Exercise ie | (ii) Find the smallest whole number h such hy 7 | e (i) Express 4704 as the product of its prime factors. 4704 $704 5 che ibe Gi) Given that 224 = p2, where m and mare 4704 isa cube number. m whole numbers and 1 is as large as possible, find the value of mand of © A. Highest common factor (HCF) delaneeiscee yu lune Mncclol Ses and lowest common multiple In primary school, we have learnt about factors and common factors, eg. 1x 18 30=1x30 18 x9 2x15 =3x6, =3x10 x6. Factors of 18: + 18 Factors of 30: 5 10,15, 30 =. the common factors of 18 and 30 are 1, 2, 3 and 6. fall the common factors of 18 and 30, the highest is 6 ‘We say that the highest common factoi (HCF) of 18 and 30 is 6. = eae This method of finding the HCF of two or more non-zero whole numbers is called the 2" 30/s 1. In fac, thelowest listing method, Sono isalways 1. ‘What is the HCF of 504 and 588? 504 has 24 factors while 588 has 18 factors. Altogether, 504 and 588 have 12 common factors. ‘The listing method to find the HCF of 504 and 588 is tedious because it involves many factors and common factors We will now learn more efficient methods to find the HCF of two or more numbers. Finding HCF of two numbers Plas) i eae » Find the highest common factor of 18 and 30, 10 eee Method 1: Prime factorisation common prime factors common prime factor or common factor is 3. ite. choose 3 with the HCPA ands 2 x 3-— smaller index S16 Caren Tighoi Common Far ani tower common MateMethod 2: Ladder method mn oP 18,30 «divide 18 and 30 by 2 to get 9 and 15 Pp actors ™ 13] 9% 15 <~ divide 9 and 15 by 3 to get 3 and 5 3, 5 <—stop dividing when there are HCP of 18 and 30-223 no common prime factors 1, Find the highest common factor of 56 and 84 using ad both methods. Seetergeaaii §—% Using the prime factorisation method, ind the lagest_ | Thelagst le umber co oRD whole number that is a factor of both 112 and 140. aaa et ca 3. The numbers 504 and 588, written as the products of their and 140. prime factors, are 504 = 2? x 3° x 7 and 588 = 2? x3 x72, Hence, explain why 84 is the greatest whole number that will divide both 504 and 588 exactly. Finding HCF of three numbers Find the HCF of 40, 60 and 100. “Solution ‘Method 1: Prime factorisation common factors are 2* and 5, i.e. choose each of the common ‘common prime factors prime factors with the smallest index ty 1 + 4 or HCE of 40, 60 and 100 = 2 x2 x5 = 20 Method 2: Ladder method 60, 100 «divide 40, 60 and 100 by 2 to get 20, ‘common — 30 and 50 prime 30, 50 «divide 20, 30 and 50 by 2 to get 10, 15 factors and 25 «divide 10, 15 and 25 by 5 to get 2,3 and 5 3, 5 -¢—stop dividing when there are no common prime factors HCF of 40, 60 and 100 = 2x 2x5 =20 Fre liighest Common Factor and Lowest Common Melle CHAPTER |eos Etre Oren Determi whether each of the following statements i true or false, Ii is true, explain your reasoning, itis give a counterexample, , (a) If Gis a factor ofa number, then 2 and 3 are also factors of that number. (b) 1f2 and 3 are factors of a number, then 2x 3 = 6 is also a factor ofthat number. (0) 112 and 4are factors of a number, then 2 x 4 = 8 is also a factor of that number. (d) If fis a factor of n, then © is also a factor of n. (©) If his the HCF ofp and , then both p and g are divisible by B. Lowest common multiple. LCM) ee etal ay 4m primary school, we have learnt about multiples and common multiples, eg. Multiples of 4: 4, 8, 16, 20, 28, 32, (36,) 40, Multiples of 6: 6. 