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    Chapter 3

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    lion alter

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    3 AGROFORESTRY AND ECOSYSTEM SERVICES INTRODUCTION, Rates of deforestation and land degradation, and losses of biodi rersity and ecosystem services, continue to rise globally and the international community is faced with the challenge of finding land use interventions that can alleviate or reduce the impact of these environmental concems. Cultivation of trees in the agricultural systems is ‘one of the major primeval practices in the tropical regions of the world. It is characterized by an intensive integration of forest trees, agricultural and horticultural crops, and shrubs with a basic objective to ensure sustained availability of multiple products as direct benefits such as food, vegetables, fruits, fodder, fuel, manure, medicine and raw materials for agricultural implements. Other indirect benefits and services such as omamentals, shading, live-fencing and shelterbelt or windbreaks are also derived. Such intermixing of species of agriculture and forestry, often termed as ‘agroforestry’ came into international prominence as a potential source of solutions of many interrelated problems of production and conservation disturbing land use systems in the tropical and subtropical regions. Rescarchers all over the world realized that this age old conventional practice of integrating trees on farm land has the potential for providing rural livelihoods and habitats for species outside formal forest lands, connecting nature reserves, and easing Tesource use pressure on conservation areas. In the recent few decades, there has been « ‘growing interest in agroforestry because of its deliverable goods and services. A recent global assessment of tree cover found that 43 per cent of the world’s agricultural land had at least 10 per cent of tree cover which indicates that trees are increasingly being planted as part of farming systems throughout the world (Zomer et al 2009). The integration of trees, agricultural crops, and/or animals into an agroforestry system has the potential 10 enhance soil fertility, reduce erosion, improve water quality, enhance biodiversity increase aesthetics and sequester carbon (Garrett and McGraw 2000; Garrity 2004, Williams-Guille et al 2008; Nair et al 2009). It has been well recognized that thes: sity. and y is faced reduce the systems i acterized cd shrubs sas direct ~ materials amentals, “ining of national Sleme of joreopical tice of ods and and easing, s been a A recent land had lanted ration of ‘ential to odiversity, ty 2004; hat these 35 “Agroforestry and Ecosystem Services services and benefits provided by agroforestry practices occur over a range, of spatial and temporal scales (Jose 2008). Many of these ecasystem services originated at farm level are being enjoyed by the society at local or regional or total landscapes. Important realized ecosystem services of agroforestry are well documented and the sajor ecosystem services delivered by agroforestry systems are categorized into: © Agroforestry for Microclimate Modification «Agroforestry for Soil Enrichment «Agroforestry for Soil Stabilization and Erosion Control ‘© Agroforestry for Flood Mitigation ‘© Agroforestry for Water Yield and Quality ‘© Agroforestry and Pest Control Agroforestry for Pollination Improvement ‘© Agroforestry for Carbon Sequestration and Air Quality Agroforestry for Climate Change Mitigation «Agroforestry for Biodiversity Conservation «Agroforestry for Aesthetics and Cultural Services AGROFORESTRY FOR MICROCLIMATE MODIFICATION simultaneous growing of trees on farm land along. with agricultural crops has the avi to modify ae wmeroclimatic conditions including temperature, ‘tt vapour aetitent and wind speed, improvement of crop-Walet efficiency and energy balance which conpave beneficial effects on crop growth and animal welfare Brenner 1995; Tse 69 Sood), Microclimatic modifications in agroforestry 1° manifested through soil moisture 2004), Microcrature relations resulting primarily from the use of trees for shade, or as and sol toned tive fences, or windbreaks and shelterbelts. The shade of trees on farm Inna ropics eauses a net effect of complex interactions which extend far beyond the simple reduction of heat and light (Willey 1975). In crop produetion system, temperut umigity and movement of air, as well as temperature and moisture ofthe sll directly ieet photosynthesis, transpiration and the energy balance of associated crops Rosenberg et al 1983) and the net effect of which may translate into increased yields. Sree et tres on farm land would have blanket effect on soil surface. In general, Shading causes a reduction of temperature and temperature fluctuations as well as the ‘vapour pressure deficit under tropical conditions. ‘Barradas and Fanjul (1986) compared shaded and open grown coffee plantations in Mexico and found that, ina coffee plantation under the shade of Inga spp. (205 trees/ha: Average tree height 14m), the average maximum temperature was 54°C lowes and the aaeiegm temperature 15°C higher, and that both vapour pressure deficit and evaporation were substantially reduced as compared to open-grown coffee. The minor temperature 56 Agroforestry : Theory and Practices fluctuations under shade could be ascribed to reduced radiation load on the coffee plants during the