of 2 at the band edges.
n=5 r =2
The reverse voltage
CR = 2[C1cos(5-1) + C2 cos(5-3) ] + C3
= 2[C1cos4 + C2 cos2] + C3
= 2[C1 (8cos4-8 cos2+1] + C2 (2cos2-1)] + C3
At the band edge f=f1 and =1 = /1+r =/3
A change of variable according to cos  = xcos1 gives cos  = xcos (/3) = x/2
CR = 2[C1(x4/2-2x2+1) + C2 (x2/2-1)] + C3
= C1 x4+ (C2-4 C1) x2 + (C3+2C1-2C2)
= Cm T5-1(x)
= Cm(8x4-8x2+1)
Equating the coefficients
C1 = 8C, C2 = 4 C1-8 Cm, C3 + 2C1-2C2 = Cm,
C3 = 33Cm
Now coupling
C = 2(C1 + C2) + C3=30dB
= 10-30/20
= 0.0316
(or)
2(8+24) Cm+33 Cm=0.0316
97 Cm= 0.0316
Cm = 3.264X10-4
Coupling values of the holes are
C1 =8 Cm = 26.08x10-4
C2 =24Cm =78.24x10-4
C3 =33 Cm=107.58x10-4
Directivity D = - C1+20log (1/ Cm)
D=39.7dB
DIRECTIVITY MEASUREMENT
2.1.6 POST LAB QUESTIONS:
1. Explain how back power is zero in a directional coupler with neat diagram.
2. What is multi hole directional coupler?
3. What are the factors used to determine the parameters of directional coupler?
4. List the applications of directional coupler.
5. A directional coupler having the directivity of 35dB, forward voltage V14=
10mV. Calculate its input voltage and V24
6. A four-port directional coupler has 4:1 power splitting ratio and has dissipation
loss of 3dB. The coupler directivity is 40 dB. What fraction of input power P1
will go to ports P2 and P3?
2.1.7 RESULT:
Thus, the power distribution in various ports of a directional coupler was studied
and the following parameters are calculated.
Coupling factor ___________

Directivity ___________
Insertion loss ___________
EXP NO. 2.2 STUDY OF POWER DISTRIBUTION IN E PLANE, H PLANE AND
MAGIC TEE
2.2.1 OBJECTIVE
To determine isolations and coupling coefficients for E, H plane Tee and Magic Tee
junctions.

Klystron power supply, Klystron with mount, isolator, variable attenuator, Magic
Tee, Matched termination, detector mount, CRO
2.2.3 INTRODUCTION
H Plane Tee:
Figure 1 shows the sketch of H plane tee. It is clear from the sketch that an auxiliary
waveguide arm is fastened perpendicular to the narrow wall of a main guide, thus it is a three
port device in which axis of the auxiliary or side arm is parallel to the planes of the magnetic
field of the main guide and the coupling from the main guide to the branch guide is by means
of magnetic fields. Therefore, it is also known as H plane tee. The perpendicular arm is
generally taken as input and other two arms are in shunt to the input and hence it is also
called as shunt tee. Because of symmetry of the tee; equivalent circuit of H plane, when
power enters the auxiliary arm, and the two main arms 1 and 2 are terminated in identical
loads, the power supplied to each load is equal and in phase with one another. Thus H plane
tee is an `adder’.
E Plane Tee:
Figure 2 shows the sketch of E plane tee. It is clear from the sketch of the E plane tee that an
auxiliary waveguide arm is fastened to the broader wall of the main guide. Thus, it is also a
three-port device in which the auxiliary arm axis in parallel to the plane of the electric fields
of the main guide, and the coupling from the main guide to the auxiliary guide is by means
of electric fields. Therefore, it is also known as E plane tee. It causes load connected to its
branches to appear in series. So, it is often referred to as a series tee. The E plane tee divides
the power equally and 180 out of phase. Thus, E plane Tee is a subtract or / differentiator.
Magic Tee:
An interesting type of T junction is the hybrid tee, commonly known as `magic tee’
which is shown in Figure 3. The device as can be seen from Fig. is a combination of the E
arm and H plane tees. Arm 3, the H arm forms an H plane tee and arm 4, the E arm, forms
an E plane tee in combination with arms 1 and 2. The central lines of the two tees coincide
and define the plane of symmetry, that is, if arms 1 and 2 are of equal length, the part of
structure on one side of the symmetry plane shown by shaded area is the mirror image of
that on the other. Arms 1 and 2 are sometimes called as the side or collinear arms. The `magic
Tee’ is derived from the manner in which power divides among the various arms. If power
is fed into arm 3, the electric field divides equally between arms 1 and 2 and the fields are in
phase. Because of symmetry of the T junction, no net electric field parallel to the narrow
dimension of the waveguide is excited in arm 4. Thus no power is coupled in port 4.
Reciprocity demands no coupling in port 3 if power is fed in 4. Another property that results
from the symmetry of the junction is, if power is fed in E or H arm, it is equally divided
between arms 1 and 2.
2.2.4 PRELAB QUESTIONS:

1. What is Tee junction? Give two examples
2. What is the other name for Hybrid ring?
3. Name some wave guide components used to change the direction of the guide
through an arbitrary angle
4. What is the S matrix of H plane Tee junction?
5. List some Applications of magic Tee.
2.2.5 EXPERIMENT
2.2.5.1 PROCEDURE:
E Plane & H Plane Tee and Magic Tee: Isolation & Coupling Coefficient
1. Energize the microwave source and set mode 3.
2. Note down the input voltage as Vi (mv) (should not alter the setting)
3. Now connect the magic tee/E-Plane/H-Plane Tee.
4. Determine the corresponding voltages Vj (mv) for each pair of ports by
connecting one port to the source and measuring the output at other port while
the remaining ports are connected to matched termination.
5. Determine the isolation and coupling coefficients for the given Tee using the
following formula.
2.2.5.2 BLOCK DIARGAM
Characteristics of E & H Plane Tee
Klystron
Power Supply
Klystron Variable Detector

with Motor Isolator E/H Tee
attenuator Mount
Matched
Termination CRO
2.2.5.3 (i) TABULATION:
E-Plane & H–Plane Tee

Vin =1V
Voltage(mv) Isolation Coupling Coefficient

Nature of Tee I/P O/P (Iij) dB Cij = 10Iij/20
nd
st 2 C12
1 2
Arm rd
C13
3
E-Plane
rd 2nd C32
3 2
Arm st
C31
1
2nd
st C12
1 2
rd
arm 3 C13
H=Plane
rd 2nd
3 C32
2
Arm 1st C31
Isolation between port 1 and 2 is I12 = 20 log10 (V1 / V2) dB, and when matched load
and detector are interchanged I13 = 20 log10 (V1 / V3) dB .
The coupling coefficient by the formula C = 10-α/20 Where α is the attenuation in dB between
the input (i) and detector (j) arm when the third arm is terminated in a matched load.
Thus α = 10 log Pi /Pj dB
where Pi is the power delivered to ‘i’ arm and
Pj is the power detected in arm j.
For example, when the attenuation measured between arms 1 and 2 is 3 dB when arm 3
terminated in matched load, then the coupling coefficient between arms 1 and 2,
C12 = 10-α/ 20= 10-3 / 20 = 0.708 dB
E-Plane Tee H- Plane Tee
Characteristics of Magic Tee
Magic Tee
2.2.5.3 (ii) TABULATION:
Magic Tee
Magic Tee orientation

Input Vi (mv) Vj(mv) Iij (dB) Cij
Output arm-j
Arm-i
2
1 3
4
1
2 3
4
4
3 1
2
3
4 1
2
2.2.6 POST LAB QUESTIONS:

1. Microwave components used to connect branch waveguide to the main
waveguide or transmission line are known as
2. What are series and shunt Tee?
3. Justify the name ‘Magic’ in magic tee.
4. Why phase change of 180 degree is observed in series tee in electric field and not
in shunt Tee?
5. How does power equally divide between two collinear arms?
6. If a microwave signal with 1V 0 phase is fed at port3 of E-plane Tee, then what
will be the output at port1 and port2?
7. If 1V microwave signal is fed to both port1 and port2 of H-plane Tee then, what
is the output at port3?
8. If a microwave signal with 1V is fed at port3 of Magic Tee, then what will be the
output at port4?
2.2.7 RESULT:
Thus, the power distribution in various ports of E, H and magic tee was studied.
Isolations and coupling factor are determined.
EXP NO: 3 IMPEDENCE MEASUREMENT BY SLOTTED LINE METHOD
3.1 OBJECTIVE
To measure the impedance of an unknown load using slotted Line.
Klystron Power supply, Klystron with mount, Isolator, Frequency meter,

Variable attenuator, Slotted section, Movable Short, CRO.
3.3 INTRODUCTION
The simplest method for measurement of impedance at microwave frequencies

is as follows. The unknown impedance is co nn e ct ed a t t he end of a slotted coaxial
line. Microwave power is fed from the other end of coaxial line. Unknown impedance
reflects a part of this power. This reflection coefficient is measured by probing the
standing wave fields in the slotted line by a suitable arrangement. The reflection
coefficient is given by
𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍0
Γ=
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0
ZL - Load impedance at any point
Z0 - Characteristics impedance of waveguide at operating frequency
Thus if  is measured & Z0 is known, ZL can be found. In general ZL is complex,

both magnitude and phase of  is needed. The magnitude of  may be found from
VSWR measurement.
𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅 − 1
|Γ| =
𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅 + 1
The phase of  may be found by measuring the distance of first voltage minima
from the load. Thus the measurement of impedance involves the measurements of
VSWR and the distance of the voltage minima from the load. These measurements
may be carried out by using a slotted line and probe arrangement.
1. What are the types of methods used in microwave frequencies to measure

impedance?
2. Relation-ship between S & P.
3. Define VSWR.
4. Microwave impedance measurement at different frequencies can be achieved
with the help of
5. A loaded cavity has a lower value of Q factor than an unloaded cavity. Comment.
3.5 EXPERIMENT
3.5.1 EXPERIMENT PROCEDURE
1 Assemble the components as per the circuit diagram
2 After making initial adjustments, mode 3 is set up for operations
3 The frequency of the excited wave is found by adjusting the frequency meter for
a dip in the output meter. Thereafter detune the frequency meter slightly
4 The VSWR is found for the given load (horn), by measuring Vmax and Vmin.
5 Probe carriage is moved to one reference point. With load-end terminated with
the given load, the first minima (X) is noted from the reference point.
6 The given load is replaced with short-circuit, the first minima (Y) or d1 is noted
down from the same reference point. Moving the carriage further determine the
successive minima (d2). i.e., With load - end short circuited, two successive
minimas (d1 and d2) are found out by moving the probe carriage along the slotted
waveguide line.
7 Find the shift (X-Y). Depending on whether the carriage is moved towards the
load or source, it will be positive or negative.
8 The impedance of the unknown load is found using smith chart and verified
using formula.
Calculation of Impedance using Smith Chart
1 Determine VSWR of the given load from the measurement

2 Draw a VSWR Circle
3 Calculate the shift βΛl in terms of wavelength.
4 Locate the shift point from (0,0) moving clockwise (if βΛl is negative) or
anticlockwise(if βΛl is positive) on the circumference.
5 Join the point to the centre of smith chart.
6 The intersection of VSWR circle and the line gives the normalized load
impedence (ZL)
Theoretical Calculations:
Load impedance (ZL) is calculated from the product of normalized impedance

and characteristic impedance of slotted line.
OBSERVATIONS AND FORMULA
Observations
fo =
For the Load
Vmax =
Vmin =
X = (First minima from the ref. point)
For the Short
Y = d1 = (First minima from the ref. point)
d2 = (successive minima)
FORMULA:
Characteristics Impedance Z0
Z0 = 120π / √(1-(fc/f0))2
1- j (VSWR) tan  Λl
ZL = zo VSWR -j tan Λl
 Λl = (X-Y) / λg
Fc → Cutoff frequency
Fc = c/λc
Λc → Cut off wavelength
Λc = 2a
A → inner broad dimension of

waveguide
Λg = 2(d1 – d2)
VSWR = Vmax/Vmin
3.5.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM
IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT
Klystron Power
Supply
Slotted
Movable
Frequency Variable Section with
Klystron with short/
Isolator Meter Attenuator Probe
Mount Load
Carriage
Tunable
probe
CRO
3.6 POSTLAB QUESTIONS
1. How will you measure the impedance of the unknown load in the microwave
setup bench?
2. What are the application of smith chart?
3. What is the input impedance of the shorted line and open line?
4. The normalized impedance of horn antenna 0.87 + j0.36Ω is obtained from the
smith chart and the characteristics impedance of slotted line section is 500Ω.
Calculate the following parameters
a. Frequency of transmission, λ 0, λg, VSWR and ZL.
b. Identify ZL is capacitive or reactive.
3.7 RESULT
The impedance of an unknown load was calculated the value was found out to be
From smith chart:
From theoretical calculations:
EXP NO 4. GAIN AND RADIATION PATTERN OF HORN ANTENNA
4.1 OBJECTIVE
To obtain Gain and Radiation pattern of a Horn Antenna.
Klystron Power Supply, Klystron with mount , Isolator, Frequency meter,

Fixed Attenuator Detector, Parabolic Reflector, CRO.
4.3 INTRODUCTION
A horn antenna may be regarded as a flared out or opened out wave guide. A
wave guide is capable of radiating radiation into open space provided the same is excited
at one end and opened at the other end. However, the radiation is much greater through
wave guide than the 2- w i r e transmission line. To overcome reflection and diffraction
in the wave guide, the mouth of the waveguide is opened out which assumes the shape
of a electromagnetic horn. If the wave guide is terminated by any type of horn, the abrupt
discontinuity existed is replaced by a gradual transformation, t he n al l t h e energy
incident in forward direction in the waveguide will now be radiated, provided the
impedance matching is proper. This improves directivity and reduces diffraction. If
flaring is done only in one direction, then sectorial horn is produced. If flaring is done
along both the walls, then pyramidal horn is obtained. By flaring the walls of the
circular waveguide, a conical horn is formed. The fields inside the waveguide propagate
in the same manner as in free space, but on reaching the mouth of the waveguide, these
propagating fields continue to propagate in the same general direction but also starts
spreading laterally and the wave front eventually becomes spherical. However this may
be treated as transition region where the change over from the guided propagation to free
space propagation occurs. Since the waveguide impedance & free space impedance
are not equal, hence to avoid standing wave ratio, flaring of walls of waveguide is
done which besides matching of impedance also provide concentrated radiation
pattern(ie)greater directivity and narrower beam width. It is the flared structure that is
given the name electro magnetic horn radiator. The function is to produce a uniform
phase front with a larger aperture in comparison to waveguide and thus directivity
is greater. If flare angle is very large, the wave front on the mouth of the horn will
be curved rather than plane. This will result in non-uniform phase distribution over the
aperture, resulting in increased beam width and reduced directivity, and vice versa
occurs if the flare angle is very small. The directivity of the horn antenna is given as
D = 7.5 A/λ2 where A is the area of horn mouth opening. Horn antennas are extensively
used at microwave frequencies under the condition that power gain needed is moderate.
4.4 PYRAMIDAL HORN ANTENNA
1. List some of the types of antennas used in microwaves.

