SULETA Amis Glenoiy udsonvadesrpesd M.Sc., Counselling and Psychotherapy First Year MCP 11 Fundamentals Of Psychology SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES TAMIL NADU OPEN UNIVERSITY Directorate of Technical Education Campus, Guindy, Chennai — 600 025,Prof. M. Bhaskaran, Vice-Chancellor, Tamil Nadu Open University, Chennai-15, Eating & Co - ordination) Professor & Head, School of Social Sciences, ‘Temiitlads Open Universty, Chennai 15, DrM.V.Sudhakaran, ‘Associate Professor, School of Social Sclences, ‘TamilNadu Open University, Chennai 15, DrN.Dhanalakshmi, Lecturer, School of Sccial Sciences, ‘Tami Nadu Open University, Chennai -15. OrSsrah Manickara}, Lecter SL, Dopatec of Pyccay, DriAnandan, Lecturer, ‘School of Education, “Tamil Nadu Open University, Guindy, hena-8, DrM.V.Sudhakaran, Associale Professor, ‘Schaal of Social Sciences, ‘Tamil Nadu Open University, Cheanei=15, DrR.Subhashini, Reader, Department of Paychology, JBAS College for women, Cheana-5 DrKadiravan, Lecuerin Psychology, Diectorate of Distance Ecucaton, ‘Acnamalai Unversity, Chidambaram (Reviewer) OrM.V.Suchakaran, Associale Professor, School of Social Sciences, Tamil Nadu Open Uriverst, Chennai 16, ‘Reprint: 2017 ‘© Tam Nadu Open Univeriy Att are esarind Mo pao is gubcton aye ‘reproduced or tention any fo wiht a writen pernlo rom Tait Neds Open Ue.SYLLABUS ? FUNDAMENTALS OF PSYCHOLOGY -MCP 11 BLOCK) Introduction - definitions - Schools of Psychology - Applications and fields ~Methods - Brain and Behaviaur: Neurons:Nerve impulse, Synapses, Neurotransmitters -Nervous system introdustion to CNS, PNS. BLocK Sensation and Perception: Sensory Processes - Five sense organs and their functions - Perception and perceptual process — Attention and Perosption - Movement and Depth pesception - Role of Learning. BLocK In Leaming: Consitioning ~ Classical - Stimulus: generalization and discrimination — Gperamt: Reinforcement, Shaping of behaviour, Extinction — Reward and Punishment - Cognitive learning - Remembering and Forgetting: General memary functions: kinds and types, STM, LYM ~encoding —storing — , Information Processing theories - Causes of forgetting, amnesias - improving memory. BLOCK IV Thinking: Thinking Process ~ Speech- Language and thinking — Concept formation - Problem solving - Decision making - Creative thinking - Motivation: Needs and drives Biological motives, Social motives - Theories of motivation - Aggression as a motive. BLOCKY inteltigence: Nature and Definitions - Theoties of intelligence - Tests of inteligence - 10. Glassification - Personality: Definitions ~ nature and determinants of Personality - Theories ~ Personality Assessment - Emotion and Stress: Biological basis of emation - Theories, of emotion - Saurces of stress ~ GAS - Causes and management of stress REFERENCES Psychotogy, Neil, R Carlson 2° edn Ailyn & Bacon Inc Boston 1967, Introduction to Psychology, Armof Witting, Me Graw Hill 1977. Cantemporary Psychology and Effective Behaviour, James C Coleman IV Edn, Soott Foresman & Co. Stress management, Jonathan C Smith, Springer Pub co 2002SCHEME OF LESSONS: BLOCK { Unit? Definition and Schools Unit2 Fields and Applications of Psychology Unit 3 Methods in Psychology Unit4 Brain and Behaviour BLOCK UL Unit Sensation ‘Unité Perception BLOCK tit Unit7—Leaming Unit Remivering and Forgetting BLOCK IV Usit@ Thinking Unit 10 Motivation BLOCK V Unit 17 Inteligence Unit 72 Personality Unit {3 Emotion and Stress Page No. 2- 19 20- 33 uM - @0 or - 78 80 - 98 7. 12 M4 - 141 392 - 172 174. 197 498 - 221 223 - 241 242 - 262 283-315Block I Unit: Definition and Schools Unit2 : Fields and Applications of Psychology Unit3 : Methods in Psychology Unit4 : — Brainand BehaviourUnit 1 DEFINITION AND SCHOOLS STRUCTURE Overview Learning Objectives 4.4 Basieconcepts 4.2. Definitions of Psychology 1.24 Almsof Psychology 13. Early schools of Psychology 4.3.41 Structuralism: withelm wundt (1832-1920) 1.3.2. Functionalism 4.4 Modern schools of Psychology 1.4.1 GestaltPsychology 14.2 Psychoanalysis 1.4.3 Behaviourism 1.44 Humanistic Psychology Letus sum up Keywords ‘Answers to check your progress Model Questions OVERVIEW Psychology is the science of human and animat behaviour and itincludes the application of this science to human problems. Psychologists approach the study of behaviour from many viewpoints and they are represented in the schools of psychology. In this unt, we wil intially focus on the basic concepts, ‘and definitions. Then we willsee the major schools ike Gestalt, Psychoanalytic, Behaviorism and Humanistic schools LEARNING OBJECTIVES ‘After studying this unit you willbe able to > define psychologyefiniton and Schools 3 > explain the basic concepts discuss the different schools of psychology 1.1 BASIC CONCEPTS Psychology is the science of behavior and cognitive processes. In other words, psychologists are concerned with obtaining scientific information on every- thing we (and other living organisms) think, feel, and do. They exa a observable behavior, cognitive processes, physiological evenis, social and cultural influences, and hidden and largely unconscious processes. They also look at the complex interactions between all of these different factors in order to understand behavior. 1.2. DEFINITIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY ‘The term “psychology” comprises of two Greek words, namely “psyche” and “logos”. The former refers to the soul and the latter means ‘study of Thus, the term psychology iterally means ‘study of the so. Later, as the word came to possess religious and metaphysical significance, psychology was referred to as the study of mind. Since the term mind was also something abstract, the definition of psychology underwent various modifications. ‘The early psychologists defined psychologists as the “study of mental activity.” ‘With the development of behaviourism at the beginning of 20th century and its concen for studying only those phenomena that could be objectively measured, psychology was redefined as the study of behaviour. This definition usually included the investigation of animal as well as human behaviour on the assumption that information from experiments with subhuman species could be generalized to the human organism. Man is essentially a living organism. Psychology is primarily concerned with responses of these organisms to the outside world. The stimuli from the environment act upon these organisms which in tum respond to these stimu Hence psychology may be considered to be a biological science. Besides being a biological organism, man is also a social being. Human beings live in ‘groups and their behaviours are conditioned by the group in which they live, Thus, psychology may also be called a social science. Since psychology is based both on biology and social interaction, it may be called as a Bio-Social Science.4 Fundamentals of Psychology Having understood that psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and ‘mental process, and also that's a bio-social science, we shall look inte some of the other few changing definitions of psychology, for botter understanding of the subject. Psychology is the Science of Mental Life, both of its phenomena and of their conditions... These phenomena are such things as we call feelings, desires, cognitions, reasoning, decisions, and the ike. (William James, 1890) For the Behaviorist, psychology is that division of natural science which takes human behavior the doings and sayings, both learned and unlearned as its subject matter. (John B. Watson, 1919) Psychology is defined as a ‘Scientific study of the behavior of living creatures in their contact with the outer world’. (Kurt Koffka, 1925) Psychology is defined as the scientific study of behavior. Its subject matter includes behavioral processes that are observable, such as gestures, speech, and physiological changes, and processes that can only be inferred as thoughts ‘and dreams. (Kenneth Clark and George Miller, 1970) Presently psychology is defined as the “Scientific study of behaviour (human being and lower animais) and mental process". When we say psychology is a scientific study of behaviour, it means that the behaviour can be proved with factual information. The use of scientific procedures includes systematic observation and experimentation by collecting and gathering data, The mental process in the above definition refers to any psychological or cognitive activity which takes place in the organism from birth to till the individuals alive ‘The word behaviour refers tothe activities of the organism that can either be observed by another person, or by using certain psychological tests. Most of the verbs such as eating, climbing, jumping, walking-the physical activities or thinking, remembering, forgetting-the mental activities, refer to behavioural elements that can be observed and described as they occur. The components of behaviour are (i) conscious experiences