18, 30, 2, “. the common multiples of 4 and 6 are 12, 24, 36, How many common multiples of 4 and 6 are there? ‘Whaat is the highest common multiple of 4 and 6? = hile Of all the common multiples of 4 and 6, the lowest is 12, meee om | We say thatthe lowest common multiple (LCM) of 4 and 6 is 12. endeing ‘This method of finding the LCM of two or more non-zero whole numbers is called the listing method. , ‘What is the LCM of 504 and 540? ‘The LCM is the 15° multiple of 504 and the 14 multiple of $40. It would be very tedious to list the first 15 multiples of 504 and the first 14 multiples of 540 to find the LCM. We will now learn more eficent methods to find the LCM of two or more numbers 1g rR rimes, Highest Common Factor and Lowest Gomion MUUFinding LCM ——.. ‘The product of 4 and 6, ie 24, isa common multiple of 4 and 6. However, using the listing method, we found that the LCM of 4 and 6 is 12, ‘We see that the LCM of 4 and 6 cannot be found by taking the product of all the prime factors in the prime factorisation of 4 and 6, ie. LCM # (2x 2) x (2 x 3). So why is the LCM equal to 12 (= 22x 3)? Since the LCM of 4 and 6 is a multiple of 4 and a multiple of 6, we get: 4xh=6xk xix h =x k Bx(Bix h =x k xB Both sides of the equ: 1n contain a prime factor(2|(highlighted in green). But the left-hand side (LHS) of the equation contains another prime factor(2\(highlighted in blue), which the right-hand side (RHS) of the equation does not have. So k =2(since we want k to be the smallest). Now, the RHS of the equation contains a prime factorBl(highlighted in purple), which the LHS does not have. So h =Bl(since we want h to be the smallest) ». LCM of 4 and 6 =2)x xB From the above explanation, we di shown below: the prime factorisation method of finding the LCM of 4 and 6 as common prime factor: choose the common factor (i.e. 2) take only one with the higher index (why?) or 42 6423 TY LCM of 4 and 6 =2|x xB Px =12 ‘The ladder method for finding the LCM of 4 and 6 is as follows: common prime | 6 divide 4 and 6 by 2to get 2and 3 factor — stop dividing when there are . no common prime factors LEM of 4 and 6 =| 2 remaining factors eins, Highest Common Factor and Lowest Common Multiple one 19 ¢Finding LCM of two numbers Find the lowest common multiple of 30 and 36, “Solution Method 1: Prime factorisation choose each ofthe common prine fc (ic, 2and 3) with the higher index ang the remaining factor (ice. 5) common prime factors or 2x 2x3 x3x5 = 180 Method 2: Ladder method common < 30,36 divide 30 and 36 by 2 to get 15 and 18 pre SBI [ as, 18 -+— divide 15 and 18 by 3 to get 5 and 6 factors us [56] =~ stop dividing when there are ‘ho common prime factors LCM of 30 and 36 = 2x 3x 5x6 ays = 180 rein Ea 1. Find the lowest common multiple of 24 and 90 using both methods, Ba 2. The numbers 120 and 126, written as the products of their prime factors, ieee are 120 = 2? x 3.x 5 and 126 = 2x 3? x 7, Hence, find the smallest non-zero whole i number that is divisible by both 120 and 126, ere eoeT} ng factors, Finding LCM of three numbers oh Find the LCM of 12, 18 and 56. fare 13 Bee Method 1: Prime factorisation choose each of the common rime factors (ie. 2 and 3) with the highest index and the ing factor (ie. 7) common prime factors or LCM of 12, 18 and 56 = 2x 2x2%3x3x7 = 504 mn lee x CHAPTER T Primes, Highest Common Factor and Lowest Cosimo!Method 2: Ladder method these 3 numbers have no start with the smallest common prime factor ‘common prime factors, but 6 and 12, 18, 56 28haveacommon prime 28 <2, s0 we divide 6 and 28 by 2 3isacommon prime —e 4 factor of 3 and 9, so TL 3,14] + stop dividing when there are no we divide 3 and 9 by 3 common prime factors between ‘any two numbers LCM of 12, 18 and 56 = 22x 3x3x14 = 504 remaining factors, (Zoacaaeea) — Find the LCM of 9, 30 and 108. Gata Further Questions Exercise 1€ Multiples Determine whether each of the following statements is true or false, If itis true, explain your reasoning. If it is false, give a counterexample, (a) 1f6 is a multiple of a number, then 12 is also a multiple of that number. (b) 1f12 isa multiple of a number, then 6 is also a multiple of that number. (6) If 18isa multiple of a number, then 18 is divisible by that number. (d) fm is a multiple of n, then is a whole number. (©) If lis the LCM of p and q, then ls divisible by both p and q. Finding factors of number ‘A number has exactly 8 factors, wo of which are 6 and 27. List all the factors of the number. *Solution 6=2x3 List the factors of the LCM of we P {and 27 tosce ifthereare8 factors Since there are 8 factor LCM of 6 and 27 = 23° Da Oe ae BL ACALGEe =54 6and27. . there are es than 8 factors S4= 1x54 try to multiply the LCM by. =2%27 a prime number ose ifthe 23x18 result has exactly 8 factors (ee es Practise Now 14 Question 2). =6x ‘Sometimes, itis possible to “tthe number is 54 and its factors are 1, 2, 3, 6,9, 18, 27 and 54. obtain more than one answer (see Exercise 1C Question 24). ames Tighe Common Factor and Lowest Common Maltiple canereRT 9.a5 Km _ oo 5 15 X 000m _. #5 COM - ye iE ats 45 X103.m| axe Smttr2xig? : | vaxto-3*!) —_ _ _ 2x 10% 5 _ —_ 20. 