2. Why is a paraboloid preferred to horn at microwave frequencies?
3. Write the formula for directivity & power gain of horn antenna.
4. What are the different types of horn antenna used in microwave frequencies?
5. Comment on the radiation pattern of a practical antenna and a theoretical one.
4.6 PRECAUTIONS
1. Power flowing out of horns may damage retina of the eye so do not see directly
inside the horn antenna
4.7 EXPERIMENT PROCEDURE
1. Setup the equipment as shown in Fig. Keeping the axis of both antennas in
same axis line
2. Energize the microwave source, and set mode 3 determine input power
at transmitting antenna end by connecting detector mount.
3. Connect the Receiving antenna.
4. Measure the power received at different transmitter-receiver antenna
distances.
5. Make a plot of gain pattern with distance of the receiving antenna.
6. Fix the receiver antenna distance at an optimum, turn the receiving horn to the
left in 5° steps upto atleast 60° and note the corresponding output voltage.
7. Repeat the above step but this time turning the receiver to the right and note
down the readings.
8. Draw a relative power pattern on the polar graph ie, Output power
versus reception angle.
9. From the plot obtain the 3 dB beam width.
4.8 BLOCK DIAGRAM
3 dB
Beam Width
4.9 Gain Vs. Separation distance
4.10 TABULATION
INPUT VOLTAGE VT = mv
S. No Separation Distance (r) Output voltage VR Gain (dB) =

(cm) (mV) 10log(4πr/λ)+20 log
(VR/VT)
1
2
3
4
Separation distance (r)= cm
VR (mV) Gain (dB) = 10log(4πr/λ)+20 log

Angle (degrees)
(VR/VT)
Clockwise Anticlockwise Clockwise Anticlockwise
0
5
10
15
.
.
80
85
90
4.11 POST LAB
1. How to find an antenna Beam width?

2. Why measured values of gain and band width do not tally with theoretical values.
3. Why is the maximum signal detected when the transmitting and the receiving units
are axially aligned. Explain
4. When a reflectometer is employed in the radiation of signals, how does it affect the
VSWR at the transmitter and the receiver.
5. List some important applications of antenna
6. Calculate the near and far field regions of horn antenna for the experimental setup.
7. Consider the transmitting and receiving antenna having the gain of 17dB separated by
the distance R= 2d2/ λ and the transmitted power Pt = 100mW. Calculate the power
received at the distance R and also find the distance at which Pr = 0W.
8. Two lossless X-band horn antennas are separated by a distance of 200λ. The amplitude
reflection coefficients at the terminals of the transmitting and receiving antennas are 0.15
and 0.18, respectively. The maximum directivities of the transmitting and receiving
antennas (over the isotropic antenna) are 18 dB and 22 dB, respectively. Assume that the
input power in the lossless transmission line connected to the antenna is 2 W, and that the
antennas are perfectly aligned and polarization matched. Calculate the power (in mW)
delivered to the load at the receiver.
4.12 RESULT
Thus, the Gain Vs. separation distance and directional pattern of the given antenna
were drawn.
EXP NO: 5 CHARACTERISTICS OF FILTERS, MICROSTRIP
PATCH ANTENNA AND PARALLEL LINE COUPLER
5.1 OBJECTIVE
To Study the characteristics of microstrip filters, microstrip patch antenna and parallel
line coupler
5.2 HARDWAREREEQUIRED
C-Band source, 5 dB attenuator, Test jig, Detector, Active filter, coupler, CRO
5.3 INTRODUCTION
Microstrip is a type of electrical transmission line which can be fabricated using printed
circuit board technology, and is used to convey microwave-frequency signals. It consists of a
conducting strip separated from a ground plane by a dielectric layer known as the substrate.
Microstrip line is used to carry Electro-Magnetic Waves (EM waves) or microwave frequency
signals. It is used to design and fabricate RF and microwave components such as directional
coupler, power divider/combiner, filter, antenna, MMIC etc. Microstrip lines are also used in high-
speed digital PCB designs, where signals need to be routed from one part of the assembly to
another with minimal distortion, and avoiding high cross-talk and radiation. Microstrip line will
have low to high radiation, will support 20 to 120 ohm impedance, supports Q factor of about 250.
Difficult to mount chip in shunt mode but easy in series mode. The RF/microwave product made
using microstrip line is less expensive and lighter in weight compare to its waveguide counterpart.
Usually FR-4 dielectric substrate is used as PCB for microstrip based etching due to its low cost.
Microstrip
Block Diagram
Using Filters
5db
C Band Active
Attenuator Test Jig Detector CRO
Source Filter
Using Patch
Test jig
C Band
5db
Source CRO
Attenuator Coupler Detector Active Filter
Termination
1. Low Pass Filter: It passes all the signals between zero frequency to
some limit called the cut-off frequency and attenuates other higher
frequencies.
Specification:
The cut off frequency : 50.2 GHz
Insertion loss : 30.2 dB
Return Loss : 150.5 dB
1. Parallel Coupled Line Coupler :It consists of two close and

parallel transmission lines and the coupled power depends on the
separation between two lines.
Specifications:
Operating frequency 5+0.2 GHz
Insertion Loss (At Through port) : 105 dB
Coupling : 151.0dB
Isolation : 232dB
Directivity : 122dB
Return Loss(Through) : 202db
5.4 PRELAB QUESTION

1. Define Active and Passive filter,
2. Draw the frequency response curve of Band Pass Filter.
3. Calculate the value of capacitor to give cutoff frequency of fL of 1 KHz with resistor
value of 10 KΩ.
4. Write any four feeding method for microstrip patch antenna.
5. What is anechoic chamber?
5.5 EXPERIMENT
5.5.1 PROCEDURE
1. Assemble the kit as shown in the Figure.
2. Connect the 9 pin cable between power supply and detector
3. Connect power cords to the DC power supply and Active filter.
4. Connect 5-db attenuator to the source.
5. Connect RF cable between source jig and detector.
6. Set the desire frequency of the source using tuning knob of DC power supply.
7. Place Microstrip line in the Jig to set the reference voltage level ( usually 10V) using gain
control knob of the C-band Source(back panel)
8. Take out Microstrip line from the jig and place the component to be tested(LPF, Patch
antenna and parallel line coupler).
9. Note down the voltage level as seen in the CRO.
10. Repeat steps 8-11 for other frequencies.
11. Use Db conversion Formula to convert the ration in dB.
𝑑𝐵 = 20𝐿𝑜𝑔(𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 /𝑉𝑖𝑛 )
12. Plot the graph power VS frequency.
5.5.2 TABULATION
INPUT VOLTAGE V T=
O/P of
O/P of
source after Gain in dB
source using
S.No DC Voltage Frequency component is dB = 20 log
micro strip
placed (Vout) (Vout /Vin )
line
V
1. 4.0
2. 4.2
3. 4.4
4. 4.5
5. 4.8
6. 5.0
7. 5.2
8. 5.4
9. 5.5
10. 5.8
MODEL GRAPH
1. Low pass filter
2. Microstrip antenna
2. Parallel line coupler
5.6 POST LAB QUESTIONS
1. What are the methods of analysis of microstrip patch antenna.

2. Write the s-matrix for hybrid ring.
3. Draw the symbol of power divider.
4. Define coupling factor.
5.What is an isotropic radiator?
5.7 RESULT
Thus the characteristics of microstrip filters, microstrip patch antenna and parallel line
coupler are studied
EXP NO: 6 DESIGN OF RF FILTERS AND AMPLIFIER USING COMPUTATIONAL
TOOL
6.1 OBJECTIVE
To design and simulate the frequency response characteristics of RF filter and Amplifier
using HSPICE simulation tool.
6.2 SIMULATION TOOL REQUIRED
Hspice and Cosmos scope
6.3 DESCRIPTON
The common source topology exhibits a relatively high input impedance while providing
voltage gain and requiring a minimum voltage headroom. As such, it finds wide application in
analog circuits and its frequency response is of interest.
6.3.1 COMMON SOURCE AMPLIFIER
DESIGN
By virtue of transconductance, a MOSFET converts variations in its gate-source voltage to a small-

signal drain current, which can pass through a resistor to generate an output voltage. The common-
source stage performs such operation.
If the input voltage increases from zero, M1 is off and Vout = VDD. As Vin approaches VTH,
M1 begins to turn on, drawing current from RD and lowering Vout. If VDD is not excessively low,
M1 turns on saturation, and we have
Vout =VDD - RD 12 𝜇𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑥 (𝑤𝑙) (𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑇𝐻)2
Where the channel-length modulation is neglected. With further increase in Vin, Vout drops more
and the transistor continues to operate in saturation until Vin exceeds Vout by VTH. At this point,
Vin1 - VTH =VDD - RD 12 𝜇𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑥 (𝑤𝑙) (𝑉𝑖𝑛1 − 𝑉𝑇𝐻)2
Vout = Vin1 - VTH , Vout can be obtained
For Vin > VDD – RD 12 𝜇𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑥 (𝑤𝑙) (2(𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑇𝐻)𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 2 )

R1 and R2 is chosen in such a way that Vin is high enough to drive M1 into deep triode region.
Thus R1 =18k and R2=8.2k
If Vin is high enough to drive M1 into deep triode region, Vout << 2(Vin – VTH )
𝑅𝑜𝑛 𝑉𝐷𝐷
Vout = VDD = 𝑤
𝑅𝑜𝑛+𝑅𝐷 1+ 𝑅𝐷 𝜇𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑥 ( 𝑙 ) (𝑉𝑖𝑛−𝑉𝑇𝐻)
Here VDD = 10v, w=122u, l=180n, Vin=10mv from this RD=3.3k
𝜕𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑤
Voltage gain, Av = = - 𝑅𝐷 𝜇𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑥 ( 𝑙 ) (𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑇𝐻) = -gm RD
𝜕𝑉𝑖𝑛
Operating frequency is 1k there for capacitance values are 10u from
POWER CS AMPLIFIER WITH RESISTIVE LOAD
FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF CS AMPLIFIER WITH RESISTIVE LOAD
i
INFERENCE: Gain of 63.72 dB is obtained and bandwidth of 808.67 MHz is obtained
NOISE ANALYSIS
1 𝑤
Vout =VDD - RD 2
𝜇𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑥 ( 𝑙 ) (𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑇𝐻)2 (1+λVout)
1
F=
2𝜋𝑅𝑋𝑐
For large values of RD the effect of channel length modulation in M1 becomes significant.
Modifying
𝜕𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑤 1 𝑤 𝜕𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
= - 𝑅𝐷 𝜇𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑥 ( 𝑙 ) (𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑇𝐻) (1+λVout) - RD 2 𝜇𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑥 ( 𝑙 ) (𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑇𝐻)2 𝜆 𝜕𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝜕𝑉𝑖𝑛
Av = -gm RD - RD ID λ AV
ID λ = 1/r0
𝑟0 𝑅𝐷
Av = gm
𝑟0+𝑅𝐷
6.3.2 RF BAND PASS FILTER
The principal characteristic of a Band Pass Filter or any filter for that matter, is its ability to
pass frequencies relatively unattenuated over a specified band or spread of frequencies called the
“Pass Band”.
Simple Band Pass Filter can be easily made by cascading together a single Low Pass Filter with
a single High Pass Filter as shown.
The cut-off or corner frequency of the low pass filter (LPF) is higher than the cut-off frequency
of the high pass filter (HPF) and the difference between the frequencies at the -3dB point will
determine the “bandwidth” of the band pass filter while attenuating any signals outside of these
points
The relationship between resistors, R1 and R2 determines the band pass “Q-factor” and the
frequency at which the maximum amplitude occurs, the gain of the circuit will be equal to 2Q2.
PASSIVE BAND PASS FILTER CIRCUIT

