Data collection

E. Hagni Wardoyo
Mataram, 29 Agustus 2023
Research sequence

Referencing and reading

Instruments
Gap between facts and
hopes (outcome) Data obtain
Data template
Research question (quantitative data-
Types of data
Hypothesis semiqualitative data)
Analyze data
Data instruments:
questionnaire, lab Pooling and retracting
methods, port-folio, etc data
Data vs variable

Data Variable
• All information gathered in • Clean data
research processed • Formal kind of data that is used
• Not all data is variables for analysis
• All variables are data
What is data, and how data is being
organized?
• Data is things is known as a facts, making the basis of reasoning or
calculation
Subjective data is information given from
the viewpoint of the patient or someone
in the patient's life; it is a symptom

Objective data is information directly observed by

the healthcare worker; it is a sign
What is data, and how data is being
organized?
• Data is things is known as a facts, making the basis of reasoning or
calculation
Subjective data is information given from
the viewpoint of the patient or someone
what is
in the patient's life; it is a symptom observed

what is
Objective data is information directly observed by
said the healthcare worker; it is a sign
BIAS
 Clinical decision?

Subjective data is information given from

the viewpoint of the patient or someone
what is
in the patient's life; it is a symptom observed

what is
Objective data is information directly observed by
said the healthcare worker; it is a sign
 Clinical decision?

what is
⁓
Subjective data is information given from
the viewpoint of the patient or someone
in the patient's life; it is a symptom observed

what is
Objective data is information directly observed by
said the healthcare worker; it is a sign
 Research objectives?

Subjective data is information given from

the viewpoint of the patient or someone
what is
in the patient's life; it is a symptom observed

what is
Objective data is information directly observed by
said the healthcare worker; it is a sign
 Research objectives?

Subjective data is information given from

what is
the viewpoint of the patient or someone
in the patient's life; it is a symptom
< observed

what is
Objective data is information directly observed by
said the healthcare worker; it is a sign
Clinical decision in dive injury

Subjective data Objective data

• I’ve been feels ache in upper • Doppler found no bubbles
right arm 2 hrs after surfacing • No pooling in haemotologic
time features
• This ache is even getting worse
right now
• Shortly after all my finger arm is
felt numbness
Research objectives in dive injury

Subjective data Objective data

• I’ve been feels ache in upper • Doppler found no bubbles
right arm 2 hrs after surfacing • No pooling in haemotologic
time features
• This ache is even getting worse
right now
• Shortly after all my finger arm is
felt numbness
Source of data
The uniqueness data in biology/ medicine
• No black and white data, only grey in stratified grades
• Variance in biological response to medical/social intervention →
biological plausibility (causal association to outcome is vary)
• Organic existence does not correlate to diseases manifestation/nor its
severity (existence of gene, does not always being expressed)
• Biological data changes may affected by means other than
intervention
• Mix between subjective and objective data may decide the outcome/
therapeutic intervention decision
• Dynamics of biomarker may present specific manifestations in one
individual or none for other individual
Types of numerical data
Nominal data

Ordinal data

Ranked data

Discrete data

Continuous data
 Nominal data
• Nomi=names
• Nominal data in which the values fall into
unordered categories or classes
• Two distinct value –
dichotomous/binary
• Or more
• Male – 0; female – 1, “1” or “0” simply serve as
labels for the different gender
 Ordinal data
• When the order among
categories becomes important,
the observations are referred to
as ordinal data
• Example: injuries may be
classified according to their level
of severity, so that 1 represents a
fatal injury, 2 is severe, 3 is
moderate, and 4 is minor.
 Ordinal data (2)

• The difference between deficient and insufficient is not necessarily the same as
the difference between insufficient and sufficient
• many arithmetic operations still do not make sense when applied
to ordinal data
Ranked data
• In some situations, we have a group of
observations that are first arranged from
highest to lowest according to magnitude and
then assigned numbers that correspond to each
observation's place in the sequence.
• In assigning the ranks, we disregard the
magnitudes of the observations and consider
only their relative positions.
• Even with this imprecision, it is amazing how
much information the ranks contain. In fact, it
is sometimes better to work with ranks than
with the original data
Discrete data
• For discrete data, both ordering and magnitude are important. In this case, the numbers
represent actual measurable quantities rather than mere labels.
• Discrete data are restricted to taking on only specified values-often integers or counts-
that differ by fixed amounts; no intermediate values are possible.
• “the number of motor vehicle accidents in Massachusetts in a specified month”, “the
number of times a woman has given birth”, “the number of new cases of tuberculosis
reported in the United States during a one-year period”, and “the number of beds
available in a particular hospital”.
• a natural order exists among the possible values, “the number of times a woman has
given birth” the difference between one and two births is the same as the difference
between four and five births; a woman cannot give birth 3.4 times
Continuous data
• Data that represent measurable quantities but are not restricted to taking on certain
specified values (such as integers) are known as continuous data