and (i) unconscious process, The conscious experiences of the organism are those experiences of which the ‘organism is aware, for instance, being hungry or having pain when injured. The unconscious processes include the desire, urges, fears, etc. The conscious or the unconscious behaviours are inferred from either the verbalefiniton and Schools 5 reportof the individual concemed oy through inference of the manifest beheviour ofthe person. Thus, both the conscious experiences and the unconscious processes are both equally important for us to understand the total behavior of the organism. Sehaviour's further viewed as covert behaviour which is the inward behaviour and overt behaviour that is revealed outwardly. Behaviour may also be desirable behaviour that is, an individual being truthful, disciplined, punctual etc. or may be undesirable behaviour such as stealing, lying, being dishonest and so on, Peychology is not only a scientific field of study:itis also an eminently useful and Practical one. 1.24 AIMS OF PSYCHOLOGY The prime aim of psychology is to understand, predict and contvol behaviour. ‘To understand we mean to find out how and why of the behaviour, exploring the various causes for the particular behaviour. For instance, why a student is not successful in passing the examinations could be understood by explering the various causes like poor study habits, lack of concentration, poor memory, Uninterested in the subject, lack of motivation, or due to personal or other family problems, and by describing as well as explaining such behaviours. To predict means, to foretell or to tell in advance atleast to some extent the occurrence of such behaviours, For example, poor study habits may lead to failure in the examinations. To control refers to minimize or stop the occurrence particular behaviour by using various psychological techniques or treatment, For instarice, poor study training proggariimes. Psychology further aims at solving ‘eablife' problems. The various activities like: Psycho-therapist talking to aworried client, the Educational Psychologist advising a school board ona new curriculum, the Clinical Psychologist supervising group therapy in a mental hospital and the Industrial psychologist trying to lessen tensions between management and workers ina large industry, all aim at minimizing the intensity of real lfe problems. Psychology further aims at solving social problems. For instance, what can be done to eliminate race prejudice? What family and social conditions contribute to alienation, aggression and crime?6 Fundamentals of Psychology Psychology also affects our lives through its influence on laws and public policy. Laws concerning discrimination, capital punishment, the conditions ‘under which individuals may be held legally responsible for their actions are influenced by psychological theories of human nature, Psychology examines the nature of research - how psychologists formulate hypotheses and devise methods to prove or disprove it. ‘On the whole, psychology helps us to understand the behaviour of individuals, ‘and provide insights into their attitudes and reactions. 1.3. EARLY SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY 4.34 STRUCTURALISM : WILHELM WUNDT (1832-1920) ‘Wundt is considered by many to be the founder of Experimental Psychology. He developed the first widely accepted school of thought, structuralism, which focused on the inner workings of consciousness. In 1879, he opened the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany, Structuralism was later expanded by Titchner (1867- 1927) Structuralism is an early view ‘suggesting that psychology should focus on conscious experience and on the task of analyzing such experience into its basic parts. Edward Bradford and Titchner also contributed to this school of psychology at Comel University inthe United States. Structuralism in brief refers to the images, sensation and feelings which contribute to form experience. It otherwise, deals with the structure of the mind or mental structure. The structuralists tended to ask “what are the parts of psychological processes? Structuralism developed and Used the technique called introspection. Introduction refers to self- analysis, or self - examination or looking within oneself. The reports of the subjects allowed the Psychologist to interest the structure of the mind and now itworked Structuralism attempted to study the conscious experience, the objective features such as sight or taste and subjective feelings such as responses, will and mental images. Structuralist believed that the mind functioned by creatively continuing elements of experience. G. Sanlly Hell, who founded the ‘American Psychological Association, was also associated with structuralismDefiniton and Schools 7 13.2 FUNCTIONALISM Funetionalists such as William James (1842 - 1910), James Angell (1869 - 1949) Harvey Carr (1873 - 1954), at the University of Chicago proposed that psychology should study ‘what the mind and behaviour do.” In brief, these early psychologists studied the how of using to the functions and behaviour. Funetionalism addressed the ways in which experience permits us to function more adaptively in our environments; and it used behavioural observation in the laboratory. The functionalists tended to ask “what are the purpose (functions) of overt behaviour and mental processes? What differences do they make? An early view of psychology was that, it should study the ways in which the ever changing stream of conscious experience helps us adapt to a complex and challenging world. Functionalism investigated adaptations or adjustment, 4.4 MODERN SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY 1.4.4 Gestalt Psychology This School of Gestalt psychology was founded in Germany about 1912 by Max Wertheimer (1880-1943) and his colleagues: Kurt Koffka (1886-1941) and Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967). ‘The German word Gestalt means “form” or “configuration,” and the Gestalt psychologists maintained that the mind should be thought of as resulting form the whole pattems of sensory activity and the relationships and organizations within this pattern. When you look at the dots in the figure given below, your ‘mental experience is not the just of the dots, or elements but of a square and triangle. Itis the organization of the dots and their relationships that determine the mental experiences you have. Gestalt psychologists stated that mental ‘experiences depend on the patterning and organization of elements. in other words, the mind is best understood in terms of the ways elements are organized. Figure8 Fundamentals of Psychology According to the Gestalt psychologists, the organization of the relationships of elements determines the mental experience a person has. Your mental experience is not just of the dots, or elements, but of a square and a triangle sitting on a line. itis the organization of the dots and their relationship's that determine the mental experience you have to Gestalt psychologists believed mental experience depends on the patteming and organization of elements, and the mind is best understood in terms of the ways elements are organized, ‘The importance of organization in mental experience wil be discussed in perception chapter. Gestalt psychologists stated that experiences cannot be broken down to separate elements. Gestalt psychologists laid their basis on perception, and believed that perception is a copy of objects or a “mental image” of what has been perceived and thinking is a mechanical combination of those images. Gestalt is not a name of the person, instead itis a schaol of psychology that argues that behaviour cannot be studied in parts but must be viewed a whole. Parts make the whole or the whole is more important that the sum of the parts. That is, the overall behaviour or the total experience of the individual is, important that the mere reflexes. The whole is more than the sum of the parts. ‘Whole experience is essential, and the total experience is evaluated. For instance, there is a difference between if tell you “come to my house” and “come home”. House here merely refers to the parts - the table, chairs or the building but home includes the people at house and they really want you to \isit them. itis a holistic approach. So, you now being a student of psychology, be pretty careful when people invite you and check whether they use the word house or home, having known what is Gestalt psychology. Wertheimer and his colleagues focused on perception and on how perception influences thinking and problem solving. Perceptions were more than the sum of the parts. Gestalt psychologists saw our perceptions as whole that give meaning to part Gestalt psychologists ilustrated how we tend to perceive separate pieces of information as integrated wholes, including the lowestiin which they occur.Definiton and Schools 9 Figure A 2 € oD 2013 1415 For instance the symbo. in second column at the above is identical, but in the top row, we may perceive it as B and in the bottom row as number 13. The ‘symbo! has not changed, only the context in which it appears has changed. ‘The method used in Gestalt psychology is Introspection Method. Gestalt Psychology, too had its cticisms ike, the responses may be biased, prejudiced, subjective, not consistent and not always reliable and valid, thus exercising. Gestalt psychology required rigorous training and practice. 