Frequency Response of passive Band Pass Filter
6.4 HSPICE PROGRAM
6.4.1 CMOS RF AMPLIFIER
.option post
.include c:\synopsys\tsmc018.lib
vdd 1 0 dc 10
vin 3 0 ac sin(0 10m 1k 2n 0 0)
m0 5 2 4 4 cmosn w=122u l=180n
r1 1 2 r=18k
r2 2 0 r=8.2k
rs 4 0 r=1.42k
rd 1 5 r=3.3k
r0 6 0 r=33k
c1 3 2 c=10u
c2 4 0 c=100u
c3 5 6 c=10u
.tran 1m 5m
.ac dec 10 1 10g
.tf v(6) vin
.meas tran avgpower AVG POWER from=1n to=100n
.net v(6) vin
.noise v(6) vin
.plot z11(db) z11(m) z11(p) z11(i) z11(r)
.plot z22(db) z22(m) z22(p) z22(i) z22(r)
.plot ac gain=par('20*log(v(6)/v(3))')
.end
6.4.2 PASSIVE BAND PASS FILTER
.GLOBAL 1
.OPTION POST
.include c:\synopsys\tsmc018.lib
V 1 0 ac sin(0 1 10Khz)
C2 3 0 2nf
R1 1 2 1k
R2 3 0 1k
C1 2 3 1nf
.ac dec 10 10khz 100meghz
.print
.plot
.end
6.5 PRE LAB QUESTIONS
1. Write the limitations of the active filters over the passive filters.
2. What is filter? Discuss the types of filters.
3. Define transconductance of an amplifier.
4. What is the gain of an amplifier if gm=50mA/v and rd=10k
5. Write short notes on transient and ac analysis of an amplifier.
6. What is meant by order of the filter?
1. A second-order band pass filter is to be constructed using RC components that will only allow
a range of frequencies to pass above 1 kHz (1,000Hz) and below 30kHz (30,000Hz). Assuming
that both the resistors have values of 10kΩ, calculate the values of the two capacitors required.
2. The tuner for an FM radio requires a band-pass filter with a central frequency of 100 MHz
(frequency of a FM station) and a bandwidth of 2 MHz. a) Design such a filter. b) What are its cut-
off frequencies?
3. We have an amplifier that amplifies a 1 kHz signal from a detector. The load for this amplifier
can be modeled as a 50 kΩ resistor. The amplifier output has a large amount of 60 Hz noise. We
need to reduce the amplitude of noise by a factor of 10. Design a first-order passive filter which
can be placed between the amplifier and the load and does the job. Would this filter affect the 1
kHz signal that we are interested in? If so, by how much?
Result:
Thus the frequency response RF amplifier and filter have been simulated using HSPICE.
Cut off frequencies and Bandwidth of Band pass filter:
Gain and bandwidth of the CMOS RF amplifier:
EXP NO: 7 STUDY OF FIELD PATTERNS OF VARIOUS MODES INSIDE A
RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE
7.1.1 OBJECTIVE
Study of field patterns of various modes inside a rectangular waveguide.
7.1.2 REQUIREMENT:
You have to install a LabVIEW Run time Engine on your computer to run the exe file in
order to perform the experiment. The Run Time Engine can be downloaded from the following
link: http://joule.ni.com/nidu/cds/view/p/id/1101/lang/en
7.1.3 INTRODUCTION:
This experiment provides the field patterns of various modes inside a rectangular
waveguide. This gives the basic idea of the change in the field pattern; that is, electric and
magnetic field patterns with the change in modes inside a rectangular waveguide. One can
observe the field patterns of various modes in xy, xz and yz planes for different frequency bands.
Surface current density can also be observed on the walls of a rectangular waveguide.
Fig.1 Rectangular Waveguide
Electromagnetic waves propagating in open space travel out in all directions. The power
intensity of these waves decreases as the distance increases - it is proportional to the power of the
source divided by the square of the distance. The waveguide operates by confining the
electromagnetic wave inside a metallic structure so that it does not spread out, and losses resulting
from this effect are eliminated. In electromagnetics, the term waveguide may refer to any linear
structure that guides electromagnetic waves between two endpoints.
Typically a waveguide is thought of as a transmission line comprising a hollow conducting

tube, which may be rectangular or circular within which electromagnetic waves are propagated.
Unlike coaxial cable, there is no centre conductor within the waveguide. Signals propagate within
the confines of the metallic walls that act as boundaries. The signal is confined by total internal
reflection from the walls of the waveguide. Waveguides are used principally at frequencies in the
microwave range. Waveguides will only carry or propagate signals above a certain frequency,
known as the cut-off frequency. Below this the waveguide is not able to carry the signals. The cut-
off frequency of the waveguide depends upon its dimensions.
Rectangular Waveguide
A rectangular waveguide is a hollow metallic tube with a rectangular cross section. The
conducting walls of the waveguide confine the electromagnetic fields and thereby guide the
electromagnetic wave. The rectangular waveguide is basically characterized by its dimensions i.e.,
length ‘a’ and breadth ‘b’
Fig. 2 Waveguide structure with dimension ‘a’ and ‘b’
Modes: Electromagnetic waveguides are analyzed by solving Maxwell's equations, or their

reduced form, the electromagnetic wave equation, with boundary conditions determined by the
properties of the materials and their interfaces. These equations have multiple solutions, or
modes, which are eigen functions of the equation system. Each mode is therefore characterized
by an eigenvalue, which corresponds to a cutoff frequency below which the mode cannot exist in
the guide
Waveguide propagation modes depend on the operating wavelength and polarization and the
shape and size of the guide. The modes of the waveguide are typically classified into following
types:
• TE modes (Transverse Electric) have no electric field component in the direction of

propagation.
• TM modes (Transverse Magnetic) have no magnetic field component in the direction of
propagation.
• TEM modes (Transverse Electromagnetic) have neither electric nor magnetic field
component in the direction of propagation.
Field Theory: As we know, an electromagnetic field is comprised of electric and magnetic fields
which are perpendicular to each other. These fields have different patterns for each mode. These
patterns depend upon the mode numbers (m and n) and the dimensions (‘a’ and ‘b’) of the
waveguide. The electric field and magnetic field pattern are different for various modes in
different waveguides. The electric field component of an EM wave is characterized by Ex, Ey
and Ez components of the wave. Similarly, the magnetic field component of an EM wave is
characterized by Hx, Hy and Hz components of the wave. These components are usually plotted
on an XY plane which shows the field pattern for both the fields.
Field Equations: For TEmn mode, the field equations for a rectangular wave guide are:
For TEmn mode, the field equations for a rectangular waveguide are:
7.1.4 Procedure:
• Download the run time engine from this link
http://joule.ni.com/nidu/cds/view/p/id/1101/lang/en
• Click to begin experiment
Step 1: Select the frequency band in which you wish to see the field pattern.
Step 2: Select the type of mode, i.e. either Transverse Electric (TE) or Transverse
magnetic (TM). Step 3: Select pattern:
❖ Electric Field: Select this to view the electric field pattern of the given mode.
❖ Magnetic Field: Select this to view the magnetic field pattern of the given mode.
❖ Surface Current: Select this option to view the surface current density for TE10mode.
Step 4: Enter the values of m and n to obtain the field pattern, where m stands for number of half
waves of electric or magnetic intensity in the X- direction, and n stands for number of half waves
in the y direction if the propagation of wave is in z direction.
Step 5: Run the VI up to see the desired field pattern in XY, YZ and XZ planes. In case, you wish
to see the other field pattern then click stop and repeat steps 1-4 before running the program again.
Step 5: View Pattern
Observations
1. Plot the electric and magnetic field patterns for TE11 mode in X-band inside a rectangular
waveguide. Observe and explain the field patterns with proper reasons.
2. Plot the electric and magnetic field patterns for TM11 mode and also check for TM10
mode and check if the mode exists.
7.1.5 Pre Lab Questions
1. Which mode is dominant in rectangular waveguide (x > y)?
2. A waveguide section in a microwave circuit will act as a ___________ filter.
3. Degenerate modes in a waveguide are characterized by __________cut off frequencies and
field distributions
4. The cut-off frequencies of the dominant mode and the next higher order mode in a
designated waveguide are fc1 and fc2 respectively. The typical operating frequency range
for this waveguide is _______< f < _______
5. What is the cut off wavelength for TE20 mode for a standard rectangular waveguide?
7.1.6 Post Lab Questions
1. Which of the following modes is not present in a rectangular waveguide (x > y)?
2. With the change in the frequency band, dimensions of the waveguide will _________
3. In a rectangular waveguide, for TMm1 mode where m ≠ 0, the number of contours in
magnetic field pattern in xy plane is _________ to the value of m.
4. In a rectangular waveguide, for TE20 mode electric field and magnetic field components
are perpendicular in _____ planes.
5. If in a rectangular waveguide for which a = 2b, the cut-off frequency for TE02 mode is 12
GHz. Calculate the cut-off frequency for TM 11 mode.
7.1.7 Result
From the experiment, we can observe the field patterns of various modes inside a rectangular Wave
guide in xy, yz and zx planes. This also shows the current density variation inTE10mode in all three
planes. Here, one can observe the field patterns for various frequency bands. One can correlate the
above mentioned field equations with the field patterns of various modes and can develop better
understanding of the modes of the rectangular waveguides.
EXP NO: 7.2 ANALYSIS OF FIELD PATTERNS OF VARIOUS MODES
INSIDE A RECTANGULAR CAVITY
7.2.1 OBJECTIVE
Study of field patterns of various modes inside a rectangular cavity
7.2.2 REQUIREMENT:
You have to install a LabVIEW Run time Engine on your computer to run the exe file in
order to perform the experiment. The Run Time Engine can be downloaded from the following
link: http://joule.ni.com/nidu/cds/view/p/id/1101/lang/en
7.2.3 INTRODUCTION:
This gives the basic idea of the field pattern; that is, electric and magnetic field patterns for various
modes inside a rectangular cavity resonator. One can observe the field patterns of various modes
in xy, xz and yz planes for different frequency bands. Surface current density can also be observed
on the walls of a rectangular cavity resonator.
Field Pattern for dominant mode (TE101) along xy plane

About the experiment:
This experiment provides the field patterns of various modes inside a rectangular cavity.
The conducting walls of the cavity confine the electromagnetic fields inside the structure and
hence the cavity acts as a resonator. A number of distinct field configurations or modes can exist
in cavities. In rectangular cavity, modes are designated as TEmnp or TMmnp , where m, n, p are
the number of half wave variations in x, y, z directions respectively. In this experiment, you can
get better understanding of how the field patterns vary with the parameters m, n and p for
Transverse Electric (TE) and Transverse Magnetic (TM) modes in xy, yz and xz planes for
different frequency bands. The surface current density plot for the TE and TM modes can also
be observed on the walls of the rectangular cavity. The figure below shows the planes of a
rectangular cavity
In this experiment, a rectangular cavity of dimension x=a, y =b and z=d has been considered. The
dimensions of the cavity depend on the frequency band in which we are observing the field
pattern. For example, in X Band (8-12GHz), the U.S. standard waveguide WR-90 has inner width
of 2.286 cm ('a'), an inner height of 1.106 cm ('b') and the dimension in z direction, d is usually
an odd multiple of the guide wavelength (λg).
Electromagnetic waves propagating in open space travel out in all directions. As we know the
waveguide operates by confining the electromagnetic wave inside a metallic structure so that it
does not spread out, and losses resulting from this effect are eliminated. By definition, a resonant
cavity is any space completely enclosed by conducting walls that can contain oscillating
electromagnetic fields and possess resonant properties. Signals propagate within the confines of
the metallic walls that act as boundaries. The signal is confined by total internal reflection from
the walls of the cavity. Resonant cavities have a very high Q and can be built to handle relatively
large amounts of power. They are used principally at frequencies in the microwave range and can
act as a resonator above a certain frequency, known as the cut-off frequency. This cut-off
frequency of the cavity depends upon its dimensions.
Rectangular Cavity
A rectangular cavity is a hollow metallic tube with a rectangular cross section. It can be
simply described as a rectangular waveguide which is shorted at both ends. The conducting walls
of the waveguide confine the electromagnetic fields and hence standing waves are created which
leads to resonant phenomenon. The rectangular cavity is basically characterized by its dimensions
i.e., length d, breadth a and height b.
Modes: Like waveguides, cavities are also analyzed by solving Maxwell's equations, or their
reduced form, the electromagnetic wave equation, with boundary conditions determined by the
properties of the materials and their interfaces. These equations have multiple solutions, or
modes, which are eigen- functions of the equation system. Each mode is therefore characterized
by an eigen-value, which corresponds to a cutoff frequency below which the mode cannot exist
in the guide.
These resonant modes depend on the operating wavelength and the shape and size of the cavity.
The modes of the cavity are typically classified into following types:
TE modes (Transverse Electric) have no electric field component in the direction of propagation.
TM modes (Transverse Magnetic) have no magnetic field component in the direction of
propagation.
Field Theory
As we know, an electromagnetic field is comprised of electric and magnetic fields which are
perpendicular to each other. These fields have different patterns for each mode. These patterns
depend upon the mode numbers (m, n and p) and the dimensions (a, b and d) of the cavity. The
electric field and magnetic field pattern are different for various modes in different cavities .The
electric field component of an EM wave is characterized by Ex, Ey and Ez components of the
wave. Similarly the magnetic field component of an EM wave is characterized by Hx, Hy and Hz
components of the wave.
For TEmnp mode, the field equations for a rectangular cavity are:
7.2.4 Procedure
Step 1: Select the frequency band in which you wish to see the field pattern.
Enter the frequency in GHz
Step 2: Select the type of mode, i.e., either Transverse Electric (TE) or Transverse Magnetic
(TM).
Select Mode (TE/TM)
Step 3: Select Pattern:

i) Electric Field: Select this to view the electric field pattern of the given mode.
ii) Magnetic Field: Select this to view the magnetic field pattern of the given mode.
iii) Surface Current: Select this option to view the surface current density for TE10mode.
Select pattern
Step 4: Enter the values of m, n and p to obtain the field pattern, where m stands for no. of half
waves of electric or magnetic intensity in the X- direction, n stands for number of half waves in
the y direction and p stands for number of half waves in the z direction.
Step 5: Run the VI up to see the desired field pattern in XY, YZ and XZ planes. In case, you wish
to see the other field pattern then click stop and repeat steps 1-4 before running the program again.
You may see the following example for your reference, where appropriate buttons are selected in
order to observe the electric field pattern of TE101 mode in X-band:
7.2.5 Prelab Questions
1. Mention the uses of rectangular waveguides

2. What are the various modes of propagation in rectangular waveguides?
3. Express the wave equation that a wave should obey inside a rectangular waveguide.
4. Define dominant mode
5. Write the formula to determine the cutoff frequency.
7.2.6 Post lab Questions

6. Discuss the working of TE mode
7. Explain the wave propagation in TM mode
8. Discuss on attenuation in lossy waveguide
9. What is the principle of waveguide cavities?
10. What do you mean by resonant frequency?
7.2.7 Result:
From the experiment, we can observe the field patterns of various modes inside a
rectangular waveguide in xy, yz and zx planes.
EXP NO. 8.1 D.C. CHARACTERISTICS OF LED
8.1.1 OBJECTIVE
To study the Voltage Vs Current (V-I) and Power Vs Current ( P-I) characteristics of
the given LED.

1. OFT Power Supply
2. A digital multi-meter
3. LED Module
4. Benchmark Fiber Optic Power Meter
5. Bare fiber adaptor-Plastic
6. 1.25m Plastic fiber
8.1.3 INTRODUCTION
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as

indicator lamps in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as a
practical electronic component in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but
modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with
very high brightness.
The LED is based on the semiconductor diode. When a diode is forward biased
(switched on), electrons are able to recombine with holes within the device, releasing energy in
the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light
(corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the
semiconductor. An LED is usually small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical
components are used to shape its radiation pattern and assist in reflection.
Symbol of LED
Like a normal diode, the LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material impregnated,
or doped, with impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily
from the p-side, or anode, to the n-side, or cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-
carriers—electrons and holes—flow into the junction from electrodes with different voltages.
When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level, and releases energy in the
form of a photon.
The wavelength of the light emitted, and therefore its color, depends on the band gap
energy of the materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and
holes recombine by a non-radiative transition which produces no optical emission, because these
are indirect band gap materials. The materials used for the LED have a direct band gap with
energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible or near-ultraviolet light.
LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide.
Advances in materials science have made possible the production of devices with ever-
shorter wavelengths, producing light in a variety of colors.
LEDs must have a resistor in series to limit the current to a safe value, for quick testing purposes
a 1k Ω resistor is suitable for most LEDs if your supply voltage is 12V or less.