• the difference between any two possible data values can be arbitrarily small

• fractional values are possible

• Since we are able to measure the distance between two observations in a meaningful
way, arithmetic operations can be applied.
• Examples: time, the serum cholesterol level of a patient, the concentration of a pollutant,
and temperature
How is data is being organized?
• Data organization is the way to arrange the raw data in
an understandable order. Organizing data include
classification, frequency distribution table, picture
representation, graphical representation, etc
• Once the data is organized, it gives you the validity of
the work undertaken.
• Data organization can be of various types, depending on
the requirement of the user.
• Repeated values → the mode of the data
• Data is organized in increasing or decreasing order,
• to find the median of the given set of data.
How is data is being organized (2)?
• Classification of data brings order to raw data. We can
classify a bulk of data based on their need or
purpose. The different types of data, based on which
they are organized are given below:
• Chronological data → time series, months, days etc
• Spatial data → geographical, location, countries
• Qualitative data →different attributes like strong – weak, high -
low
• Quantitative data → age, height, student mark, salary
How the same data set is interpret
differently?
• Scientists interpret data based on their background knowledge and
experience; thus, different scientists can interpret the same data in
different ways
• Data analysis is the process of uncovering patterns and trends in the
data. Data interpretation is the process of assigning meaning to the
data. It involves explaining those discovered patterns and trends in
the data.
Data set: birth weight in US 1986
Data set: birth weight in US 1986

What you can tell

about this data set?
Data set: birth weight in US 1986

1. Maximal and minimal number of infants

2. Average number of normo-weight can be counted
3. The most common birth weight interval founds
4. Birth rate found in the USA by 1986
5. The number of low-normo-high birthweight is illustrated
6. Etc
Data set: birth weight in US 1986
Data set: birth weight in US 1986

What you can tell

about this data set?
Data set: birth weight in US 1986
Data presentation

Scatter plot/
Table Histogram Pie chart
dot diagram

Boxplot Radar Area

BASIC RULES FOR THE PREPARATION OF TABLES AND GRAPHS
Ideally, every table should:

• Be self-explanatory;
• Present values with the same number of decimal places in all its cells (standardization);
• Include a title informing what is being described and where, as well as the number of
observations (N) and when data were collected;
• Have a structure formed by three horizontal lines, defining table heading and the end of the
table at its lower border;
• Not have vertical lines at its lateral borders;
• Provide additional information in table footer,when needed;
• Be inserted into a document only after being mentioned in the text; and
• Be numbered by Arabic numerals.
BASIC RULES FOR THE PREPARATION OF TABLES AND GRAPHS
Ideally, graphs should:

• Include, below the figure, a title providing all relevant information;

• Be referred to as figures in the text;
• Identify figure axes by the variables under analysis;
• Quote the source which provided the data, if required;
• Demonstrate the scale being used; and
• Be self-explanatory.
Data presentation
1. Define data/ variables you had
Data presentation
1. Define data/ variables you had

Either way the value is meaningless

Example in characteristic data provide: sex

One to another way the value is weighted

Example in characteristic data provide: big-small,
pain-no pain
Data presentation
1. Define data/ variables you had

In clinical setting three categories as ordinal set is easily

executable

More than three categories is difficult to execute,

additional instruments is needed
Data presentation
1. Define data/ variables you had

Follows natural number, no fraction allowed

Data presentation
2. Choose the graphs you want to highlight

Table: best presentation for numerical variables

Limitation: unaware reader might missed the highlighted findings
Data presentation
2. Choose the graphs you want to highlight

Bar-gram: best presentation for numerical variables with highlight

Data presentation
2. Choose the graphs you want to highlight

Pie-chart: best presentation for numerical variables with highlight

Data presentation
2. Choose the graphs you want to highlight

Histogram: the best presentation for numerical variables distribution

Normal distribution: bell shaped
Data presentation
2. Choose the graphs you want to highlight

Point- diagram: the best presentation to combine two numerical

variables
Skenario 1
• Seorang peneliti ingin melakukan penelitian yang
berjudul: “pengaruh ekstrak ubi ungu terhadap indeks
perlemakan hati (hepato-renal index-HRI) pada
penyakit perlemakan hati non alkoholik dewasa
obesitas”
• Data template yang dibuat terdiri atas: rekam medis,
inisial nama, usia, jenis kelamin, pekerjaan, suku, alamat,
kelompok perlakuan, lingkar perut pre dan post, BMR
pre-post, BB pre-post, food recall 24 pre-post, BMI pre-
post, SGPT pre-post, SGOT pre-post, TNF-alfa pre-post,
glukosa pre-post, HRI pre-post
Diskusikan (30 menit)
• Kategorikan variable-variable tersebut kedalam:
dichotomous, nominal, ordinal, discrete, atau
continuous!
• Mana yang disebut dengan variable dependent, mana
variable independent?
• Pilihan presentasi data dari masing-masing variable/
kombinasi variable yang mungkin
• Kembangkan Kriteria inklusi dan eksklusi
• Formulasikan hipotesis nol dan alternatifnya
• Rumusan masalah yang mungkin