4.42 Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis was founded in Vienna, Austria, by the Psychiatrist Sigmund Freurt (1850-1938). In the course of his practice with neurotic patients, Freud dia theory of behavior and mind which said that much of whatwe do ‘and think results from urges, or drives, which seek expression in behavior ‘and thought. A cruciat point about these urges and drives, according to psycheanalytic theory, is that they are hidden from the awareness of the individual, they are, in other words, unconscious. Itis the expression of the devel unconscious drives which shows up in behavior and thought. The term unconscious motivation thus describes the key idea of psychoanalysis. Freut elaborated on this basic theme of unconscious motivation 2 system of psychotherapy. The psychoanalytic conception of human behavior was developed by Sigmund Freud in Europe at about the same time that behaviorism was evolving in the United States. Psychoanalytic concepts are based on extensive case studies of individual patients rather than on experimental studies. Psychoanafytic ideas have had a profound influence on psychological thinking. The basic assumption of Freud's theory is that much of our behavior stems from processes that are unconscious. By unconscious processes Freud meant thoughts, fears, and wishes a person is unaware of, but which stillinfluence behavior. He believed10 Fundamentals of Psychology that many of the impulses that ate forbidden or punished by parents and society during childhood are derived from innate instincts. Because these impulses are innate, they exert a pervasive influence that must be dealt with in some manner. Forbidding them merely drives them out of awareness into the unconscious, where they remain to affect Behavior, according to Freud, unconscious impulses find expression in dreams slips of speech, mannerisms, and symptoms of neurotic illness, as well a through such socially approved behavior as artistic, iterary, or scientific activity ‘The socially forbidden, personally unacceptabie and painful desires, impulses, urges and wishes ofthe individual are being pushed away into the depths of the unconscious portions of the mind from the conscious layers. This process is called “repression’. However these repressed impulses are active and try to occupy the conscious rind, atleast in a disguised manner. These impulses find their expression in many like that of dreams, slips of pen or tongue, Unconscious mannerism and symptoms of neurotic illness, Sometimes, they find socially acceptable expressions lke that of artistic, literary and scientific production. According to Freudian theory, these expressed unconscious impulses are sexual in nature. ‘According to psychoanalysis, the nature of the unconscious material may be ‘made conscious and that helped to remember the with the accompanying affective components of the original experiences, which would help the individual to recover, this is called by Freud the method of “Free Association” and "Dream interpretation’. The structure of mind deals with id the basic principles, the Ego - the reality principle, and the Superego the conscious, Freud also evolved a theory of personality development running through certain stages of developmentwihich is known as theory of psycho-sexual development, dealing with the oral, anal, phalic, latency and the geritalstage. Freud came to believe that unconscious processes especially primitive sexual and aggressive impulses were more influential than conscious thoughts in determining human behaviour, Freud thought that most of the mind was unconscious, consisting of conflicting impulses, urges and wishes. People were motivated to gratify these impulses, ugly as some of them were, but at the same time people were motivated to judge themselves as being decent.Definiton and Schools " Thus, they would often decide themselves about their real motives. Because of the assumed notion of underlying force in personality. Freud’s theory is referred to as ‘psychodynamic’ Freud devised a method of psychotherapy called psychoanalysis that aims at helping patients gain insight into many of theirdeep-seated conflicts and find socially acceptable ways of expressing wishes and gratifying needs. Psychoanalytic therapy is a process that can extend for years. Psychoanalytic concepts are based on effective case studies of individual patients rather than on experimental studies, Psychoanalytic ideas have had ‘a profound influence on psychological thinking. The basic assumption of Freud's theory is that much of our behaviour stems from processes that are unconscious. By unconscious processes, Freud meant thoughts, fears and wishes, a person is unaware of but which stil influence behaviour. He believed that many of the impulses that are forbidden or punished by parents and society during childhood are derived from innate instincts. Because these impulses are innate, they exert a persuasive influence that must be dealt with in some manner. Forbidding them merely drives them out of awareness into the unconscious, where they remain to affect behaviour. Freud's view of human nature was essentially negative. We are driven by the same basic instincts as animals (primarily sex and aggression) and are continually struggling against a society that stresses the control of these impulses. Because Freud believed that aggression was a basic instinct, he was pessimistic about the possibility of people ever living tagether peacefully. Psychoanalysis is a technique used by specially trained individuals to help people cope with personal problems by overcoming anxiety. 4.43 BEHAVIOURISM This schoo! of psychology originated with the American Psychologist John B. Watson (1878 - 1958), for many years, at Johns Hopkins University. Watson rejected mind as the subject of psychology and insisted that psychology be restricted to the study of behavior-the observable (or potentially observable) activities of people and animals. Only the observable responses made by the subject were relevant. Behaviourism studies the observable behaviour and relationships between stimuli and responses.2 Fundamentals of Psychology In addition to its focus on behavior as the proper subject matter of psychology, behaviorism had three other important characteristics. One was an emphasis on conditioned responses as the elements, or building blocks, of behavior. ‘Watson argued that complex human and animal behavior is made up almost entirely of conditioned responses. A second closely related characteristic of behaviorism was its emphasis on learned, rather than unlearned, behavior. It denied the existence of inborn, or innate, behavioral tendencies. A third characteristic of behaviorism was its focus on animal behavior. Watson held that there are no essential differences between human and animal behavior and that we can earn much about our own behavior from the study of what animals do, ‘With the behavioral approach, a psychologist studies individuals by looking at their behavior rather than at theit internal workings. ‘The view that behavior should be the sole subject matter of psychology was first advanced by the John B. Watson in the early 1900s, According to Watson, “if psychology were to bea science its data must be observable and measurable. Stimulus-response psychology is influential particularly because of the work of Harvard psychologist B.F.Skinner, Stimulus-Response psychology (or S-R psychology for short) studies the stimuli that elicit behavioral responses, the rewards and punishments that maintain these responses and the modifications in behavior obtained by changing the patterns of rewards and punishments. A theory of learning can be developed by observing how learning with the fowest errors. Skinner introduced the concept of reinforcement to behaviourism, ‘Watson pointed out to the laboratory experiments being conducted by ivan Pavlov in Russia as a model. Paviov found that, dogs will learn to salivate ‘when a bell is rung and if ringing the bells has been repeatedly associated with feeding. Pavlov explained the salivation in terms of the laboratory conditions, or conditioning, Salvation was an event that could be measured by the laboratory instruments. Harvard University psychologist, B.F. Skinner took the behaviorist call and introduced the concept of ‘einforcement'to behaviourism. Organism learns to behave in certain way, because they have been reinforced for doing so.Definiton and Schools 3 According to Behavioris's view, psychology should focus solelyon observable, overt activities that can be measured in a scientific manner. For example, consider the question of what motivates people to work hard and spend efforts on their jobs. We cannot observe such work-motivation directly; itis an internal state that we assume, exists inside people and affects theirovert behaviour For example, - howlong and hard thay work at a given task -we can observe both the conditions. We believe that many influence motivation, such as the extent to which good performance is rewarded, and changes in overt behaviour that appear to be linked with motivation, such as actual output, number of errors and so on in the industrial or organizational set up. Since modern psychology, still focuses a great deal of attention on overt behaviour, this (motivation) remains an important perspective within the field Behaviourism is based on the learning model like observation, conditioning and modeling. The methods include all Behaviour Modification Techniques like Assertive Training, Role Modeling, Systematic Desensitization, Aversion Therapy etc. Behaviourism did have criticisms based on the facts that all responses are not observable and that it missed the richness of human nature of thoughts and feelings. 