1. How to change the colour of an LED?
2. What are the two different types of LED structures?
3. Compare LED, incandescent bulb and CFL lamp power for 450, 800 and 1100 lumens of
light.
4. What do you know about the spectral width of LED?
5. Give the expression that relates bandgap energy and wavelength.
6. How does an LED differ from a normal PN junction diode.
7. Compare the health and environmental hazards LEDs and compact fluorescent lamps.
LED Module Setup
Figure 1: LED Module Setup

8.1.5.3 MODEL GRAPH
Figure 2: Voltage Vs Current graph

Figure 3: Power Vs Current graph
8.1.5 EXPERIMENT
8.1.5.1 PROCEDURE
Connect the OFT power supply properly to the module using the DIN-DIN cable provided
with the power supply. Turn the multi-turn pot to its minimum position and switch ON the
module.
1 Measure the voltage across the resistor R 1 (180 ohms and calculate the current
through the LED I f which is given as If = V1/180
2 Now measure the voltage VLED across the LED and note down.
3 Remove the dummy adaptor cap from the power meter PD exposing the large area photo-
detector. Mount the bare fiber adaptor-plastic over the PD. Carefully hold the LED source
very close to the photo-detector window perpendicular to it to couple all the optical power
output P of the LED. Calculate the power in mW and note it down which is given as
P0 (mW) = 10 P(dBm)/10
4 Turn the potentiometer clockwise direction slightly towards the maximum till you get a
convenient reading V and repeat the steps 1 to 3 and tabulate.
5 Repeat step 4 till the potentiometer reaches its maximum position and plot the graph for
VLED Vs If and If Vs P0). The graphs should be similar to the one shown in Fig.1 and
Fig. 2 respectively.
2. Calculate the E-O conversion efficiency `’ of the LED from the plotted graph `If’ Vs P0
which is given as 𝜂= P0 / If
7. Unscrew the self locking cap in the LED without removing it completely and insert the
1.25m plastic fiber into the cap. Now tighten the cap. Remove the ST adaptor from the
power meter PD and mount the Bare fiber adaptor – plastic on to the PD. Insert the
other end of the plastic fiber to this adaptor. Repeat above experiment but the optical
measurement with a plastic fiber and plastic fiber adaptor in Power meter, instead of
measuring it was explained in step 3.
Plot the optical power values and what do you see in the plots and what happens to the E-O
conversion efficiency?
8.1.5.2 TABULATION
Wavelength of the LED: nm
V1 If VLED P P0
S. No. V mA V dBm mW
8.1.6 POST LAB

1. List the specifications of good LED materials.
2. What is lambertian pattern?
3. Discuss about fiber LED coupling.
4. On what factor does the speed of LED depend on?
5. What is OLED?
6. Consider 6 LEDs are connected in series driven by constant current power supply With
I = 1mA and V = 3V. What is the power generated in the circuit.
7. What value of a series resistor is required to limit the current through an LED to 20 mA
with a forward voltage drop of 2.0 V, when connected to a 10-V supply?
8.1.7 RESULT
Thus the DC characteristics of LED has been studied and plotted.
EXP.NO 8.2 DC CHARACTERISTICS OF LASER DIODE
8.2.1 OBJECTIVE
To study the V-I and P-I characteristics of LASER diode.
8.2.2 HARDWARE EQUIRED

1. OFT power supply (OFT power supply can be used for LD module)
3. Benchmark LD unit
4. Benchmark LD drive module with its accessories
5. Benchmark Fiber Optic Power meter with ST adaptor
8. Mounting Posts
8.2.3 INTRODUCTION
A laser diode is a laser where the active medium is a semiconductor similar to that
found in a light-emitting diode. The most common and practical type of laser diode is formed
from a p-n junction and powered by injected electric current. These devices are sometimes
referred to as injection laser diodes to distinguish them from (optically) pumped laser diodes,
which are more easily manufactured in the laboratory.
A laser diode, like many other semiconductor devices, is formed by doping a very thin
layer on the surface of a crystal wafer. The crystal is doped to produce an n-type region and a
p-type region, one above the other, resulting in a p-n junction, or diode.
When an electron and a hole are present i n the same region, they may recombine
or “annihilate" with the result being spontaneous emission — i.e., the electron may re-occupy
the energy state of the hole, emitting a photon with energy equal to the difference between the
electron and hole states involved. (In a conventional semiconductor junction diode, the energy
released from the recombination of electrons and holes is carried away as phonons, i.e., lattice
vibrations, rather than as photons.) Spontaneous emission gives the laser diode below lasing
threshold similar properties to an LED. Spontaneous emission is necessary to initiate laser
oscillation, but it is one among several sources of inefficiency once the laser is oscillating.
In the absence of stimulated emission (e.g., lasing) conditions, electrons and holes
may coexist in proximity to one another, without recombining, for a certain time, termed the
"upper-state lifetime" or "recombination time" (about a nanosecond for typical diode laser
materials), before they recombine. Then a nearby photon with energy equal to the recombination
energy can cause recombination by stimulated emission. This generates another photon of the
same frequency, travelling in the same direction, with the same polarization and phase as the first
photon. This means that stimulated emission causes gain in an optical wave (of the correct
wavelength) in the injection region, and the gain increases as the number of electrons and holes
injected across the junction increases. The spontaneous and stimulated emission processes are
vastly more efficient in direct bandgap semiconductors than in indirect bandgap semiconductors;
therefore silicon is not a common material for laser diodes.
Laser Diode (LD) module Setup

V1
R1
R2
VLD
VBIA
S VPD
RL VL
Figure 1: Laser Diode (LD) module Setup
8.2.3.1 MODEL GRAPH
Figure 2: P-I characteristics curve

Figure 3: V-I characteristics curve
As in other lasers, the gain region is surrounded with an optical cavity to form a laser. In the
simplest form of laser diode, an optical waveguide is made on that crystal surface, such that the
light is confined to a relatively narrow line. The two ends of the crystal are cleaved to form
perfectly smooth, parallel edges, forming a Fabry-Perot resonator. Photons emitted into a mode
of the waveguide will travel along the waveguide and be reflected several times from each end
face before they are emitted. As a light wave passes through the cavity, it is amplified by
stimulated emission, but light is also lost due to absorption and by incomplete reflection from
the end facets. Finally, if there is more amplification than loss, the diode begins to "lase".
8.2.4 PRE LAB QUESTIONS

1. What are multi quantum well lasers.
2. List the different types of Laser modes.
3. Expand (Nd: YAG) LASER = .
4. Mention the important transition process demonstrated by Einstein for LASER action.
5. In comparison to LED, Laser has-----------------spectral width.
8.2.5 PRECAUTION
Laser radiation. Avoid direct eye or skin exposure to laser beam while setting up the
system or conducting experiments. Always view only the reflected rays while setting up the
system or while conducting experiments.
8.2.5.1 TABULATION
V1 ILD VID P P0
S.No. Volts mA Volts dBm mW
8.2.6 EXPERIMENT
8.2.6.1 PROCEDURE
1. Setup the LD module as shown in the figure.
2. Keep the potentiometer at the minimum position. Turn ON the power to the module.
3. Measure the voltage V1 between ground and the point. Calculate the current through
the LD ILD which is given is ILD = V1/R1
Note: Scientech module R1= 100, Benchmark module R1 = 24
4. Now without changing any voltage or the multi-turn post position, measure the optical
power output P of the LD. Calculate the power in mW which is given as P0(mW) =
10P(dBm)/10
5. Increase the current through LD by turning the multi-turn pot clockwise direction
slightly towards the maximum till you get a convenient reading V1 and repeat the
steps 2 to 5 and tabulate them as shown below.
6. Repeat step 4 till multi-run pot reaches its maximum position and plot the graph for
VLDVs ILD and ILDVs P 0.
7. The threshold current of the LD can be found out from the P-I characteristics graph.
Note down the current from the P-I graph at which there is a sharp rise in the optical
output power. This is the threshold current of the LD
8.2.7 POSTLAB
1. When light amplification occurs in LASER?
2. Laser is preferred over LED in --------------- fiber.
3. State the threshold conditions for laser oscillations.
4. List some of the major advantages of LASER over LED’s
5. What are the sources of noise in LASER?
6. Identify LED and Laser region of operation with respect to threshold in diode current vs
Optical power curve.
7. A pulsed laser emits rectangular pulses of width 1 nanosecond at a repetition rate of 1 kHz
and the average power output is 1 mW. Find the average power over a single pulse
duration, in watts.
8.2.8 RESULT
The P-I and V-I characteristics of a Laser Diode were studied and plotted the threshold
current was found to be .
EXP. NO: 9.1 D.C. CHARACTERISTICS OF PIN PHOTODIODE
9.1.1 OBJECTIVE
To study the characteristics of the given Photo Detector at zero-bias, Forward Bias and Reverse
Bias conditions.
9.1.2 HARDWARE NEEDED

OFT power supply, A digital multi-meter, PD Module, Benchmark Fiber Optic Power
Source, Benchmark Fiber Optic Power Meter, 1m Patch cord (PSTO-PC-1), 1 M,10K resistors,
10K, 6.8K, 4.7K, 3.3K, 3.9K & 2.2K resistors (for reverse bias),Ambient light arrester.
9.1.3 INTRODUCTION
A photodiode is a type of photodetector capable of converting light into either current or
voltage, depending upon the mode of operation.
Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be
either exposed (to detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a window or optical fiber
connection to allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device. Many diodes designed for use
specifically as a photodiode will also use a PIN junction rather than the typical PN junction.
A photodiode is a PN junction or PIN structure. When a photon of sufficient energy
strikes the diode, it excites an electron, thereby creating a mobile electron and a positively
charged electron hole. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or one
diffusion length away from it, these carriers are swept from the junction by the built-in field of
the depletion region. Thus holes move toward the anode, and electrons toward the cathode, and
a photocurrent is produced.
Photovoltaic mode
When used in zero bias or photovoltaic mode, the flow of photocurrent out of the
device is restricted and a voltage builds up. The diode becomes forward biased and "dark
current" begins to flow across the junction in the direction opposite to the photocurrent. This
mode is responsible for the photovoltaic effect, which is the basis for solar cells—in fact, a
solar cell is just a large area photodiode.
Photoconductive mode
In this mode the diode is often reverse biased, dramatically reducing the response time at
the expense of increased noise. This increases the width of the depletion layer, which
decreases the junction's capacitance resulting in faster response times. The reverse bias
induces only a small amount of current (known as saturation or back current) along its
direction while the photocurrent remains virtually the same. The photocurrent is linearly
proportional to the illuminance.
Critical performance parameters of a photodiode include:

Responsivity
The ratio of generated photocurrent to incident light power, typically expressed in
A/W when used in photoconductive mode. The responsivity may also be expressed as a
quantum efficiency, or the ratio of the number of photo generated carriers to incident photons
and thus a unitless quantity.
Dark Current
The current through the photodiode in the absence of light, when it is operated in
photoconductive mode. The dark current includes photocurrent generated by background
radiation and the saturation current of the semiconductor junction. Dark current must be
accounted for by calibration if a photodiode is used to make an accurate optical power
measurement, and it is also a source of noise when a photodiode is used in an optical
communication system.
Noise-Equivalent Power
(NEP) The minimum input optical power to generate photocurrent, equal to the rms
noise current in a 1 hertz bandwidth. The related characteristic detectivity (D) is the inverse of
NEP, 1/NEP; The NEP is roughly the minimum detectable input power of a photodiode. When a
photodiode is used in an optical communication system, these parameters contribute to the
sensitivity of the optical receiver, which is the minimum input power required for the receiver
to achieve a specified bit error ratio

1. What is photo detector?
2. List some of the operating performance and requirements of optical detectors.
3. What is impact ionization?
4. Draw the simple model of a photo detector receiver.
5. What is the figure of merit of a photodetector?
9.1.5 PRECAUTION
Before switching between the bias modes, it is recommended to switch OFF the PD
module and the power supply. This ensures that the voltages are not reversed or applied
quickly to the PD. Failure to do so may result in permanent damage to PD and its power
supply.
9.1.6 EXPERIMENT
9.1.6.1 PROCEDURE
Photo-detector at Zero bias
Connect the OFT power supply to the module using the DIN-DIN cable provided with
the power supply. Set the bias switch to the zero bias configuration (Bias switch moved to the top
most position). Turn the bias voltage varying pot in the PD module to its minimum position
and switch ON the module. The zero bias LED lights up.
The module at the zero bias configuration is shown in Fig.1. The photodiode is given no
bias voltage. The current induced by the photo-detector due to the incident optical power on to
it, flows through the load resistor.
Photo detector setup
Figure 1 : PD with zero bias configuration

1. Put 1 M ohm resistor across VL.
2. Connect the ST connector end of the patch cord supplied with the module to the power
source.
3. Set the Power source in CW mode and to give maximum output power (refer Benchmark
power source manual on how to adjust the power). Connect 1m patch cord between source
and meter (use bare fiber adaptor – plastic at the power meter end) and measure this optical
power P and adjust the power in source such that it reads -18dBm approx. Note down this
power.
4. Slightly unscrew the black colored cap of the PD to loosen it without removing it from the
connector assembly. Remove the patch cord from the power meter and gently push the
fiber into the black cap until it is held in place. Now tighten the black cap by screwing
it back. The fiber will now be held firmly in place. Now measure the voltage across V1.
5. Vary the optical power P from -18dBm approx in steps of 5dBm.To reduce the power
more than what the power source can attenuate remove the ST connector of the patch cord
slightly that is connected to the power source. This gives the natural attenuation.
Ensure that this loose connector is not disturbed while connecting and removing the
patch cord between meter and PD. May be you can stick the cable on to the table with a
sticking tape near the source. Tabulate the readings as follows:
9.1.6.2 TABULATION
S.No. Power P Power P0 VL Iz
dBm µW Volts µA
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
IZ = VL/1 x 106
9.1.6.3 MODEL GRAPH
Figure 2 Power Vs Current graph
Photo-detector at Forward bias

Connect the OFT power supply to the module using the DIN-DIN cable provided with the power
supply. Set the bias switch to the forward bias configuration (Bias switch moved tot eh middle
position). Turn the bias voltage varying pot in the PD module to its minimum position and
switch ON the module. The forward bias LED lights up.
The module at the forward bias configuration switches the photodiode to a basic configuration
as shown in Fig.3. The photodiode is given forward bias voltage.
Figure 3: PD with forward bias configuration

1. Put 10K resistor across VL.
2. Adjust the potentiometer and fix the bias voltage at 10V
source.
4. Set the Power source in CW mode and to give maximum output power (refer
Benchmark power source manual on how to adjust the power). Connect 1m patch cord
between source and meter (use bare fiber adaptor – plastic at the power meter end) and
measure this optical power P and adjust the power in source such that it reads – 18dBm
approx. Note down this power.
5. Slightly unscrew the black colored cap of the PD to loosen it, without removing it from
the connector assembly. Remove the patch cord from the power meter and gently push
the fiber into the black cap until it is held in place. Now tighten the black cap by screwing it
back. The fiber will now be held firmly in place. Now measure the voltage VL.
6. Vary the optical power P from – 18 dBm to -40 dBm approx in steps of 5dBm. To reduce
the power more than what the power source can attenuate, remove the ST connector of
the patch cord slightly that is connected to the power source. This gives the natural
attenuation. Ensure that this loose connector is not disturbed while connecting and
removing the patch cord between meter and PD. May be you can stick the cable on to
the table with a sticking tape near the source. Tabulate the readings.
7. Plot the graph P vs If. The sample graph is shown in Fig.4
8. Now fix the power launched as – 20 dBm.