day and reduced heat loss during the night. The lower vapour pressure deficit was probably caused by a higher water input through the trees’ transpiration stream in combination with the lower temperatures. Similar results, indicating a buffering effect of the trees on the microclimate beneath them, were also reported for a combination of coconut and cacao in India (Nair and Balakrishnan 1977) and for an alley cropping system of millet and Leucaena in India (Corlett et al 1989). A reduction of vapour Pressure deficit will cause a consequent reduction in transpiration and, hence. less probability of water stress for the under storey or shaded crop (Rosenberg et al 1983). This is highly useful during short periods of drought and would result least reduction in yield due to water stress which was found in the study of Neumann and Pictrowicz (1989) wherein the bean plants associated with. Grevillea robusta trees in Rwanda showed no signs of wilting in hot afternoons, whereas those grown on a field without trees did. hheat based farming system of Punjab (India), yield reduction due to higher ea during reproductive stage is often mitigated through introduction of trees on farm land, Tree row orientation and distance influence the growth behaviour of the crop but the effect of sun angle (which changes with season) can modify this influence. Lower heat load during grain filling and subsequent increased duration of grain filling can igate the effect of quantitative reductions in radiant energy and of poor quality light al stages of crop growth (Kohli and Saini 2003). In this context, the use of deciduous trees such as Dalbergia sissoo, Trewia nudiflora, Populus deltoides and Salix alba with leaf fall coinciding with the vegetative stage of the crop could be a good proposition for agroforestry. Tree canopy pruning as a management tool can also be advocated to provide a favourable microclimate to the intercropped wheat, Reduction of wind on farm land has significant effect on farm production. Wind Speed reductions can extend to 30 times the height of tree belts on the leeward (Tamang et al 2010). The resultant reduction in wind erosion effects can have multiple benefits for crops including increased growth rate and quality, protection from windblown soil, moisture management and soil protection. Furthermore, higher air and soil temperatures in the leeward of a shelterbelt can extend the growing season, with carlier germination and improved growth at the start of the season (Brandle et al 2004). In hhot and dry environments, the primary effect of windbreaks may be on modifying crop water use efficiency by reducing the turbulent transfer of heat and water vapour and therefore reducing evapotranspiration. The primary effect of trees on crop energy balance is through the interception of radiation and the reduction of wind speed. The specific elements that may be affected by modifying the crop energy balance are: radiation and photosynthesis and its rate and duration; temperature and plant development; transpiration and its consequences on soil water use and water use efficiency (Messing and Noureddine 1991). ‘Thus agroforestry, under any given set of environmental eénditions, can improve the microclimatic conditions when proper selection of tree species, optimizing the tree pee aebues Reon ieee ct RRA ce plants e deficit siream in effect of nation of cropping vapour nee, less without higher Fees on he crop Lower ng can y light use of Salix balance pecific 1 and Agroforestry and Ecosystem Services 7 spacing and proper root pruning as well as shoot pruning are made a part of the technology for crop growing in agroforestry. AGROFORESTRY FOR SOIL ENRICHMENT Land degradation and declining soil fertility pose a major peril to agricultural production. Use of artificial or synthetic fertilizers to augment soil nutrient status could hot succeed to afford satisfactory result because majority of the commercial fertilizers are expensive or unavailable in majority of poor developing countries in” tropics. Incorporation of trees in the farm land can facilitate the sustenance of the nutrient pool ‘and enhance soil fertility both under sequential and simultaneous agroforestry (Young 1997), Intermixing of trees that are able to fix nitrogen biologically along with crops is fairly common in tropical agroforestry systems. Non N-fixing trees can also enhance soil physical, chemical and biological properties by adding significant amount of above and belowground organic matter and releasing and recycling nutrients in agroforestry systems (Jose 2009). Influence of trees in enhancing the soil fertility status has been described by several researchers (Young 1997; Nair and Latt 1997; Schoth and Sinclair 2003; Jose et al 2004). Agroforestry promotes closed system with intemal recycling of nutrients, whereby nutrients are accessed from lower soil horizons by tree roots and retumed to the soil through lea fall, agroforestry systems enhance soil nutrient pools and tumover and reduce reliance on external inputs. “Trees on farm land play a crucial role in improving soil physical and biological properties (Rao et al 1998). One of the important roles of trees in agroforesy is the eevichment of organic matter in the system. Role of organic matter in enhancemett of soil physical properties such as sol structure, aggregation, porosity, moistre Te so eeyon resistance is well documented. Apart from enrichment of soll nuien! ia