4.44 HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY Humanistic or Phenomenological Approach : Humanistic Psychology is a recent school, which emerged in 1980's and is related to Gestalt psychology and cognitive in flavour. The humanistic approach of American psychologists such as Carl Rogers (1902 - 1987), Rollo May (born 1909) and Abraham Maslow (1916 - 1972) assists that we are basically free to determine our ‘own behaviour. To Humanists, freedom is a source of both pride and great responsibilty, Humanistic psychologists suggest that we are engaged in quests to discover our personal identities and meaning of our lives. Humanistic psychology, because of its focus on consciousness and self awareness, is 2is0 labeled “phenomenological”. The word “phenomenon’ is derived from the Greek word ‘fantasy’. However, fantasy implies that one's perceptions are inaccurate and unreal14 Fundamentals of Psychology Humanistic approach which is otherwise called as the phenomenological ‘approach focuses on subjective experience. itis concemed with the individual's ‘own perception and interpretation of events the individual's phenomenology. This approach seeks to understand events, or phenomena, as they are experienced by the individual and to do so withoutimposing any preconceptions or theoretical ideas. Phenomenological psychologists believe that we can learn more about human nature by studying people's perceptions of themselves and their world than we can by observing their actions. Two people might behave quite differently in response to the same situations, only by asking how each interprets the situation can we fully understand their behavr. Humanistic psychology assumes the existence of the self and emphasizes the importance of consciousness and self awareness. Phenomenological psychologists prefer to believe that we are responsible for ouractions. We are not ‘acted on’ by forces outside our control, bt are “actors” capable of controlling our own destiny, The issue here is one of determinism versus free will. Phenomenological psychologists, in contrast, are not concerned with prediction and control. Their emphasis is on understanding the individual's inner lfe and experiences. They believe that, although animal behavior depends primarily on how the individual perceives the word in general and the immediate situation in particular. Phenomenological approach deals with the experience of perceiving the world ‘Some phenomenological theories are also called humanistic, because they emphasize those quaitis that distinguish people from animals-primarily their free will and their drive toward self-actualization. According to humanistic theories, an individual's main motivational force is a tendency toward growth and self-actualization, Achievement of us has a basic need to develop our potential to the fullest, to progress beyond where we are now. Although we. may be blocked by alkinds of environmental and cultural obstacles, our natural tendency is toward self actualization of our potential. With its emphasis on developing one's potential, humanistic psychology has been closely associated with encounter groups and various types of “consciousness-expanding’ and mystical experiences. Itis more aligned with literature and humanities than with science. Infact some humanists would even reject scientific psychologyDefiniton and Schools 15 Claiming that ts method can contribute nothing worthwhile to an understanding of human nature. Humanists such as Carl Rogers (1985) and other psycttologists admit that their observation method have been less than scientific, vague and difficult to test due to their subjectivity but argue that subjective experience remains vital to the understanding of human nature. COMPARISON OF SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY Behavioristic Perspective Only concepts that can be related to observable aspects of behavior are useful from the point of view of a science-oriented psychology. Psychoanalytic perspective: According to the psychodynamic perspective, behavior stem from continuous, and largely unconscious, struggles among hidden forces deep within our personalities. Humanistic perspective Perspective emphasize the importance of tendencies toward personal growth- fendencies in each of us to try to become the best person we can be. Only when external obstacles interfere is the growth process interrupted; in such Psychologists who adhere to the humanistic cases, humanistic psychologists contend, we may experience various psychological disorders stemming from disruption of our normal growth Humanistic Perspective is a perspective in modern psychology suggesting that human beings have free will and are not simply under the controi of various internal and external factors. PERSPECTIVE FOCUS Behavioral Focuses on overt, observable behavior concepts are viewed as Useful only if they can be related to overt behavior. Gestalt Emphasizes the tendency to organize perception into whole and to integrals separate stimuli into meaningful patterns Psychodynamic Emphasizes the role of internal forces and conflicts in behavior. It views many actions, and many forms of16 psychological unconscious imy Humanistic personal growth Fundamentals of @sychology disorders, as stemming pulses or forces. from Emphasizes the importance of tendencies toward and assumes that individuals have free will with respect to their own Behavior. HUMANISTIC VIEW ‘A school of thought which focuses ‘on subjective experience to discover personal identities and meaning for ive. We are responsible for our action. We are not ‘acted on’ forces outside our control, but are ‘actors’ capable of Controlling our thinking and action, Subject matter: Question about the whole person, subjective human lexperience, and significant human problems, the extra ordinary and individual as well as the usual and universal. Major Goals: Service and Jenrichment of the primary and |secondary knowledge. Research methods emphasized |The observers intuitive awareness is considered important. All procedures objective methods, introspection, case study, analysis, literature etc., - are acceptable. informal Population studied People. BEHAVI ‘A school of thought that maintains| that psychology can describe and measure only what is observable| either directly or through the use of instruments. OURISM Subject matter: stimuli and lobservable responses; learning lemphasized. Major goals: Knowledge,applications, Population studied: people and other animals,Definiton and Schools GESTALT PSHCHOLOGY A school of thought which believes that behaviour can be studied in parts: but must be viewed as a whole. Subject matter: Subjective; whole human experience; perception, thinking and problem solving emphasized Major goals: Knowledge, Research methods emphasized; Informal Introspection, objective method, PSYCHOANALYSIS ‘Theory and technique developed by Sigmund Freud regarding the dynamics of behaviour. Unconscious motivations the key to understand the| behaviour. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Subject matter: Normal and abnormal _ personality determinants in early childhood, and unconscious aspect emphasized); {treatment of abnormal behaviour. (laws, Major Goals: Service, knowledge, Research Methods emphasized: patient's informal introspection to reveal conscious experiences Therapist: Logical analysis and observation to uncover unconscious Materials. Population Studied: Patients (Usually adults), 1 2 Psychology. 