9. Vary the bias voltage from 2V to 10V by adjusting the potentiometer and measure VL.
10. Tabulate the values and plot the graph VBIAS Vs IL. The sample graph is shown in Fig.5
Forward Voltage: -------------- V If = VL/10 x 103
S.No. Power P Power P0 VL If

dBm μW V mA
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Incident Power = ----------------dBm

S.No. Bias Voltage VL If
VBIAS V V mA
Fig. 5 Voltage Vs. Current graph
Photo-detector at Reverse Bias
Connect the OFT power supply to the module using the DIN-DIN cable provided with the
power supply. Set the bias switch to the reverse bias configuration (Bias switch moved to the
bottom most position). Turn the bias voltage varying pot in the PD module to its
minimum position and switch ON the module. The reverse bias LED lights up.
The module at the reverse bias configuration switches the photodiode to a basic
configuration as shown in Fig.6. The photodiode is given reverse bias voltage. The current
induced by the photodiode due to the incident optical power on to it, flows through the load
resistor.
Figure 6: PD with reverse bias configuration

2. Adjust the potentiometer and fix the bias voltage at 10V.
source.
4. Set the Power source i n CW mode and to give maximum output power (refer
Benchmark power source manual on how to adjust the power). Connect 1m patch cord
between source and meter (use bare fiber adaptor plastic at the power meter end) and
measure this optical power P and adjust the power in source such that it reads –18dBm
approx. Note down this power.
5. Slightly unscrew the black colored cap of the PD to loosen it, without removing it from
the connector assembly. Remove the patch cord from the power meter and gently push the
fiber into the black cap until it is held in place. Now tighten the black cap by screwing it
back. The fiber will now be held firmly in place. Now measure the voltage VL.
6. Vary the optical power P from – 18dBm to -40dBm approx in steps of 5dBm. To reduce the
power more than what the power source can attenuate, remove the ST connector of the patch
cord slightly that is connected to the power source. This gives the natural attenuation. Ensure
that this loose connector is not disturbed while connecting and removing the patch cord
between meter and PD. maybe you can stick the cable on to the table with a sticking tape
near the source. Tabulate the readings as follows:
7. Plot the graph P vs IR. The sample graph is shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7: Power Vs Current graph
8. Now fix the power launched as – 20 dBm.

9. Vary the bias voltage from 2V to 10V by adjusting the potentiometer and measure VL.
Tabulate the values.
10. For each value of the bias voltage and current calculate the value of the responsivity from
the formula. Are all the R values approximately same? What do you infer from this?
R = VL/(RL* PS) A/W
where PS is the power in W.
11. From the average value of R calculate the value of the quantum efficiency from the
formula
ƞ = Rλ h  / e x 100%
where h = 6.624 x 10-34 JS, is the Planck’s constant
= C/λ = 3 x 108 / 850 x 10-9 Hz , is frequency of the incident photons
e = 1.6 x 10-19 Coulombs, is the electric charge

Repeat the above steps for various values of RL 6.8K, 4.7K, 3.9K & 2.2K.
TABULATION:
Reverse Voltage = V Ir = VL/10 x 103

S.No. Power Power P VL IR
P (dBm) mW V (mA)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Incident Power = dBm

S.No. Bias voltage VL IR R 
VBIAS (V) (V) (mA) (A/W) (%)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Leakage Characteristics of Photo-detector

One among the important characteristics of a photodiode is its leakage characteristics
when it is reverse biased. Since the leakage current through the photo-detector is normally
very less, increased bias voltage and higher value of RL is used in the module at the reverse
bias configuration. The basic configuration of the PD module in leakage characteristics is
shown in Fig.8.
Figure 8: PD with leakage characteristics
Caution
Before switching between the bias modes, it is recommended to switch OFF the PD
module and the power supply. This ensures that the voltages are not reversed or applied quickly
to the PD. Failure to do so may result in permanent damage to PD and its power supply.
Procedure:
Connect the OFT power supply to the module using the DIN-DIN cable provided with the power
supply. Set the bias switch to the reverse bias configuration (Bias switch moved to the bottom
most position). Turn the bias voltage varying pot in the PD module to its minimum
position and switch ON the module. The reverse bias LED lights up.
1. Put 10 M resistors across VL.
2. Adjust the potentiometer and fix the bias voltage as 10V.
3. Screw in the free end of the ambient light arrester unit supplied with the module to the PD.
This is done to avoid ambient light falling on the Photodiode.
4. Measure the voltage VL.
5. Repeat the above procedure for various values of bias voltage and tabulate.
6. Plot the graph using Vbias and Idark and the sample graph is shown in fig.9
Idark = VL / RL|| Rm A
where Rm is the multi-meter input impedance which is normally 10MΩ.
TABULATION:
S.No. Vbias VL Idark
(Volts) (Volts) (nA)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Figure 9. Voltage Vs Dark Current graph
9.1.7 POSTLAB QUESTIONS

1. Photo detector is a square law device. Justify.
2. What is quantum efficiency?
3. What is dark current?
4. Define noise equivalent power.
5. What is the cutoff wavelength of a photodetector? Give the expression.
6. An InGaAs PIN photodiode has the following parameters at a wavelength of 1300nm:
ID=4nA, ƞ=0.90, RL=1000Ω, and the surface leakage current is negligible. The incident
optical power is 300Nw (-35dBm), and the receiver bandwidth is 20MHz. Find the various
noise terms of the receiver.
9.1.8 RESULT
Thus the V-I characteristics of PIN photodiode has been studied and following
parameters are determined.
Rλ =
η =
EXP. NO: 9.2 D.C. CHARACTERISTICS OF AVALANCHE PHOTODIODE
9.2.1 OBJECTIVE
To study the characteristics of the given avalanche photodiode at zero-bias and Reverse
Bias conditions.
9.2.2 HARDWARE NEEDED

1. APD power supply
3. APD Module
4. Benchmark Fiber Optic Power Source
5. Benchmark Fiber Optic Power Meter
7. ST-ST multimode patch cord (ST-PC-1)
8. Ambient light arrester
9.2.3 INTRODUCTION
Avalanche Photodiode, popularly called as APD, is a photo-detector that allows internal

multiplication to take place and hence amplified current flows through it when its reverse bias is
increased beyond certain point. APD allows normal PIN photodiode characteristics without any
gain when operated under low voltage conditions.
A high gain, close to a factor of 100, is achievable when the reverse bias approaches close
to its breakdown voltage. It is advisable not to cross the breakdown point as it will permanently
damage the device.
APDs are high speed devices and also very highly sensitive. With its internal gain
mechanism, these are useful for measuring very low value of optical power. Because of these
characteristics, these are primarily used in very long-distance communications, OTDRs, WANs,
optical measurements, etc,
Principle of Avalanche Multiplication
When light enters the photodiode, electron-hole pairs will be generated if the applied light
energy is greater than the band gap energy of the photodiode when it is reverse biased. The
movement of electron-hole pairs generates electric current in a photodiode. If the reverse bias
voltage is increased, ionization of the carriers takes place thereby more number of electron-hole
pairs will be generated. These newly created electron-hole pairs in turn undergo ionization and
hence produce additional electron hole pairs and this continues like a chain reaction. This process
of electron hole pair generation is referred as avalanche multiplication and this is the principle
involved in APD. This avalanche multiplication in APD is a function of reverse bias voltage.
Light energy and the wavelength have a relationship as shown below
λ = 1240nm / E
E- band gap energy of the Si photodetector.
The band gap energy for Si is 1.12 eV at room temperature and hence Si photodetector are sensitive
to light wavelength shorter than 1100nm.

1. What is avalanche multiplication?
2. Draw RAPD (Reach through Avalanche Photodiode) structure and the electric fields in
depletion and avalanche multiplication regions.
3. Compare the performance of Si-PIN and Si-APDs in terms of wavelength range, dark
current and bias voltage.
4. Define avalanche multiplication noise.
5. List some practical applications of APD
9.2.5 PRECAUTION
Before switching between the bias modes, it is recommended to switch OFF the APD
module and the power supply. This ensures that the voltages are not reversed or applied
quickly to the APD. Failure to do so may result in permanent damage to A PD and its power
supply.
9.2.6 EXPERIMENT
9.2.6.1 PROCEDURE
APD at Zero bias
Connect the APD power supply properly to the module using the DIN-DIN cable provided
with the power supply. Set the bias switch to the zero bias configuration. Turn the bias voltage
varying pot in the APD module to its minimum position and switch ON the module. The zero bias
LED lights up. The module at zero bias is shown in figure.1.
Figure 1 : APD with zero bias configuration
The photodiode is given no bias voltage. The current induced by the photo detector due to the
incident optical power on to it, flows through the load resistor.
1. Put 1 M ohm resistor across VL.
2. Set the Power source in CW mode and to give maximum output power (refer Benchmark
power source manual on how to adjust the power). Connect 1m ST-ST patch cord between
source and meter (use bare fiber adaptor – plastic at the power meter end) and measure this
optical power P and adjust the power in source such that it reads -18dBm approx. Note down
this power and connect this patch cord between APD and power source. Measure the voltage
across VL.
3. Vary the optical power P from -18dBm to -40dBm approx in steps of 5dBm. To reduce the
power more than what the power source can attenuate remove the ST connector of the patch
cord slightly that is connected to the power source. This gives the natural attenuation.
Ensure that this loose connector is not disturbed while connecting and removing the
patch cord between meter and APD. Maybe you can stick the cable on to the table with a
sticking tape near the source. Tabulate the readings as follows:
9.2.6.2 TABULATION
Vbias=
S.No. Power P VL Power P0 IL
dBm Volts µW µA
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
IZ = VL/1 x 106
9.2.6.3 MODEL GRAPH

APD at Reverse Bias
Connect the APD power supply properly to the module using the DIN-DIN cable provided
with the power supply. Set the bias switch to the reverse bias configuration. Turn the bias voltage
varying pot in the APD module to its minimum position and switch ON the module. The reverse
bias LED lights up.
The module at the reverse bias configuration switches the photodiode to a basic
configuration as shown in Fig.3. This mode of operation is also called as photoconductive
operation. The photodiode is given reverse bias voltage. The current induced by the photodiode
due to the incident optical power on to it, flows through the load resistor.
Figure 3: APD with reverse bias configuration

2. Set the Power source in CW mode and to give maximum output power (refer
Benchmark power source manual on how to adjust the power). Connect 1m ST-ST patch
cord between source and meter (use bare fiber adaptor plastic at the power meter end) and
measure this optical power P and adjust the power in source such that it reads –18dBm
approx. Note down this power and connect this patch cord between APD and power source.
Set the APD bias to 10V by adjusting the bias pot. Measure the voltage across VL.
3. Vary the bias voltage from 10V to 140V or to the maximum voltage that is possible in steps
of 20V approx and note down the voltage across VL and tabulate. Fix power P= -18dBm.
4. Plot the graph VBias Vs IR. The sample graph for a load resistor of 100K and power of -15dBm
is shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4: Bias Voltage Vs load Current graph
TABULATION:
Power
S.No. Bias Voltage VL IR (mA) R (A/W) M=IP/IM
VBias (V) (V)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
5. From the table, for each value of the bias voltage and current, calculate the value of
responsivity R
R = VL/(RL* PS) A/W
where PS is the power in W.
6. From the value of R calculate the value of the quantum efficiency from the formula
ƞ = Rλ h  / e x 100%
where h = 6.624 x 10-34 JS, is the Planck’s constant
= C/λ = 3 x 108 / 850 x 10-9 Hz , is frequency of the incident photons

IR = VL /1 x 103
e = 1.6 x 10-19 Coulombs, is the electric charge.
Leakage Characteristic of Avalanche Photo-detector