107% = 2.01 x 1078 = 2.0 x (10-6 *2:) 2-01% U0)—_— > CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Changes in state ZS TE] eveporaton ans Be] |b) contentions 8) [8g] pacooversrange SE] [SS] oftemperatures, b Sublimation: 3 few BE] LEE) thes lace at ospe Solids change directly a3 temperature from soli to gas on heating: the term sublimation ui is used forthe changein either direction, §| Melting: pure substance Note that sublimation i 3-2 | _ meks suddenly ata parveular not required knowledge ge | | 28] temoerature B | || Freezing: the verse takes ea) [Ea| cicetupy soe see temperature solid Figure 1.4: Changes of physical state and the effect of increasing temperature at atmospheric pressure Large increases, or decreases, in temperature and pressure can cause changes that are more dramatic than expansion or contraction. They can cause a substance 10 ‘change its physical state. The changes between the three states of matter are shown in Figure 1.4, At atmospheric pressure, these changes can occur by raising or lowering the temperature of the substance. Melting and freezing ‘The temperature at which a substance turns to liquid is called the melting point (m.p.). This always happens al one particular temperature for each substance (Figure 1.5). The process is reversed at precisely the ‘same temperature if a liquid is cooled down, It is then called the freezing point (fp.). The melting point and freezing point of any given substance are both the same temperature. For example, the melting and freezing of pure water take place at 0°C. KEY WORDS melting point (m.p): the temperature at which a solid turns into a liquid ~ it has the same value as the freezing point; a pure substance has a sharp. melting point ‘melting point ‘bling point (mp) fe) <_ decreasing terperatore Figure 1.5: Relationship between the meting and bol? points of a substance, elCAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Eventually, at a certain temperature, «liquid becomes hot enough for gas to form within the liquid and not just at the surface. Bubbles of gas appear inside the liquid (Figure 18a). This process is known as boiling, It takes place ata specific temperature, known as the boiling point for each pure liquid (Figure 1.5). Water evaporates fairly easily and has a relatively low boiling point (100°C). Water is quite a volatile liquid. Ethanol, with a boiling point of 78°C, is more volatile than water. It has a higher volatility than water and ‘evaporates more easily ‘The reverse of evaporation is condensation. This is usually brought about by cooling. However, we saw earlier that the gas state is the one most affected by changes in pressure. It is possible, at normal temperatures, to condense a gas into a liquid by increasing the pressure, without cooling. We can see these different processes in action if we look closely at a kettle as water boils (Figure 1.8b). Colourless, invisible water vapour escapes from the kettle. Water ‘vapour is present in the clear region we can see at the mouth of the kettle. The visible cloud of steam is made up of droplets of liquid water formed by condensation as the vapour cools in the air. KEY WORDS boiling: the process of change from liquid to gas at the boiling point of the substance; a condition under which gas bubbles are able to form within a liquid - gas molecules escape from the body of a liquid, not just from its surface boiling point: the temperature