3 Psychology is the science of behavior and ‘The German word Gestalt means is considered by many to be the founder of Experimental or,8 Fundamentals of Psychology 4. This school of psychology originated with the American Psychologist 5 Withthe , @ psychologist studies individuals by looking at their behavior rather than at their internal workings, 6 _____approach deals with the experience of perceiving the world LET US SUM UP Today, we define psychology as the science of behaviour and cognitive processes. In other words, psychologists are concerned with obtaining scientific information on everything we (and other living organisms) think, feel and do. They examine observable behaviour, cognitive process, psychological events, social and cultural influences and largely the hidden and largely unconscious processes. They also look at the complex interactions between allof these different factors in order to describe behaviour. Regarding the modern schools of psychology, Gestalt psychology emphasizes the tendency to organize perception into whole and to integrals separate stimuli into meaningful patterns. Psychoanalysis emphasized the importance of unconscious motives and conflicts as determinants of human behaviours. Behaviourism mainly deals with observable responses to environmental stimull that can be measured either directly or indirectly by the use of instruments. ‘Some phenomenological theories are also called humanistic, because they emphasize those qualities that distinguish people from animals-primarly their {ree will and their dive toward self-actualization. KEY WORDS ‘Structuralism Funetionalism Cognitive process Behaviourisr Gestalt Psychoanalysis, Humanistic Phenomenological ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: 1. Cognitive processes 2. WundtDefiniton and Schools 19 Form, configuration 3, 4. John B. Watson 5. Behavioral approach 6 Phenomenological MODEL QUESTIONS 1. Define Psychology. ‘What are the aims of Psychology? 2. 3. Whatis Structuralism? 4, Whats Behaviorism? 5 Explain the different schools of psychology.Unit 2 FIELDS AND APPLICATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY STRUCTURE Overview Leaming Objectives 24 Fields of psychology 24.1 Experimental psychology 24.2 Physiologicalpsychology 21.3 Developmental psychology 21.4 Socialpsychology 24.8 Porsonalitypsychology 24.6 Clinical psychalogy 21.7 Counselingpsychology 21.8 Schoolpsychology or educational psychology 24.9 Engineering psychology 2.2 Emerging specialities 23 Applications of psychology 23.1. Psychology in Community 23.2. Psychology in Family 23.3 Psychology in Education 234 Psychology in Health 23.5 Psychology in Solf-development 23.6 Psychology in Human relations. 23.7 Psycholegyin industry Lotus sum up Keywords Answers to check your progress Model Questions OVERVIEW We can also define psychology in human terms by seeing what sorts of things psychologists do. The fields may vary in the application ofFields and Applications of Wsycholoyy a psychology to life's problems. This unit is designed to bring out the different fields in which the psychologists are involved. First let us have a look on the branches or fields of psychology, and then we willfocus on the applications of psychology in the areas of community, family, education, health, self- development, human relations and in industry. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit youwould be able to: > listout the different fields of psychology > identify the emerging specialties > explain the application of psychology in various fields 2.4 FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY Psychologists use the scientific method to understand the unknown, this is used to pose and answer questions of psychological interest. this helps us to sort out whattis credible from what should be ignored, This can be materialized by a variety of methods which we will be discussing now. 24.1 Experimental Psychology Experimental Psychology studies how people reac! fo sensory stimuli, perceive the world around them, learn and remember, respond emotionally, and are motivated to action, whether by hunger or the desire to succeed in ife. Experimental psychologists also work with animals. Sometimes they attempt to relate animaiand human behavior; sometimes they study animals in order to compare the behavior of different species (comparative psychology) ‘Whatever their interest, experimental psychologists are concerned with developing precise methods of measurement and control. They study all aspects of basic psychological processes such as perception, learning, and motivation. For example, research by experimental psychologists has recently added much to our understanding of attention the process of directing portions of our information processing capacity to specific stimuli. This knowledge, in turn, is now being applied to the design of more effective warnings about various hazards,2 Fundamentals of Psychology 2.4.2 Physiological Psychology Physiological psychologists seek to discover the relationship between biological processes and behavior, How do sex hormones influence behaviuor? What, area of the brain controls speech? How do drugs like marijuana and LSD affect coordination and memory? Two rapidly developing areas of interdisciplinary research are the neurosciences (concerned with all aspects ofthe nervous system, including the relationship between brain function and behaviour) and psychopharmacology (the study of drugs and behaviour). Physiological Psychology or Psychobiology : Investigates the biological bases of behavior-the role of biochemical events within our nervous ‘systems and bodies in everything we do, sense, feel, or think. For example, psychobiologists have recently investigated the possible role of gender differences in behavior of subtle differences, in the structure of female and male brains. 24.3 Developmental Psychology Developmental psychologists are concerned with human growth and the factors that shape behavior from birth to old age. They might study a specific ability, such as how language develops and changes in the growing chid, or a particular period of life, such as infancy, the preschool years, or adolescence. Because human development takes place in the context of other persons-parents, siblings, playmates, and school companions-a large part of development is social It studies how people change physically, cognitively, and socially over the entire life span. For example, developmental psychologists have found that the patterns of attachment children form to their parents can influence the nature of the romantic relationships they form as adults. 24.4 Social Psychology Social psychologists are interested in the ways that interactions with other people influence attitudes and behavior, They are concerned also with the behavior of groups. Social psychologists are perhaps best known for their work in public opinion and attitude surveys and in market research. Surveys are now widely used by newspapers, magazines, radio and TV networks, as well as by government agencies, such as the Bureau of the Census.Fields and Applications of Psychology 23 Social psychologists investigate such topics as propaganda and persuasion, conformity, and intergroup conflict. At present a significant part of their search effect is directed toward identifying the factors that contribute to prejudice and toaggression. Itstudies all aspects of social behavior and social thought how we think about and interact with others. For example, social psychologists have recently found that while both women and men use complaints to change others’ behavior, the two genders use this technique in slightly different ways, 24.5 Personality Psychology Personality psychologists focus on differences between individuals, They are interested in ways of classifying individuals for usefut purposes as well as in studying ach individual's unique quaities. 24.6 Clinical Psychology Clinical Psychology are concer with the application of psychological principles t0{he diagnosis and treatment of motional and behavioral problems mental illness, juvenile delinquency, criminal behavior, drug addiction, mental retardation, marital and family conflict, and other less serious adjustment problems. They may work in mental hospitals, juvenile courts or probation offices, mental health clinics, institutions for the mentally retarded, prisons, or university medical schools. They may also practice privately, often in association with other professionals; their affiliations with the medical profession, especially psychiatry, are close. Clinical psychology studies the diagnosis, causes, and treatment of mental disorders, For example, clinical psychologists have recently devised effective forms of treatment for reducing aggression among highly assault children. 