One among the important characteristic of a photodiode is its leakage characteristic when
it is reverse biased. Since the leakage current through the photo detector is normally very less,
increases bias voltage and higher value of RL is used in the module at the reverse bias
configuration. The basic configuration of the PD module in leakage characteristic is shown in
Fig.5.
VAP
VBIAS D
10
M
V
L
Figure 5: APD with leakage characteristics
Caution:
Before switching between the bias modes, it is recommended to switch OFF the PD module
and the power supply. This ensure that the voltages are not reversed or applied quickly to the PD.
Failure to do so may result in permanent damage to PD and its power supply.
Procedure:
Connect the OFT power supply to the module using the DIN-DIN cable provided with the
power supply. Set the bias switch to the reverse bias configuration (Bias switch moved to the
bottom most position). Turn the bias voltage varying pot the PD Module to its minimum position
and switch ON the module. The reverse bias LED light up.
1. Put 10 M resistors across VL.
2. Adjust the potentiometer and fix the bias voltage as 10V.
3. Screw in the free end of the ambient light arrester unit supplied with the module to the PD. This
is done to avoid ambient light falling on the Photodiode.
4. Measure the voltage VL
5. Repeat the above procedure for various values of bias voltage and tabulate.
6. Plot the graph using Vbias and Idark and the sample graph is shown in Fig.5
𝐼𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑘 = (𝑉𝐿 / 𝑅𝐿 ‖𝑅𝑚 ) 𝐴
Where Rm is the multi-meter input impedance which is normally 10MΩ.
TABULATION:
S.No Vbias(Volt) VL (Volt) Idark (nA)
9.2.7 POSTLAB QUESTIONS

7. Mention the major advantage of avalanche photodiode over PIN photodiode.
8. Write the expression for gain-bandwidth product of APD.
9. What is dark current?
10. What are the practical challenges that a designer undergoes while using APD?
11. Statement: Gain-bandwidth product is an important characteristic of an APD. Justify this
statement. Why don’t we use this characteristic for p-i-n photodiode?
9.2.8 RESULT
Thus, the V-I characteristics of Avalanche photodiode has been studied and following
parameters are determined.
Rλ =
η=
M=
EXP NO: 10.1 MEASUREMENT OF NUMERICAL APERTURE OF OPTICAL FIBER
10.1.1 OBJECTIVE:
To measure the numerical aperture of a given optical fiber at 650 nm
10.1.2 HARDWARE REQUIRED:

Optical fiber, Numerical Aperture Measurement Kit
10.1.3 INTRODUCTION:
Numerical aperture (NA) of a fiber is a measure of the acceptance angle of light in the fiber.
Light which is launched at angles greater than this maximum acceptable angle does not get
coupled to propagating modes in the fiber and therefore does not reach the receiver at the other
end of the fiber. The Numerical aperture is useful in the computation of optical power coupled
from an optical source to the fiber, from the fiber to a photo detector and between two fibers.
DIAGRAM
Figure 1: Numerical aperture setup

Figure 2: Numerical aperture

1. Define angle of acceptance.
2. If the angle of acceptance is 30 degree, what is the value of numerical aperture?
3. What is the formula for numerical aperture?
4. What is lens coupling and butt coupling
5. How to relate Snell’s law with Numerical Aperture.
6. Why light can travel faster in water compared to glass?
7. How fast is the light traveling inside the water?
10.1.5 TABULATION:
S. No. Radius of the circular Distance (d) NA = Sin θ = X/(d2 + X2)1/2
path (X)
Average:
10.1.6 PROCEDURE:
1. Insert one end of the fiber into the numerical aperture measurement kit as shown in the
figure. Adjust the fiber such that its tip is 10 mm from the screen
2. Gently tighten the screw to hold the fiber firmly in the place.
3. Connect the other end of the fiber to the LED Source through a connector. The fiber will
project a circular patch of red light onto the screen. Let d be the distance between the fiber
tip and the screen. Now measure the diameter of the circular patch of red light in two
perpendicular directions (BC and DE in figure). The mean radius of the circular patch is
given by
X= (DE + BC)/4
4. Carefully measure the distance d between the tip of the fiber and the illuminated screen
(OA) as shown in figure. The Numerical aperture of the fiber is given by
NA = Sinθ = X/(d2 + X2)1/2

5. Repeat steps 1 to 4 for different values of d, compute the average value of Numerical
aperture.
10.1.7 POST LAB QUESTIONS
1. Why do single mode fiber have larger bandwidth as compared to that of multimode fiber?
2. What is pulse dispersion?
3. Light travels from denser medium glass into rarer medium air. What is the critical angle at
the interface?
4. Can optical fiber conduct electricity? Why?
5. At what wavelength does silica fiber show minimum attenuation?
6. Give the relation between bandwidth and Numerical aperture (NA).
7. A light ray incident on air water interfaces and refracted at an angle of 40º in the water.
Calculate the angle of incidence.
9. A multi-mode optical fiber index has n1 = 1.5 and n2 = 1.4142. Find the maximum value
of θA for which the incident light from air will be guided in the optical fiber.
10.1.8 RESULT
Thus, the numerical aperture of a fiber optic cable is determined.
EXP NO: 10.2 MEASUREMENT OF PROPAGATION LOSS IN OPTICAL FIBER
10.2.1 OBJECTIVE:
To measure the propagation loss in an optical fiber.
10.2.2 HARDWARE REQUIREMENT:

Kit (Fiber link-D), 1 m, 3 m Fiber Cable Link, Patch cords and Power supply
Optical fibers are available in different variety of materials. These materials are usually
selected by taking into account their absorption characteristics at different wavelengths of light.
Losses a r e i n t r o d u c e d in fi ber d u e to vari ous reasons . As light propagates from one
end of fiber to another end, part of it is absorbed in the material exhibiting absorption loss. Also,
part of the light is reflected back or in some other direction from the impurity particles present
in the material contributing to the loss of the signal at the other end of the fiber. It is known as
Propagation loss.

1. What are the different types of dispersion?
2. What is group velocity dispersion?
3. What is the difference between attenuation and dispersion?
4. How to increase the signal strength in optical fibers
5. Define attenuation coefficient.
6. What are the reasons for optical signal loss in fiber?
FORMULA:
Propagation loss: Attenuation in dB/m
α = ln(Po1/Po2) / (l2-l1)
where
Po1 ---- Output power level (µw) at the end of the fiber of length l1 (m)
Po2 ---- Output power level (µw) at the end of the fiber of length l2 (m)
10.2.5 PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the power supply cables with proper polarity to kit. While connecting this, ensure
that the power supply is OFF.
2. Connect the AMP O/P as a constant signal to the TX I/P using a patch cord.
3. You will measure the light output using SIGNAL STRENGTH section of the kit. The loss
will be more for a longer piece of fiber. In order to measure the loss in the fiber you first
need a reference of how much light goes into the fiber from the Light transmitter, you will
use the short piece of fiber to measure this reference.
4. Switch on the power supply. Connect the short piece of fiber between the TX and RX of
the kit. Adjust the transmitter level until the signal strength reads 6, this will be your
reference value. Now connect the long piece of fiber instead of the short piece. What
reading do you get? Loss in optical fiber system is usually measured in dB. Loss of fiber
itself is measured in dB/meter.
5. Subtract the length of the short fiber from the length of the long fiber to get the
difference in the fiber lengths (4m-1m). The extra length of 3 m is what created the extra
loss you measured. Then take the signal strength reading you obtained for the loss of the
long fiber directly from the power meter.
MODEL GRAPH
Figure 1: Optical power vs. Fiber length

10.2.6 TABULATION:
Optical Power
S. No. Length of the optical fiber cable Signal Strength Propagation Loss
(m)
dBm mW

1. Consider a 10 km optical fiber in which 100 mW power is launched from one end and 50
mW power is received from the other end. Calculate the attenuation in dB/Km.
2. Why optical power decreases with increase in fiber length.
3. A 30 km long optical fiber that has an attenuation of 0.8 dB/km at 1300 nm. Find the optical
output power Pout if 200µw of optical power is launched into the fiber.
10.2.8 RESULT
The propagation loss in fiber optic cable is measured.
EXP NO: 10.3 MEASUREMENT OF BENDING LOSS IN AN OPTICAL FIBER
10.3.1 OBJECTIVE
To measure the bending loss of a fiber optic cable
10.3.2 HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS:

Kit (Fiber Link-D), 1 m or 3 m fiber cable, Spindles to wound the fiber around it, Power
supply.
Though the fibers are good at bending, each time the fiber is bent, a little light is lost.
This experiment will measure how much of this light is lost for different sizes of bends.

1. What is micro bending and macro bending loss?
2. What is total internal reflection?
3. Define Snell’s law.
4. Differentiate reflection, refraction and diffraction.
MODEL GRAPH
Figure 1: Optical power vs. No. of turns

Figure 2: Optical power vs. Radius of curvature
10.3.5 EXPERIMENT
10.3.5.1 PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the power supply cables with proper polarity to kit. While connecting this, ensure
that the power supply is OFF.
2. Connect the AMP O/P as a constant signal to the TX I/P using a patch cord. You will
measure the light output using SIGNAL STRENGTH section of the kit.
3. Switch on the power supply. Connect the long piece of fiber between the TX and RX of the
kit so there are no sharp bends in the fiber between them
3. Adjust the transmitter level until the signal strength reads 6, this will be your reference value.
Now take the portion of the fiber and loop it into the spindle and note the signal strength
from the power meter, which give the optical signal power in dBW/m.
4. Repeat it for various diameters of the spindle and for various numbers of bend on the spindle
and measure the corresponding signal strength from the optical power meter.
10.3.5.2 TABULATION:
i) No. of turns vs. Signal Strength:
Diameter of Spindle
S. No. Bending Signal Strength in mW
1. No Bend
2. 1
3. 2
4. 3
ii) Radius of the Spindle vs. Signal Strength:
S. No. Radius of spindle Signal Strength in mW
1.
2.
3.
4.
10.3.6 POST LAB QUESTION:
1. How light is propagated inside a fiber?

2. Give the merits and demerits of Optical fiber cable.
3. In optical fiber propagation loss increases or decreases with the increase in length of the
fiber cable?
4. When the mean optical power launched into an 8 km length of fiber is 120 mW, the mean
optical power at the output is 3 mW.
Determine:
a. The overall signal attenuation (or loss) in decibels through the fiber assuming
there are no connectors or splices.
b. The signal attenuation per kilometer for the fiber.
c. The overall signal attenuation for a 10 km optical link using the same fiber with
splices (i.e. fiber connections) at 1 km intervals, each giving an attenuation of 1
dB.
d. The output/input power ratio.
10.3.7 RESULT
The bending loss in fiber optic cable is determined.
EXP NO: 11 SETTING UP A FIBRE OPTIC ANALOG LINK
11.1 OBJECTIVE:
1. To set up an 850 nm fiber optic analog link.
2. To observe the linear relationship between the input and received signal.
3. To measure the bandwidth of link.
4. To observe the effect of gain control received signal.
11.2 HARDWARE REQUIRED:

Optical fiber trainer kit, Two channel 20 MHz oscilloscope, Function generator (1Hz – 10MHz)
11.3 INTRODUCTION:
This experiment is designed to familiarize the user with optical fiber trainer kit. An
analog fiber optic link is to be set up in this experiment. The preparation of the optical fiber for
coupling light in to it and the coupling of the fiber to the LED and detector are quite important.
The LED used is an 850nm LED. The fiber is a multimode fiber with a core diameter of
1000µm. The detector is simple PIN detector.
The LED optical power output is directly proportional to the current driving the LED. Similarly,
for the PIN diode, the current is proportional to the amount of light falling on the detector.
Thus, even though the LED and the PIN diode are non-linear devices, the current in the PIN
diode is directly proportional to the driving current of the LED. This makes the optical
communication system a linear system.
11.4 PRELAB QUESTIONS:

1. What is point to point link?
2. Define link power buget.
3. What is rise time budget?
4. What is the transmission frequency in optical fiber?
5. In Communication link what is the need for repeater?
11.5 PROCEDURE:
1. Set the switch SW8 to the analog position. Switch the power on. The power on switch
is located at the top right-hand corner.
2. Feed a 1 V p-p sinusoidal signal at 1 KHz from a function generator, to the analog in port
P11 using the following procedure:
i. Connect a BNC-BNC cable from the function generator to the BNC socket I/O3
ii. Connect the signal port I/O3 to the analog in port P11 using a patch cord.
3. With this, the signal from the function generator is fed through to the analog in signal port
P11 from the I/O3 BNC socket.
4. Connect one end of the 1m fiber to the LED source.
5. Observe the light output at the other end of the fiber.
6. Feed a 5V p-p rectangular si gnal at 0.5 Hz at P 11. Observe t he signal o n the
oscilloscope. Now observe the intensity of the light output at the other end of the fiber.
7. Now, feed a 5V p-p sinusoidal signal at 0.5 Hz at P11. Observe the variation in the
brightness of the light output at the other end of the fiber as a driving signal varies
sinusoidally.
8. Thus, light intensity is modulated by an input rectangular of sinusoidal signal.
9. Connect the other end of the fiber to the detector PD1 in the optical RX1 block.
10. Feed a sinusoidal wave of 1 KHz, 1 V p-p from the function generator of P11. The PIN
detector output signal is available at P32 in the optical RX1 block. Vary the input signal
level driving the LED and observe the received signal at the PIN detector. Plot the received
signal peak to peak amplitude with respect to the input signal peak to peak amplitude.
11. The Pin detector signal at P32 is amplified, with amplifier gain controlled by the GAIN
potentiometer. With a 3 Vp-p input signal at P11, observe P 31 as a gain potentiometer is
varied.
12. Measure the bandwidth of the link as follows: Apply a 2V p-p sinusoidal signal at P11 and
observe the output at P31. Adjust GAIN such that no clipping takes place. Vary the
frequency of input signal from 100Hz to 5MHz and measure the amplitude of the received
signal. Plot the received signal amplitude as a function of frequency. Note the frequency
range for which the response is flat.
Layout
Figure 1: Gain control

Figure 2: Signal at P31
Model Graph
11.6 TABULATION:
Input: Sine Wave Vi= Vp-p
S.No. Frequency Output Voltage Gain (dB)
(Hz) Vo (V) G = 20 log (Vo/Vi)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
11.7 POSTLAB QUESTIONS:

1. What is Optical Bandwidth and Electrical Bandwidth? Give their relation.
2. What is the maximum bandwidth the analog link can support?
3. What are the important blocks of point-to-point links?
4. What is the function of Optical receiver?
5. Calculate link loss (LL) for a 2-km-long multimode link with a power budget (PB) of 13
dB having five connectors and two splices for the following parameters:
Fiber attenuation = 1 dB/km
Loss in connector = 0.5 dB
Loss in splice = 0.5 dB
Higher-order mode loss = 0.5 dB
Clock recovery module = 1 dB
Also find the link has sufficient power for transmission or not?
11.8 RESULT:
Hence, the Analog link is established in fiber optic link.
EXP NO: 12 SETTING UP A FIBER OPTIC DIGITAL LINK
12.1 OBJECTIVE:
1. To set up 650 nm and 850 nm digital link.
2. To measure the maximum bit rates supportable on the links.
12.2 HARDWARE REQUIRED:

Optical fiber trainer kit, Two channel 20 MHz oscilloscope, Function generator (1Hz – 10MHz)
12.3 INTRODUCTION:
The OFT can be used to set up two fiber optic digital links, one at a wavelength of
650 nm and the other at 850 nm. LED 1, in the optical TX1 block, is an 850 nm LED, and LED
2, in the optical TX2 block, is a 650 nm LED.
PD1, in the optical RX1 block, is a PIN detector which gives a current proportional to the
optical power falling on the detector. The received signal is amplified and converted to a TTL
signal using a comparator. The GAIN control plays a crucial role in this conversion.
PD2, in the optical RX2 block, is another receiver which directly gives out a TTL signal.
Both the PIN detectors can receive 650nm as well a 850nm signals, though their sensitivity
is lower at 650nm.