a erositiem land can reclaim the degraded soils. Tejwani (1994) reported that sat ‘ifeeted farm lands could be reclaimed through agroforestry. Introduction of tees on sree Tands significantly enhanced diversity of birds, insects, and earthworms nettaSet am Jaanie earbon content and NN cycling; and improved soil health (Thevathasan an Gordon 2004). Incorporation of litter and pruned materials of trees in the farm land improves soil fenllity through release of nutrients and addition of organic materials to soil. The amount of nutrient released and organic matter added to soil is governed by quantity and quality of litter or pruned material added, climatic conditions, field conditions and soil type (Hegde 1995; Kumar 2008). Introduction of nitrogen fixing trees like Dalbergia sissoo in agroforestry significantly increased nutrient pool, organic biomass, and activities of ‘enzymes-hydrogenases and alkaline phosphatise in the soil (Chander et al 1998). Seiter et al (1995) reported that in alley cropping system of maize and red alder (Alnus rubra), 32- '58 per cent of total N in maize was obtained from N fixed by red alder and interestingly the nitrogen transfer increased with proximity between trees and crops. Trees can also significantly manipulate nutrient embellishments through intercepting rainfall, via throughfall and stemflow. Zhang (1999) reported that stemflow and throughfall together Agroforestry : Theory and Practices contributed 10.99 and 15.22 kg N ha" yr in hybrid poplar and silver maple systems respectively. “Arbuscular mycorthizal (AM) fungi enhance plant mutrient uptake and growth, soi stability and soil aggregation, liter decomposition rates, and could potentially enhance trop yields while reducing the need for chemical fertilizer input. It has been reported that agroforestry systems might enhance AM fungal richness compared 9 ‘monocropped systems (Chifflot etal 2008). In nut shell, the mechanisms by which trees in agroforestry improve soil physiochemical and biological properties are as follows: ‘© Release of nutrients from tree litter and prunings «Nitrogen input through biological nitrogen fixation (through N-fixing tees) «Phosphorus input through mycorrhizal associations ‘= Reduced soil erosion and nutrient leaching ‘S _ Nutrient capture from the subsoil through deep-rooted trees roots of some trees Redistribution of nutrients through lateral AGROFORESTRY FOR SOIL STABILIZATION AND EROSION ‘CONTROL sry systems, and in both tropical and Soil management is a key feature of agrofor a : temperate estes, agroforestry systems are designed and implemented to counter soll eoon and degradation, and improve soil du ‘and health. Trees on farm land play ¢ croeial role in soil stabilization and erosion ‘control. The probable role of trees in sol ‘Conservation can be perceived in the following way «Increase of soil cover, by litter and prunings, ‘¢ Provision of partly permeable hedgerow barriers | Lead to the progressive development of terraces, through soil accumulation upslope of hedgerows «s _Increase soil resistance to erosion, by maintenance of organic matter ‘¢ Stabilization of earth structures by root systems «Make productive use of the land occupied by conservation works ‘The replacement of natural forest and scrublands by eroplands and grasslands devoid of trees on susceptible soils has resulted in increased run-off and accelerated erosion in hany agricultural areas. Whereas most agroforestry syseins tre capable of maintaining reat ganic matter at levels higher than under pure agriculture, ‘and organic matter is the major variable factor controlling resistance ‘on, Presence of trees on farm land is useful in increasing structural sta i land improve water storage by increas 5 ° armel surplus surface watet flow and allow air and mols to move into the soil. I= cane sine risk of sol erosion is reduced. Tree roots and trunks also act as physica! barriers to reduce surface flow of water and sediment (Udawatta et al 2008). In New systems wth, soil enhance, orted that scropped oforestry ces) ROL ical and ater soil play a 's in soil ulation ievoid on in ining, is the and is ration rapidly oil. In nysical n New Agroforestry and Ecosystem Services 59 Zealand, widely-spaced poplars reduced pasture production losses due to landslides during a cyclonic storm by 13.8 per cent with, on average, each tree saving 8.4 m? from failure (Hawley and Dymond 1988). Mature willow and poplar trees at 12 m spacing can reduce mass movement by 10-20 per cent (Hicks 1995). AGROFORESTRY FOR FLOOD MITIGATION Changes in climate and weather patterns are having a dramatic impact on ecosystem based livelihoods, especially in agriculture, a key source of income for majority of the countries in tropics. One factor contributing to household vulnerability is the use of monoculture production systems, which lead to reliance on one crop for income. Agricultural diversification, particularly when undertaken in relation to environmental or economic risks, has the potential to increase household adaptive capacity under climate change (Smit and Skinner 2002) and contribute to agrobiodiversity and the sustenance of vital functions, structures, and processes in agroecosystems (Mijatovic et al 2011) The integration of trees into cultivated land, ot agroforestry, is one approach to agricultural diversification that has been shown to provide a range of potential benefits, ‘Agus et al (2003) found that