24.7 Counseling Psychology Counseling psychologists serve many of the same functions, although they usually deal with less serious problems, They often work with high school or university students, providing help with problems of social adjustment and vocational and educational goals. Together, clinical and counseling psychologists account for about 41 percent of all psychologists.24 Fundamentals of Psychology Counseling psychology assists individuals in dealing with many personal problems that do not involve psychological disorders. For example, counseling psychologists assist individuals in career planning and in developing more effective interpersonal skils. 24.8 School Psychology or Educational Psychology The public schools provide a wide range of opportunities for psychologists. Because the beginnings of serious emotional problems often appear in the early grades, many elementary schools employ psychologists whose training combines courses in child development, educatian, and clinical psychology. These school psychologists work with individual children to valuate learning and emotional problems; administering and interpreting: intelligence, achievement, and personality tests are part of their job. In consultation with parents ant! teachers they plan ways of helping the child both in the classroom and in the home. They also provide a valuable resource for teachers, offering suggestions for coping with classroom problems. Educational psychology studies all aspects of the educational process, from techniques of instruction to learning disabilities. For example, educational psychologists are working to develop classroom procedures designed to help minority children overcome the environmental disadvantages they face, Educational psychologists are specialists in leaming and teaching. They may workin the public school system, but more often are employed by a university's school of education, where they do research on teaching method and help train teachers and school psychologists. 24.9 Engineering Psychology Engineering psychologists seek to make the relationship between people and machines as satisfactory as possible to design machines so that human errors ate minimized. For example, engineering psychologists were involved developing space capsules in which astronauts could live and function efficiently. Designing underwater habitats for oceanographic research or developing arlficial imps and other prosthetic devices for handicapped individuals are other examples of their work.Fields and Applications of Psychology 6 ‘Along with social psychologists and other scientists, engineering psychologists are concerned with environmental issues —problems of noise, air and water pollution, overcrowding, and toxic agents — that must be solved in planning for the future. A new term for this area of research, which is becoming increasingly active, is environmental psychology. 22 EMERGING SPECIALITIES In adkition to the areas we have mentioned are some newer career possiblities in psychology. Forensic psychologists work within the legal, judicial, and correctional systems in a variety of ways — for example, consulting with police departments and probation officers to increase their understanding of the human problems with which they must deal, working with prison inmates and their families, participating in decisions about whether an accused person is ‘mentally competent to stand tral, and preparing psychological reports to help judges decide on the most appropriate course of action ora convicted criminal Cyber- Psychologists who specialize in computer science may plan the design and data analysis of experiments that require the kind of complex calculations that can only be done with a computer. Or they may work in the area of artificial Intelligence, which uses computers to perform the kind of intellectual tasks that are considered characteristic of human thought. Because of their expertise in experimental design the procedures for gathering and analyzing data psychologists also work in the area of evaluation research Early education for underprivileged children, preventing drug abuse arnong high schoo! students, or providing job training for unemployed youths-are effective. Psychologists are becoming increasingly active in the evaluation of public programs in such areas as education, health, and employment. 2.3 APPLICATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY The application of knowledge to practical problems is an art; itis a skill, ora knack for doing things, which is acquired by study, practice, and special experience. The psychotherapist talking to a worried client, the educational psychologist advising a school board on a new curriculum, the clinical psychologist supervising group therapy in a state mental hospital, and the social psychologist trying to lessen tensions between management and26 Fundamentals of Psychology workers ina large industry are all practicing the art of psycholony. Psychologists, have learned, through special training, the artistry, or knack, of applying psychology. The ability to apply psychological principles is a hard won skill. Special experience is needed. But after reading this lesson you should be able to apply psychological principles to at least some of the things that happen inyour daily ite. 23.1 Psychology in Community Psychologists deal with human behaviour problems with a new approach. ‘They emphasize that a great deal of environmental factors is responsible in causing adjustment difficulties. Amertioration or minimizing of man’s problems toa great extent rests with the manipulation of these environmental causes, instead of passively waiting for these problems to be solved The development of community psychology started in 1965, when a group of psychologists headed by Hersch, engaged in developing mental health programmes. The community psychologists were expected to make use of their scientific training to create knowledge and programmes for better mental health, by assuming decision making roles in the society and by being political activists. Community psychotogist’s prime aim is to promote mental health at the community level, by preventing and treating psychological problems. They evaluate and improve community organizations and involve in public programmes such as employing the physically handicapped, rehabilitating the juvenile delinquents and caring for the elderly 23.2 Psychology in Family ‘The application of psychology in family deals with certain personal problems. among the family members like is everyone happily married? Does every couple have children? What happens to adults and children when committed relationships end? Aside from marriage, wihat kind of intimate relationship is possible? How does family vary for those from different social classes and ethnic groups?Fields and Applications of Psychology 2 ‘When asked what they want from a partner, they indicate that the are looking for someone with whom to shate affection, intimate secrets and companionship. They strive to obtain and maintain secure, lasting relationship but which may not always be possible. this results in problems in family ike low frustration tolerance among the partners, divorce or separation, extramarital relationships, widowhood, infertility, conflict, ole strain due to psychological distress and contradictory responsibiliies etc. Apart from the problems between the husband and wife, the children without whom one cannot call ita family, sometimes pose the greatest threat. The child in the family may be mentally etarded, physically handicapped, a spastic child, slow learner, have learning disability etc. The psychologists play a vital role in dealing with such serious problems and help the child with various intervention strategies, depending on the intensity of the problem. The adolescents in the family may be under stress and storm, for they are neither a child nor an adult, Related to this, there may be communication gap or generation gap, leading to misunderstanding or adjustment problems. Effective guidance and counselling by the family counsellors prove successful in reducing such problems The farhious mother-in-law or daughter-in-law problems or the problems of the elders in the family are the other side of the coin. The advent of creche, orphanages, or home for the aged are all the outcome of family imbalances. Here comes the role of the marriage or family counsellor who deal with the ‘marital, family, personal or emotional problems. ‘The application of various effective psychological techniques by the marriage ‘r family counsellors may minimize such haphazards in the family 23.3. Psychology in Education ‘The elementary and secondary schools provide a wide range of opportunities for psychologists. Because the beginnings of serious emotional problems appearin the early grades, many elementary schools employ psychologists, whose training combines courses in child development, education and clinical psychology. These school psychologists work with individual children to evaluate learning and emotional problems; administering and interpreting intelligence, achievement and personally tests is part of theirjob. In congelation with parents8 Fundamentals of Psychology and teachers, they plan ways af helping the child both in the classroom and in the home. They also provide a valuable resource tor teachers, offering suggestions for coping with classroom problems. Educational psychologists are specialists in learning and teaching methods. They help to train teachers with effective psychological techniques. They may work in the schools, but more often are employed in colleges, Universities, or other institutions of higher learning, where they do research on teaching methods. Educational psychologists are usually involved with more general, less immediate problems, and are concemed with increasing the efficiency in learning by applying psychological theories of learning ‘and motivation to the curriculum Much of the school psychologists job consists of diagnosing learning difficulties and trying to remedy them. Using tests and information gained from consultations with the student and his or her parents, the schoo! psychologist tries to pinpoint a problem and suggest action to correct it. For instance, a school psychologist suggests that a poor reader be assigned toa remedial reading class. School psychologists are involved in vocational and other forms of counselling. They are the school counsellor. 