1. What is a TTL signal?
2. Compare Analog and Digital transmitter
3. Define sensitivity
4. What are the modulation formats used in optical Communication
5. What is a Trans impedance receiver.
12.5 LAYOUT DIAGRAM:
12.6 PROCEDURE:
1. Set the switch SW8 to the digital position.
2. Connect a 1m optical fiber between LED1 and the PIN diode PD1.
3. Ensure that the shorting plug of jumper JP2 is across the ports B & A1.
4. Feed a TTL signal of about 20 KHz from the function generator to port B of S6.
Observe the received analog signal at the amplifier port P31 on channel 1 of the
oscilloscope. Note the signal at P31 gets cutoff above 3.5V. Increase and decrease the
Gain and observe the effect.
5. Observe the received signal at port A of S26 on channel 2 of the oscilloscope while still
observing the signal at P31 on channel 1.
6. Set the gain such that the signal at P31 is about 2 V. Observe the input signal from the
function generator on channel 1 and the received TTL signal at port A of S26 on channel
2. Vary the frequency of the input signal and observe the output response.
7. Repeat steps 4, 5, and 6 with 3 m fiber.
COMPARATOR TO CONVERT RECEIVED SIGNAL INTO A TTL SIGNAL:
Frequency TON TOFF
Data Rate:
1. What is a Digital Link?
2. What are the advantages of digital link over analog link?
3. What is a high impedance receiver?
4. A digital optical fiber communication system operating at a wavelength of 1μm requires a
maximum bit error rate of 10-9. What is the theoretical quantum limit at the receiver in terms
of the quantum efficiency of the detector and the energy of an incident photon?
12.8 RESULT:
Hence, the Digital link is established in fiber optic link.
EXP NO: 13 SIMULATION OF OPTICAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
(USING OPTILUX)
13.1 OBJECTIVE
To simulate and study the performance of Optical communication system using an open
source OptiLux Toolbox (for Matlab and Octave)
The Link for OptiLux : "http://optilux.sourceforge.net"
13.2 SCHEMATIC BLOCK DIAGRAM
1. What are the major components of an optical communication system?

2. Define minimum detectable optical power.
3. What is meant by error rate?
4. What are the error sources of optical receiver?
13.4 OPTILUX
Optilux is an open source collection of tools that provide advanced techniques

to design, simulate, and analyze optical communication systems. Optilux is
implemented as a Matlab/Octave toolbox and efficiently exploits the MEX inter face
to speed up computation. Optilux was created by Prof. Paolo Serena and it was
primarily intended as a replacement for the old Fortran code he used for his
simulations. Optilux is released under the GNU General Public License, version 3.
Optilux is a collection of .m files, each representing a specific block of an optical
system. The top-to-bottom flow on a .m file corresponds to moving over the distance
of the optical system. Each block of an optical system is realized using Optilux
toolbox functions. All the toolbox functions are M-files that implement specialized
Optilux algorithms.
13.4.1 OPTILUX TOOLBOX FUNCTIONS
RESET_ALL(NSYMB,NT,NCH) AMPLIFLAT(X,ATYPE) E=AVG_POWER(ICH,FLAG)
CREATE_FIELD(FTYPE,SIGX) OPTFILTER(ICH,FTYPE,BW) HF=MYFILTER(FTYPE,F,BW)
PB=BER_KL(ICH,X,PAT) [EO, TS]=EVAL_EYE(ICH,X,PAT) Y=EVALDELAY(FTYPE,BW)
DELAY=CORRDELAY(IRIC,PAT,N
PAT=PAT_DECODER(PAT,MODFORMA PAT=PATTERN(PTYPE,NSEED,OPTIONS)
T) T, NSYMB)
ELEC=ELECTRICSOURCE(PAT, PHI=POW2PHI(PWR,L,ALPHA,GAM,G,NS EOUT=LPFILTER(EIN,FTYPE,B

FORMAT, SYMBRATE, PTYPE, PAN) W,OR D)
DUTY, ROLL)
E=LASERSOURCE(PTX,LAM) [BSP,BPOST]=BEST_SP(ICH,X,PAT) POLARIZER(ANG1,ANG2,ANGTYP

E)
E=LINEAR_MODULATOR(E,MODSIG,E
[COND,OUT]=MC_ESTIMATE(S,X) PLOTFIELD(POL,ICH,FLAG)
XRA TIO)
E=MZ_MODULATOR(E,MODSIG) POLAR(PHASES,AMPLITUDES) PLOTFILE(FILE)
E=PHASE_MODULATOR(E,MODSIG) Y=FASTSHIFT(X,N) PRINTFIELD(POL,ICH,NAME,FLAG

)
FIBER(X,FLAG) [BEYE,BPOST]=BEST_EYE(ICH,X,PAT) Q=BER2Q(BER)
13.4.2 STEPS TO BE FOLLOWED FOR SIMULATION
• Open MATLAB simulator window and create a new document.
• Click Save As, give the file name as ‘Optical_exp1’and save it in

‘…/Optilux_v0.1/Optilux_files’ folder.
• On completion of the code, after clicking the ‘Run’ button, click on the ‘Change
Folder’ button.
13.5 PROGRAM
13.5.1 FOR OPTICAL TRANSMITTER

13.5.2 PROGRAM TO DESIGN OPTICAL CHANNEL (OPTICAL FIBER)
13.5.3 PROGRAM FOR OPTICAL FILTER & RECEIVER
Optical Receiver
Repeat the experiment by varying the following and observe the results
1. Change symbrate and observe the change
2. Change roll and observe the change
3. Increase exratio and see the change in EYE
4. Increase tx.length and observe the change
5. Change oftype and observe the change
6. Change obw and observe the change
7. Change x.oftype and see the change in EYE
8. Change x.obw and see the change in EYE
9. Change x.ebw and see the change in EYE

clear all
clc
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% Field parameters

Nsymb = 64; % number of symbols
Nt = 128; % points x symbol
Nch = 1; % number of channels
reset_all(Nsymb,Nt,Nch);
%%
Ppeak = 10; %Power Peak *(1:Nch);[mW]
lam = 1550; % central wavelength [nm]
spac = 0.8; % channel spacing [nm]
E = lasersource(Ppeak, lam, spac);

%%
pat=pattern('debruijn',4); % note the different de Bruijn seeds
%%
symbrate = 10; % baudrate [Gbaud](10Gb/s)
duty = 1; % duty cycle
roll = 0.2; % pulse roll-off
elec=electricsource(pat,'ook',symbrate,'cosroll',duty,roll);
%%
exratio = 10; % extinction ratio [dB]
Eopt=mz_modulator(E,elec,struct('exratio',exratio));
%%
create_field('unique',Eopt);
figure(1)
plotfield('x',1,'p---','r-');
figure(2)
plotfield('x',1,'--p-','r-');
figure(3)
plotfield('x',1,'-a--','r-');
figure(4)
plotfield('x',1,'---a','r-');
figure(5)
plotfield('x',1,'papa','r-');
%%
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% Link parameters
%%%% Fiber 1 (Tx) Corning® LEAF® Optical Fiber Product Information
tx.length = 4e4; %
length [m] tx.alphadB = 0.2;
%
attenuation [dB/km]
tx.aeff = 72; %
effective area [um^2] tx.n2 =
2.7e-20; % nonlinear index
tx.lambda = 1550; % wavelength [nm] @ dispersion
tx.disp = 16.75; % dispersion [ps/nm/km] @
wavelength tx.slope = 0.075; % slope
[ps/nm^2/km] @ wavelength tx.dphimax = 3E-3; %
maximum nonlinear phase rotation per step tx.dzmax
= 2E4; % maximum SSFM step
%%%%%%%%%% Optical link

fiber(tx,'g-sx'); % Tx fiber
%% figure(1)
plotfield('x',1,'
p---','g-');
figure(2)
plotfield('x',1,'
--p-','g-');
figure(3)
plotfield('x',1,'
-a--','g-');
figure(4)
plotfield('x',
1,'---a','g-
'); figure(5)
plotfield('x',
1,'papa','g-
');
figure(6)
plotfield('x',1,'
p---','g-');
figure(7)
plotfield('x',1,'
--p-','g-');
figure(8)
plotfield('x',1,'
-a--','g-');
figure(9)
plotfield('x',
1,'---a','g-
'); figure(10)
plotfield('x',
1,'papa','g-
');
%%
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
Receiver parameters of
type = 'butt6'; %
optical filter type
obw = 2.5; % optical filter bandwidth
optfilter(1,oftype,obw);
%% figure(6)
plotfield('x',1,'
p---','m-');
figure(7)
plotfield('x',1,'
--p-','m-');
figure(8)
plotfield('x',1,'
-a--','m-');
figure(9)
plotfield('x',
1,'---a','m-
'); figure(10)
plotfield('x',
1,'papa','m-
');
%%
x.oftype = 'gauss'; % optical

filter type x.obw = 2.5;
% optical filter
bandwidth x.eftype = 'bessel5'; %
electrical filter type
x.ebw = 0.75; % electrical
filter bandwidth x.rec = 'ook';
% receiver type
x.plot = 'ploteye';
% type of plot x.color
= 'r-'; % color of
plot
x.slopez = 0; % post-fiber cumulated
slope [ps/nm^2] x.lambda = lam; % post-fiber
central wavelength [nm] x.dpost = -670; % post-
fiber cumulated dispersion [ps/nm]
figure(11)
pat_rx = pat_decoder(pat,'ook'); %
pattern decoding
[eo,ts]=eval_eye(Nch,x,pat_rx);
fprintf('\n\n=========== Results
===========\n\n');
fprintf('Normalized Eye opening =
%.4f\n',eo); fprintf('Best sampling
time = %f\n',ts);
fprintf('Post fiber dispersion =%.2f [ps/nm]\n',x.dpost);
%%
%%%%%% now search for the optimal

post compensation dpostini =
x.dpost;
x.dpost = [-1500 1500]; % range for the search
[be,bpost] = best_eye(Nch,x,pat_rx);
% During the search of the best post you will see the following
warning:
% Warning: Plot or print turned off during the search of the optimal
post.
fprintf('\nBest Eye closure penalty = %.4f

[dB]\n',be); fprintf('Best post cumulated dispersion
= %.2f [ps/nm]\n\n',bpost); fprintf('\nOther details
into the summary file simul_out\n');
figure(11) % Re-plot the best eye, just

for comparison hold on
title(['RED: post = ',num2str(dpostini),' ps/nm, BLUE: best post =
',... num2str(bpost),' ps/nm']);
x.dpost = bpost; % use

the best post x.color
= 'b-'; %
change color
[eo2,ts2]=eval_eye(Nch
,x,pat_rx);
% The blue eye is better than the red one... it is the best eye!
%%
1. How is an electrical signal converted into an optical signal

2. Why do we need modulation in optical communication?
3. What is the significance of an eye diagram in optical communication system?
13.7 RESULT
Thus the Optical communication system is simulated and its performance is studied
EXP.NO. 14 POWER BUDGETING AND RISE TIME BUDGETING IN FIBER
OPTIC LINK
14.1 OBJECTIVE:
To perform power budgeting and rise time budgeting in the Fiber optic link.
14.2 SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
Scilab
14.3 INTRODUCTION:
Link power budget:
The optical power budget in a fiber-optic communication link is the allocation of
available optical power (launched into a given fiber by a given source) among various loss-
producing mechanisms such as launch coupling loss, fiber attenuation, splice losses and
connector losses, to ensure that adequate signal strength (optical power) is available at the
receiver.
Power budget refers to the amount of loss a data link can tolerate while maintaining
proper operation. In other words, it defines the amount of optical power available for
successful transmitting signal over a distance of optical fiber. Power budget is the difference
between the minimum (worst case) transmitter output power and the maximum (worst case)
receiver input required. The calculations should always assume the worst-case values, in
order to ensure the availability of adequate power for the link, which means the actual value
will always be higher than this. Optical power budget is measured by dB, which can be
calculated by subtracting the minimum receiver sensitivity from the minimum transmit
power:
PB (dB) = PTX (dBm) – PRX (dBm)
When performing power budget calculation, there are a long list of elements to account for.
The basic items that determine general transmission system performance are listed here.
Fiber loss: fiber loss impacts greatly on overall system performance, which is expressed by
dB per km. The total fiber loss is calculated based on the distance × the loss factor (provided
by manufacturer).
Connector loss: the loss of a mated pair of connectors. Multimode connectors will have
losses of 0.2-0.5 dB typically. Single-mode connectors, which are factory made and fusion
spliced on will have losses of 0.1-0.2 dB. Field terminated single-mode connectors may have
losses as high as 0.5-1.0 dB.
Number and type of splices: Mechanical splice loss is generally in a range of 0.7 to 1.5 dB
per connector. Fusion splice loss is between 0.1 and 0.5 dB per splice. Because of their
limited loss factor, fusion splices are preferred.
Power margin: power budget margin generally includes aging of the fiber, aging of the
transmitter and receiver components, additional devices, incidental twisting and bending of
the fiber, additional splices, etc. The margin is needed to compensate for link degradation,
which is within the range of 3 to 10 dB.
Rise-time budget:
A rise-time budget analysis is a convenient method for determining the dispersion
limitation of an optical link. This is particularly useful for a digital link. In this approach the
total rise time tsys of the link is the root-sum-square calculation of the rise times from each
contributor ti to the pulse rise-time degradation, that is, if there are N components in a link
that affect the rise time then.
𝑁
2
𝑡𝑠𝑦𝑠 = √∑ 𝑡𝑖2
𝑖=1
The five basic elements that may limit the system speed significantly are the transmitter rise
time tTX, the modal dispersion rise time tMOD of multimode fiber, the chromatic dispersion
rise time tCD of the fiber, the polarization mode dispersion rise time tPMD of the fiber, and the
receiver rise time tRX.
2
2 2 2 2 2
𝑡𝑠𝑦𝑠 = √𝑡𝑇𝑋 + 𝑡𝑀𝑂𝐷 + 𝑡𝐶𝐷 + 𝑡𝑃𝑀𝐷 + 𝑡𝑅𝑋
The purpose of rise time budget is to ensure that the system operates properly at intended bit
rate. Generally the total transition-time degradation tsys of a digital link should not exceed 70
percent of an NRZ (non-return-to-zero) bit period or 35 percent for RZ (return-to-zero) data.
0.7
𝑡𝑠𝑦𝑠 = 𝐵𝑊 for RZ
0.35
𝑡𝑠𝑦𝑠 = for NRZ
𝐵𝑊