at which a liquid boils, when the pressure of the gas created above the liquid equals atmospheric pressure volatile: term that describes a liquid that evaporates easily; itis aliquid with a low bolling point because there are only weak intermolecular forces between the molecules in the liquid volatility: the property of how easily a liquid evaporates condensation: the change of a vapour or a gas into a liquid; during this process heat is given out to the surroundings igure 1.8 a: Water boiling in a glass kettle; bubbles a formed throughout the liquid. b: A boiling kettle produces colourless, invisible water vapour that then condenses 2 produce a cloud of steam. For a beaker of boiling water, the bubbles form whet there are enough high-energy water molecules to gi 4 pocket of gas with a pressure equal to atmosphenc pressure. The boiling point of a liquid can change the surrounding pressure changes. The value given 0" the boiling point is usually stated at the pressure of atmosphere at sea level (atmospheric pressure 0! pressure). If the surrounding pressure falls, the bolls Point falls. The boiling point of water at standard Pressure is 100°C. Ona high mountain, the boii point is lower than 100°C. If the surrounding P=" increased, the boiling point rises.Pure A pure only « ithout my contaminsiing smiparites A psconce melts and boils Table 1.2 show the precise melting poinis and boiling points of s common sit ‘oxygen gas [219 | 183 nitrogen gas [210 [196 ethanol Yiquid a7 | 7 water Tigud o | 100 sulfur solid v5 | 44a common salt (sodium ‘solid 801 1465, chloride) copper solid 1083 | 2600 Gone__[* ae “Sublimes at atmospheric pressure Table 1.2: Melting and boiling points of some commnon chemical substances. pure substance: a single chemical element ‘or compound - it melts and boils at definite precise temperatures ‘The values for the melting point and boiling point of a pure substance are precise and predictable. This means that we ean use them to test the purity of a sample. ‘These values ean also be used to check the identity of ‘unknown substance. The melting point of a solid can bbe measured using an electrically heated melting-point apparatus or by the apparatus described later in Figure 1.9. ‘A substance’s melting and boiling points in relation to room temperature (standard taken as 25°C) determine whether it is usually seen as a solid, aliquid or a gas. For example, if the melting point is below 25°C and the boiling point is above 25°C, the substance will be a liquid at room temperature. 1 States of matt Effect of impurities Seawater is impure water. Ths fact can be casily demonstrated if you put some seawater in a dish and heat it until all of the water evaporates. A solid residue of salt is, left behind in the dish (you can see this effect in Figure 1.7, ‘which shows solid salt formations on the surface of the Dead Sea). Impurities often affect the value of the melting or boiling point of a substance. An impure substance sometimes. melts or boils over a range of temperatures, not at the precise point of the pure substance. Seawater freezes at a temperature below the freezing point of pure water (0°C) and boils at a temperature above the boiling point of pure water (100°C). Other substances that contain impurities show differences in their freezing and boiling points when compared with the known values for the pure substance. Questions 1 State the names for the following physical changes: 2 liquid to solid b liquid to gas ata precise temperature ¢ gasto liquid, 2 The melting and boiling points of three pure substances are given in Table 1.3. ‘ethanol 117 78 methane =182 = 164 mercury =30 357, Table 1.3: Melting and boiling points of ethanol, methane and mercury a All three substances have negative values for their melting point. Which of them has the lowest melting point? b Which two substances are liquids at room temperature? Explain your answer. © What effect does the presence of an impurity have on the freezing point of a liquid? RS]