2.3.4 Psychology in Health “Health is wealth” no doubt. Here health is referred is both physical and psychological well being. The human being is a product of both the body and mind, where one cannot exist without the other. Both are equally important for the smooth functioning of the individual. Deficiency or disorder in either the body or the mind results in various complications in the individual within and without. In psychology, these disorders are called as psychosomatic and ‘somatopsychic problems, which are dealt in detail in the field of abnormal psychology. The influence of the mind on the body or vice versa, which leads to mental ill health in the individual. Thus, it is the role of the psychologist to promote mental health, or mental hygiene and maintain stability among the human race. On the other hand, the physical or the bodily health problems, are usually dealt with by the physicians or the psychiatrists where they would prescribe appropriate medicines and treatment.Fields and Applications of Psychology 29 Now, let us quickly see, what is meant by mental heaith, Mental health may be defined by the ability to function effectively and find satisfaction in life, inspite of all stress and strain. It also refers to absence of disease, feeling of well being and well adjusted. The people with mentally ill health may be helped to restore mental health atleast to some extent. 23.5 Psychology in Sclf-Development ‘The aim of psychology, as already mentioned, is to understand, predict and control behaviour. Itis easy to say than done. Self understanding or answering the question ‘who am 1?’ Is the most difficult one to be answered. Do you agree? Here, it is not referred to merely your name, age, education or occupation. Only if the individual understands oneself. he/she can develop, Development refers tothe qualitative aspects rather, than merely the quantitative aspects as in growth. ‘The qualitative aspects may be the individual's sincerity, punctuality, honesty, assertiveness, dominance etc. which putin a nut shell, we callitas personality in psychology. Personality is decided by both the physical and psychological qualities and gratifying relationship with friends, spouse, parents or children. ‘The individual should be able to work effectively, productively laugh, play, relax and have fun which is becoming a rare phenomenon in the present day mechanical and competitive world. The most important characteristic of a mentally healthy individual is the realistic appraisal of his/her strength and weakness. They would fee! worthy member of the human race and freedom from psychological handicap, and should be able to control one’s thoughts, feelings and actions. Cheek out for yourself whether you have the above mentioned characteristics, atleast a few, though not all, for you should be mentally healthy first, and then promote them to others. Notall individuals may be cent percent mentally healthy, and itis much more worse among the mentally disordered, Hence with the fascinating field of, psychology, by providing various treatment measures such as relaxation, systematic desensitization, cognitive restricting, aversion therapy, biofeedback, guidance and counselling, mental health may be promoted. Self-development deals with self-concept, seltesteem, self-awareness, self- analysis or self-profile. Now, how do you develop yourself?30 Fundamentals of Psychology Let us work outa small exercise by using the principles of psychology which we are indebted to always, for us to know and develop ourselves. But as a preliminary requisite, you should first have an open mind to come out with you strengths and weaknesses and readiness to changes should be promoted ‘and reluctant to change should be evaded. Now get ready, go. Take out a fresh plain paper, divide into two columns, and one side write your strengths and on the other your weakness, (oF points to improve - because as psychologists we wantto be optimistic). Feel free to write whatever comes to your mind, be sincere and do not think fora long time or manipulate. Is the lst ready? Now, take another fresh page. and give it o your close friend, who knows you well, and ask him or her to write your strengths and weakness {rom their point of view. You may give 5-10 minutes forinstance. Is the second list over? Now, yau compare the frst and second list, and find out the common characteristics among both the strengths and weakness. Whichever is the ‘common, is the answer to “Who arn |?" Now you know who you are? For the seifto develop, you should tryto strengthen your strengths and weaken your weaknesses. Now you agree that psychology is interesting and applied? 2.3.6 Psychology in Human Relations Psychology plays an important role in human relations. No mans in isolation and we need to relate with human beings, atleast to vent their feelings and ease themselves, though not aiming to help other, which is also equally important, Human relations may be both expressed - where we express our thoughts and feelings to others, or wanted where we may want affection, care, low, warmth ete. from others. But there are times, when human beings land up in some frictions, due to faully communications, not being assertive when the need arises, but rather aggressive ete. By the vast application of psychological principtes and techniques, human relations may be promoted in a varicty of ways like, (1) generating a personal agenda where the individuals may reveal their feelings (2) sensitizing the interpersonal dimensions by making the individuals aware of their interpersonal relations, (3) Checking self-understating where the individuals make a self-estimate and other estimate him/he and (4) makingFields and Applications of Psychology ” individual interpretation or get feed back from other, all of which promote social desirability and effective human relations, ‘The ultimate aim of psychology is to make adequate adjustments in the society, whatever may be the challenges, and this can be achieved successfully with {good hurtin relalions. Ofcourse, the abilty to apply psychological principles is a hard.wen skill, you cannot expect to begome an expert from reading the fesson. Special and practical experience ‘is needed. But after reading this lesson, you should be able to apply psychological principles to atleast some of the things that happen inyour daily life. Cognitive Psychology: Investigates allaspects of cognition- memory. thinking, reasoning, language, decision making, and so on. For example, cognitive psychologists have recently found evidence suggesting that the reason we can't remember events that happen to us before we are about three years old is that we lack a clearly developed self-concept prior to this age. 23.7 Psychology in Industry Industrial psychologists (sometimes called organizational psychologists) may work for a particular company or as consultants for a number of business organizations. Industrial psychologists is concerned with selecting people most suitable fora particular job, by using inteligence and aptitude tests, developing training programmes and management consultancy with industries and business situation. Industrial psychologists also deat with promotion, supervision, and interpersonal relationship among the employees and between the employers and employees. They study such aspects as fatigue, accidents and working conditions and their improvements in industry that involve the morale and welfare of employees. Industrial psychologists are also called as organizational psychologists. Today, many industries use many psychological tests in their placement and training programmes. Private