1. What is the purpose of rise time budget analysis?
2. What is the use of power budget in fiber optic system?
3. What are the factors to be considered in Link power budget?
4. Give the range of system margin in link power budget?
5. What are the system components of system rise time?
14.5 PROGRAM:
Power Budgeting
//Sample values
//Ps = 13 ( input power in dBm)
//Pr = −31( sensitivity of receiver )
//L=80( Link length in Km)
// Loss =0.35( fiber loss in dB/Km)
//SL=0.1( Splice Loss in dB)
//CL=0.5( coupling loss in dB)
//EL=1.5( excess loss )
clear ;
close ;
clc ;
Ps= input (“Power from source in dBm=”);
Pr= input (“sensitivity of receiver in dBm=”);
L= input (“ Link length in Km=”);
Loss = input (“fiber loss in dB/Km=”);
SL= input (“Splice Loss in dB/Km=”);
CL= input (“coupling loss in dB=”);
EL= input (“excess loss in dB=”);
Pt=Ps -Pr;
SM=Pt -(2* CL+ Loss *L+SL*L+EL)
disp (“system margin=” ,SM, “dB”);
SAMPLE OUTPUT:
Rise time Budgeting

// Sample values
// t s=10 ( rise time of the led source in ns)
//IMD=6 ( intermodal dispersion in ns/Km)
//L=10 ( link length in Km)
//PB=2 ( pulse broadening in ns /Km)
// td=8(response time of detector in ns)
//F=1(1−RZ return to zero format , 2−NRZ−non return to zero format )
clear ;
close ;
clc ;
ts= input (“ rise time of the led source in ns ”);
IMD = input (“ intermodal dispersion in ns/Km”);
L= input (“link length in Km=”);
PB= input (“pulse broadening in ns /Km=”);
td= input (“response time of detector in ns =”);
disp (“Directory 1− RZ return to zero format , 2−NRZ non return to zero format”);
F= input (“Format=”);
Tsys =1.1* sqrt (ts ^2+( L* IMD )^2+ td ^2+( L*PB) ^2) ;
if F ==1 then Bt =0.35*1 e3/ Tsys // since Tsys is in nano sec and Bt is expressed in Mbps
)
else Bt =0.7*1 e3/ Tsys
end
disp (”Mbps” ,Bt ,”Maximum bit rate for the link =”);
SAMPLE OUTPUT:
1. Assume a 10 km single mode fiber link of fiber attenuation 0.35 dB/km at 1310nm
with 2 connector pairs of each 0.75 dB loss and 2 splices of each 0.1 dB loss.
Calculate link budget.
2. Laser Tx has a rise-time of 25 ps at 1550 nm and spectral width of 0.1 nm. Length of
fiber is 60 km with dispersion 2 ps/(nm.km). The InGaAs APD has a 2.5 GHz BW.
What is the required rise-time budget of the system for NRZ signalling?
3. The specifications of the light sources are converted to equivalent rise time in rise
time budget. Why?
14.7 RESULT
Thus power budgeting and rise-time budgeting is calculated for the given parameters
of the fiber optic link
EXP NO: 15.1 STUDY EXPERIMENT - GUNN DIODE (MICROWAVE)
15.1.1 INTRODUCTION
GUNN Diodes (Transferred Electron Devices)
The Gunn diode (or transferred electron devices, TED) is a semiconductor component with
negative resistance that converts the energy of a constant-voltage power source into the
energy of high-frequency oscillations due to the formation of a strong field region (domain).
Gunn diodes are negative resistance devices which are normally used as low power oscillator
at microwave frequencies in transmitter and as local oscillator in receiver front ends.
It was invented by John Battiscombe Gunn in 1960s; after his experiments on GaAs (Gallium
Arsenide), he observed a noise in his experiments’ results and owed this to the generation of
electrical oscillations at microwave frequencies by a steady electric field with a magnitude
greater than the threshold value. It was named as ‘Gunn Effect’. J B Gunn (1963) discovered
microwave oscillation in Gallium arsenide (GaAs), Indium phosphide (InP) and cadmium
telluride (CdTe).
These are semiconductors having a closely spaced energy valley in the conduction band as
shown in Fig. 11.1 for GaAs.
Fig. 1 Multi-valley conduction band energies of GaAs
Working:
When a dc voltage is applied across the material, an electric field is established across it. At
low E-field in the material, most of the electrons will be in the lower energy central valley
Γ. At higher E-field, most of the electrons will be transferred into the high-energy satellite L
and X valleys where the effective electron mass is larger and hence electron mobility is lower
than that in the low energy Γ valley. Since the conductivity is directly proportional to the
mobility, the conductivity and hence the current decreases with an increase in E-field or
voltage in an intermediate range, beyond a threshold value Vth as shown in Fig. 11.1. This is
called the transferred electron effect and the device is also called ‘Transfer Electron Device
(TED) or Gunn diode’.
Fig.2 Current-voltage characteristics of GaAs

As shown in Fig 11.2, initially the current starts increasing in this diode, but after reaching
a certain voltage level (at a specified voltage value called as threshold voltage value), the
current decreases before increasing again. The region where the current falls is termed as a
negative resistance region, and due to this it oscillates. In this negative resistance region,
this diode acts as both oscillator and amplifier, as in this region, the diode is enabled to
amplify signals.
SPECIFICATIONS:
Part Number: MG1041-MG1059
Features
• High Reliability
• Low-phase Noise
• 9.5-35.5Ghz Operation
• Pulsed and CW Designs to 20mW
15.1.2 PRE LAB QUESTIONS
1. What is GUNN diode?
2. Draw the equivalent Circuit for GUNN?
3. How many junctions are there in GUNN?
4. State Gunn effect?

1. What are the different modes in GUNN diode oscillator?
2. Explain the transferred electron effect in GUNN?
3. What is negative derivative resistance in Gunn diode?
4. Name the semiconductor used in Gunn diode.
5. Explain the Two Valley Model Theory
6. What are applications of GUNN?
15.1.4 RESULT
The characteristics and the working of GUNN diode has been studied.
EXP.NO: 15.2 STUDY EXPERIMENT - OPTICAL WDM
15.2.1 INTRODUCTION
WAVELENGTH DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

Optical communication uses a special kind of multiplexing which is known as Wavelength
division multiplexing or simply WDM. It is a type of multiplexing where light signals from
multiple sources operating at slightly different wavelengths are multiplexed to transmit
several information streams simultaneously over the same fiber.
WDM offers a further boost in fiber transmission capacity. Figure 11.3 shows the
incorporation of WDM in an optical communication system.
Figure 3 WDM Incorporated in Optical communication system
In fiber optic communication system, wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is a

technology which multiplexes a number of optical carrier signals onto a single optical fiber
by using different wavelength (i.e. colors) of laser light. This technique enables bidirectional
communications over one strand of fiber, as well as multiplication of capacity.
A WDM system uses a multiplexer at the transmitter to join the signals together, and a
multiplexer at the receiver to split them apart. With the right type of fiber, it is possible to
have a device that does both simultaneously, and can function as an optical add-drop
multiplexer. This is often done by use of optical-to-electrical-to-optical (O/E/O) translation
at the very edge of the transport network, thus permitting interoperation with existing
equipment with optical interfaces. Figure 11.4 shows the basic block diagram of WDM
system is given below:
Fig 11.4 Basic block diagram of WDM system

WDM technology uses infrared light, which lies beyond the spectrum of visible light. It can
use wavelengths between 1260nm and 1670nm. Most fibers are optimized for the two
regions 1310nm and 1550nm, which allow for effective “windows” for optical networking.
WDM systems are divided into different wavelength patterns,
• conventional/coarse (CWDM) and
• dense (DWDM).
WDM, DWDM and CWDM are based on the same concept of using multiple wavelengths
of light on a single fiber, but differ in the spacing of the wavelengths, number of channels,
and the ability to amplify the multiplexed signals in the optical space. Conventional WDM
systems provide up to 8 channels in the 3rd transmission window (C-band) of silica fibers
around 1550 nm.
Dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) uses the same transmission window
but with denser channel spacing. Channel plans vary, but a typical system would use 40
channels at 100 GHz spacing or 80 channels with 50 GHz spacing. Some technologies are
capable of 12.5 GHz spacing (sometimes called ultra-dense WDM). Such spacings are
today only achieved by free space optics technology. DWDM can handle higher speed
protocols, even 400Gbps per channel.
Coarse wavelength division multiplexing (CWDM) in contrast to conventional WDM
and DWDM uses increased channel spacing to allow less sophisticated and thus cheaper
transceiver designs. To provide 8 channels on a single fiber CWDM uses the entire
frequency band between second and third transmission window (1310/1550 nm
respectively) including both windows (minimum dispersion window and minimum
attenuation window) but also the critical area where OH scattering may occur,
recommending the use of OH-free silica fibers in case the wavelengths between second and
third transmission window should also be used.
CWDM is a convenient and low-cost solution for distances up to 70km. But between 40km
and its maximum distance of 70km CWDM tends to be limited to 8 channels due to a
phenomena called the water peak of the fiber (more about this further down).
ITU STANDARDS
International Telecommunication Union (ITU) G.694.1 standard DWDM region is from
1528.77nm to 1563.86nm that resides mostly within the C band. DWDM can have 100GHz
(0.8 nm) wavelength spacing for 40 channels, or 50GHz (0.4 nm) spacing for 80 channels.
ITU-T G.694.2 defines 18 wavelengths for CWDM transport ranging from 1270 to 1610
nm, spaced at 20 nm apart. Fig 11.5 shows the wavelength chart for CWDM and DWDM.
Fig 11.5 Wavelength chart for CWDM and DWDM
References:
1. vlab.amrita.edu, (2012). Wavelength Division Multiplexing. Retrieved 23 February
2021, from https://vlab.amrita.edu/index.php?sub=59&brch=269&sim=1373&cnt=1
2. http://www.iitg.ac.in/engfac/krs/public_html/lab/ee442/Exp5.pdf

1) What band is used for shorter wavelength multimode fiber system?
2) WDM is an analog multiplexing technique to combine ______________ signals
3) What is the need of WDM in optical communication?
4) Mention the types of WDM
5) CWDM operating with 8 channels (i.e., 8 fiber optic cables) is called as the
_________.

1) Explain why Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) networks can
simultaneously carry different types of traffic at different speeds over an optical
channel.
2) What is the property of Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing DWDM?
3) Difference between CWDM and DWDM
4) What is the maximum distance covered by CWDM?
15.2.4 RESULT
The characteristics and properties of optical WDM and its types has been studied.

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18ECC302J Microwave & Optical

SRM Institute of Science and Technology

Sub Code: 18ECC302J Year/Semester: III / VI

Exp 1. Characteristics of Reflex Klystron

RECTANGULAR WAVE GUIDE

Wave guides are manufactured to the

X Band EIA No. : WR -90

Series 5000 fixed Attenuators are meant for

Model No. : X – 6051

Model 6055 Tunable probe is designed for

The depth of penetration into a wave guide

/Model No. : X6055 /Freq (Ghz) : 8.2 - 12.4

Model 2051 Klystron mounts are meant for

Model No. X – 6021

SLIDE SCREW TUNERS

These consists of a section of wave guide

Model No. : X - 6003

Model No. : X - 4081

PYRAMIDAL WAVEGUIDE HORN ANTENNA

calibration certificate giving frequency vs Min output power : 10 MW

micro WG Type (WR-) : 90

inside at the input to protect the oscillator. Max RF Power : 1W

GUNN POWER SUPPLY

Model No. : X - 6022

BLOCKDIAGRAM: Microwave Bench Setup

1.2 HARDWARE REQUIRED

ETS – Electronic tuning sensitivity

f1max, f1min → half power frequencies

1.4 PRELAB QUESTIONS

Klystron with Variable Frequency Dectector

1.7 MODEL GRAPH:

Figure 1: Output voltage VsRepeller Voltage

Figure 2: Frequency Vs Repeller Voltage

f 01 → frequency of microwave operation in one mode.

f1max, f1min→ half power frequency

1.11 POST LAB QUESTIONS:

2.1.2 HARDWARE REQUIRED

Characteristics of a Directional Coupler

Figure 1: Directional coupler as a three – port device: Uni directional coupler

2.1.4 PRELAB QUESTIONS

2.1.5.2 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

INSERTION LOSS (L)

2.1.5.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Insertion Loss (V12) measurement

Coupling Factor (V14) measurement

Design of a five-hole 30 dB directional coupler with Chebyshev distribution for wavelength

2.1.6 POST LAB QUESTIONS:

Coupling factor ___________

2.2.2 HARDWARE REQUIRED

2.2.4 PRELAB QUESTIONS:

Klystron Variable Detector

2.2.5.3 (i) TABULATION:

E-Plane & H–Plane Tee

Voltage(mv) Isolation Coupling Coefficient

E-Plane Tee H- Plane Tee

Characteristics of Magic Tee

Magic Tee orientation

2.2.6 POST LAB QUESTIONS:

To measure the impedance of an unknown load using slotted Line.

3.2 HARDWARE REQUIRED

Klystron Power supply, Klystron with mount, Isolator, Frequency meter,

The simplest method for measurement of impedance at microwave frequencies

ZL - Load impedance at any point