tree-based farming systems maintain most of the flood mitigation capacity exerted by forest. Trees, undergrowth and woody debris on farm land ‘would increase “hydraulic roughness” of the flood plain slowing down the passage of flood flow. On farm land, trees and woody debris could direct or concentrate flows forming multiple channels and back water floods enhancing flood storage that could result in nt effet of delayed and reduced sizeof foo peak: Ths, risk of fash flooding i wy rainfall could be reduced in agroforestry systems, wit ea ane ete permeable barriers to reduce sediment and debris loading tree roots and trunks a into rivers following floods. AGROFORESTRY FOR WATER YIELD AND QUALITY zat th began by felling trees, further development and wave iat Or ton seule eleatng natal Torest fo grow crops ot 10 build infrastructure to human habitation. In the recent past, most of the developmental activities in tropical countries are being undertaken at the cost of natural forests. Clearance of forests for expansion of agriculture, development of infrastructure for industry and human settlements, and urbanization resulted in reduction of water that enters the soil and increase in the overland mud stream flow. Scarcity of land in certain regions lead to building on floodplains and wetlands which can reduce water storage and buffer capacity and put the new developments at risk of flooding. Additionally, human habitation and industry can lead to streams becoming polluted while increasing the demand for clean water. Thus, the need to increase water productivity and quality is a growing global concern asthe demand for water will increase every year Many developing countries in tropics are experiencing unstable water supplies, wherein small decreases in rainfall induce much larger reductions in stream flow (UNEP 2006). Rapid degradation of water catchments and climate change are major factors 60 “Agroforestry : Theory and Practices responsible for decreasing water supplies in many parts of the world. Vital water Catghinents have been lost or are being degraded, creating concerns about the loss of hydrological functions and increasing competition for scarce water resources between agriculture, urban centres, industry and wildlife. Apart from these, the quality of the water is also a major concern in several developing countries including India. The Challenge is to ensure the availability of adequate quality water at the landscape or river basin level, especially for the rapidly growing populations in many developing ‘countries. ‘Trees on farm land increase the water-holding capacity of the soil, reduce soil evaporation, increase water infiltration into the soil (Nair 1993), and efficiently capture fainwater compared with traditional agricultural practices (Lott et al 2003). Jackson et al (2000) reported that the initial recharge of the soil profile following hheavy rain was greater in aproforesc westerns an selene o oe re ones a Maes greater in aero ecause percolation of wat down wvouth Fehrs et i Kens oes Pew ye as ne ad Sl rem al 2006). In Midwestern USA. 2 multispecies buffer that included . 2 era i increased infiltration rates to five times Y ie Cer and ae ott by 9 per cent 2008). Agroforestry strips in Missouri, USA, 1 mal .ars of establishment, compared with a ‘control watershed (Udawatta et a! oe eee ral wa cone a 02 ve increase water infiltration and water storage. Furthermore on abovegroune stems, leaf litter and pruning debris in agroforestry systems can reduce runoff aaa thereby enhancing sedimentation within the agroforestry strip and increasing infiltratios (Seobi et al 2005). . “Trees on farm land are useful in reducing the water requirement of the production aystenn The shade provided by the ees requires the plants being Bon beneath them to Perr a lese, Als, the presence of tree on farm land reduces loss of water through cevapotranspiration from the farm land. Trees can increase the quantity of water used on- farm for tree or crop transpiration and may also improve the productivity of the water that is used by increasing the biomass of trees or crops produced per unit of water used. Recently, it has been proposed that trees can efficiently increase water productivity particularly under semiarid regions (Ong and Swallow 2003; Ong et al 2007). ‘Trees also help to clean fine particulates from the water through their root systems and hold water for keeping the soil moist. Because root systems are helping to keep the soil in place and maintaining soil water levels, farming can be done in areas that would be at risk of erosion otherwise. Streams are then not as susceptible to being overrun with eat or by flash flooding. Agroforestry can also help in improving water quality by erets levels of pollution and soil erosion and thus landscape amlioraicn 7s 2s ‘Graetz 2004; Schultz et al 2004). For example, riparian buffer zones, if well designed and Sropery located, can be very helpful in this direction (Dosskey 2001), ‘These buffers help jh reducing the transport of polluted runoffs to the rivers and streams ‘Agroforestry also improves water-use efficiency and increases environmental sustainabi Combination of tres with agricultural crops in agricultural production system ca contribute considerable hydrological services wherein the hydrological function Is tices ul water loss of between of the lia, The ries. uuce soil y capture

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