and public organizations also apply psychology to counselling employers, and to alleviate industrial strike. The applied psychologists who do this work are sometimes called personnel psychologists, And for still another, may do research on consuiner alliludes towards the company's products, by applying the psychological principles to minimize Practical problems of work and commerce.2 Fundamentals of Psychology ‘These are a few dimensions of Industrial psychology like the engineering ‘psychologist who seek to make the relationship between people and machines as satisfactory as possible to design machines so that human errors are minimized. For example, engineering psychologists were involved in developing ‘space capsules in which astronauts could ve and function efficiently. Designing underwater habitats for oceanographic research and developing artifical limbs and other devices for handicapped individuals are other examples of their ‘work. Along with engineering psychologists there is a group of psychologists called environmental psychologists who are concerned with problems of noise, air and water pollution, overcrowding and the psychologically optimal design of working and living areas. Yet another type of psychologists, called the consumer psychologists, deal with techniques of marketing, advertising and propaganda. Ultimately, industrial psychologists aim at increasing productivity, improving the performance of the employees and finding good market for the products, Which is essential for building greater productivity and industrial peace. Industrial / Organizational Psychology:. Studies all aspects of behavior in work settings selection of employees, evaluation of performance, work motivation, leadership, For example, industriaV/organizational psychologists have found that work performance often decreases sharply when employees feel that they are being treated unfairly-that they are receiving fewer benefits that they deserve. Indeed, professional basketball players who feel underpaid actually score fewer points than those who feel that their salaries are fair. Check your Progress 1 investigates the biological bases of behavior the role of biochemical events within our nervous systems and bodies in everything we do. 2. Industrial psychologists are sometimes called psychologists. a investigates all aspects of memory, thinking, reasoning, language, decision making. 4 studies the diagnosis, causes, and treatment of mental disorders,Fields and Applications of Psychology 33 5. are concerned with human growth and the factors that shape behavior from birth to old age. Let us sum up ‘The application of knowledge to practical problems is both an art and a science. Itis a skil, ora knack fordoing things, which is acquired by study, practice and. special experience. The psychotherapist talking to a worried client, the educational psychologist advising a school board on a new-curriculum, the clinical psychologist supervising group therapy in a mental hospital, and the social psychologist érying to lessen tensions between management and workers in a large industry are all practicing psychology. Just as a physician or engineer develop skills in using Scientific knowledge to solve practical problems, these psychologists have learned, through special training the arts or knack of applying psychology. Keywords Experimental Psychology Educational Psychology Laboratory study Heath Industry Psychobiology Cognitive psychology Counseling psychology Educational psychology ‘Community psychology Answers to check your progress 4. Psychobiology Organizational Cognitive Psychology Clinical psychology ea weR Developmental psychologists Model Questions 1. Whatis experimental psychology? 2. Whatis Counseling psychology? 3. Whatis Educational psychology? 4, Explain the various applications of psychology.Unit 3 METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY STRUCTURE Overview Learning objectives 3A 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 Scientific Mothed Experimental Method 3.2.1 Laboratory Experiment 3.22 Field experiment 3.2.3. Theimportant characteristics ofthe experimental method Observation Method 3.3.1 Typesof observation method Survey Method Test Method Case study Method Clinical Method Cortolation Method Interview Method 3.40 Questionnaire Method Let us sum up Key words Answers to check your progress Model Questions OVERVIEW As we have defined the psychology as a science, in the previous unit, twas emphasized that the discovery of new knowledge about behaviour is based on experiments and the subsequent observation made uponit. In this unit, let Us look more closely at he ways psychologists go about making observations. In this unit, we focus on the steps in the scientific methods, the characteristics of experimental method, laboratory method, Observation method, Survey method, clinical method, various types of interview methods, and finally the ‘questionnaire method.Methods in Psychology 35 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit you would be able to > explain the various steps in the scientific methods > deseribe about the experimental method and its characteristics > explain the Observation method and its types. > describe about the survey, test and methods. > discuss about the case study method, its advantages and disadvantages > discuss about the correlation, various interview methods and «questionnaire methods as wellas their advantages and disadvantages, 3.1. SCIENTIFIC METHOD ‘Asa student of psychology, you might have come across several questions such as: How do psychologists study behaviour? Does alcchot cause aggression? Whats the relationship between age and intelligence? Is these any difference between boys and girls in their academic achievements? Can children be taught to develop desirable behaviours? Many of us have expressed opinions on questions such as these at one time of another and different psychological theories suggest a number of possible answers. But psychology is an empirical science. Within an empirical science, assumptions about the behaviour of cosmic rays, chemical compounds, cell or people, must be supported by evidence. Scientific evidence is obtained by ‘means of the scientific method of investigation ‘There are four basie steps in scientific method. Step 4: Formulating a research question - Our daily experiences, psychological theory and even folklore help to generate questions for research. For example, social -learning or observational learning may prompt research tofind the effects of televised violence. Step 2: Developing a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a specific statement about behaviour that is to be tested through research. A hypothesis about TV36 Fundamentals of Psychology violence might be that elementary school boys who watch more violent TV show tend to behave more aggressively towards their peers. Step 3: Testing the Hypothesis - Psychologists test the hypothesis through carefully controlled methods of observation or the experiment method. Concerning the effects of TV violence, we could obtain the parent's help to tally which of the TV shows their children watch and to rate the shows for violentcontent. Each boy could receive a total “exposure to TV violence score’ We could also gather the teacher's report on how aggressively the boy acts, toward their peers. Then, we could determine whether more aggressive boys. also watch more violence on television, ‘Step 4: Drawing Conclusion from the test of Hypothesis - Psychologists, draw conclusions about the accuracy of their hypothesis on the basis of their research findings. When research findings do not bear out their hypothesis, the researchers may modify the theories from which the hypothesis was to modify the theories from which the hypothesis was derived. Research findings often suggest new hypothesis and consequently new studies. We would probably find that aggressive children spend more time watching television violence ‘Thus psychologists use several techniques for conducting systematic research, by using the scientific method and perform the task of adding to our knowledge about behaviour and mental processes. They move beyond common sense in seeking answers to puzzling questions about human behaviour. 3.2 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD The aim of science is to provide new and useful information in the form of verifiable data. Data obtained under conditions are such that other qualified people can tepeat the observations and obtain the same results. This task calls for orderliness and precision in investigating relationships and is ‘communicating them to others. Psychology as a science makes use of the method of experimentation for its findings. Experimental method has been used by other science as well The experimental method is a research method where investigators systematically alter one or more variable in order to determine whether such