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    Singapore Practitioners Guide

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    Purchased by FengZ2022 Building and Construction BD uty Singapore Geology (2021) Copyright statement Copyright © 2021 Building and Construction Authority, Singapore Al rights reserved. This document may be used for personal, non-commercial uses only, but otherwise may not bee reproduced, in whole or in part, in any form or by any ‘means whatsoever and howsoever without the prior written consent and approval of the Building and Construction Authority. Whilst every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the information contained in this publication, the Building and Construction Authority, its employees or agents make no representations or warranties of any nature in respect ofthis document, including but not limited to the accuracy or completeness of any information, and shall not be responsible in any event for any damages, direct or indirect, resulting from reliance on or use of the information contained herein, All such liability and responsibility is expressly disclaimed by these said parties. ‘The maps within Singapore Geology (2021): Practitioners’ guide to the bedrock geology are to be used solely for the purpose of depicting geological data of relevant parts of ‘Singapore, and not for any other purpose. The maps do not, depict the full extent of Singapore land territory or waters. ‘The maps are not to scale and are for illustrative purposes only. Front cover ‘Singapore city skyline silhouette vector image designed by Yurkaimmortal, Image #7795447 at VectorStock.com, Purchased by FengZ2022 Purchased by FengZ2022 Singapore Geology (2021): Practitioners’ guide to the bedrock geology Gillespie M R, Dobbs M R, Leslie AG, Kendall R S, Dodd T J H, Kearsey TI, Bide TP, Chiam $ L, Goay K H, Lau SG, Lim Y S, Zaw MH and Kyaw KZ Bibliographical reference Guntesnie, MR, Donuts, MR, Lestit, AG, KENDALL, RS, Dopp, TJ H, Kransty, TI, Bibe, TP, Catam, SL, Goa, KH, Lav, SG, Lim, YS, Zaw, MH and Kyaw, KZ. 2021 ‘Singapore Geology (2021): Practitioners’ guide to the bedrock geology. (Singapore; Building and Construction Authority.) ISBN 978-0-85272-793-5 iii Purchased by FengZ2022 Foreword ‘The first formal publication on the geology of Singapore was released in 1976 by the Public Works Department, with ‘an updated version published in 2009 by the Defence Science and Technology Agency (DSTA), That volume, which consists of a report and accompanying geological maps, became the prime reference for information relating to the geology of Singapore and remained so until the publication of a new memoir and geological map by the Building and Construction Authority (BCA): + Singapore Geology (2021): Memoir of the bedrock, superficial and engineering geology; + Singapore Geology (2021): Interactive 1:50 000-scale map ‘These publications present a substantially revised interpretation of the geology, which has been developed primarily through the BCA's deep ground-investigation programme. This companion publication, the ‘Practitioners’ guide to the bedrock geology’, has been produced specifically to help practitioners engaged in ground investigation and ground engineering work in Singapore to adopt and benefit from this new geological understanding of Singapore Its our intention that these publications are used by those working in the engineering construction industry to aid in the interpretation of Singapore's geology and more widely in the planning and development sectors to make decisions that will reduce the cost and risk of construction, and to ensure future resilience and sustainability in Singapore. We also hope that this new geological understanding will provide a robust foundation for the next generation involved in rescarch and investigation into Singapore's underground resources, geotechnical properties and subsurface conditions. Kelvin Wong Chief Executive Officer Building and Construction Authority Contents PARTI Foreword 1 Introduction. 1.1 ‘The purpose, scope and layout ofthis guide. 1.2. The importance of geology to development in Singapore. 1.3. The evolution of geological understanding in Singapore 14. The bedrock geology of Singapore (2021) 2 Summary of the geology and geological history of Singapore 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Events leading up to the Indosinian Orogeny 2.3. Plate collision and the Indosinian Orogeny 24 Post orogenic Mesozoic to Cenozoic events 3° Classifying and naming rocks 3.1 Introduction 3.2. How to classify rocks 3.3. How to name rocks 3.4 Some special cases in Singapore 4. Identifying bedrock u 4.1 Introduction 4.2. Challenges 4.3 Resources 44 Aworkflow for identifying bedrock units Purchased by FengZ2022 10 4 16 20 Purchased by FengZ2022 5 Recognising unit boundaries. 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Types of boundary 5.3. Identifying boundaries 6 Faults 6.41 Tntroduetion 62. Fault descriptions 63. Classifying and naming fault-rocks 64 Some characteristics of faults in Singapore 65° Identifying faults in core and outcrop. 66 Recording faut details in logs 7. Other features that affect rock properties in Singapore 7.1 Introduction 7.2. Weathering 73 Decaleitised rock 74 Hydrothermally altered rock 75. Tulse 16 Dykes 7.7 Igneous rocks with a quenched texture 7.8 Homfels PART 2 8 Summary of bedrock unit characteristics 8.1 Introduction 8.2. Bukit Timah Centre 8.3 Choa Chu Kang Granodiorite-tonalite Pluton (Bukit Timah Centre) 84 Gombak Gabbro-granite Pluton (Bukit Timah Centre) 8.5 Dairy Farm Granite-microgranite Pluton (Bukit Timah Centre) 8.6 Pulau Ubin Granite Pluton (Bukit Timah Centre) 8.7 Simpang Granite Pluton (Bukit Timah Centre) 8.8 Pulau Sekudu Quartz-monzonite Pluton, 8,9 Sajahat Formation 8.10 Jurong Group 8.11 Tuas Formation (Jurong Group) 8 8 38 41 4% 48 44 45 7 49 50 32 32 33 37 38 6 @ 64 65 6 68 2 74 8 89 2 96 %8 100 102 82 83 84 sus 86 817 88 8.19 8.20 821 822 823 824 Purchased by FengZ2022 Pulau Ayer Chawan Formation (Jurong Group) ‘Nanyang Member (Pulau Ayer Chawan Formation) Pandan Formation (Jurong Group) Kent Ridge Member (Pandan Formation) Boon Lay Formation (Jurong Group) Clementi Member (Boon Lay Formation). Pengerang Formation Sentosa Group Tanjong Rimau Formation For Siloso Formation Buona Vista Formation Kusu Formation Bukit Batok Formation Appendix 1 Tips for examining bedrock Introduetion Examining core Examining outerop. Appendix 2 Rock name terms used (o log BCA deep ground-investigation cores Appendix 3 Supplementary data from BCA deep ground-investigation programme References. 106 110 14 118 12 126 130 131 132 137 140 144 147 151 151 151 154 156 187 158 Purchased by FengZ2022 viii Purchased by FengZ2022 1 Introduction 1.1 THE PURPOSE, SCOPE AND LAYOUT OF THIS GUIDE This guide has been produced to help practitioners engaged in ground investigation and ground engineering work in Singapore to adopt and benefit from a new geological understanding of Singapore, which has been developed primar- ily through the Building and Construction Authority (BCA) deep ground-investigation programme (2012 to 2018), The guide is a companion to two other publications that together provide a full account ofthat new understanding: + Singapore Geology (2021): Memoir of the bedrock, superficial and engineering geology (BCA, 20212) + Singapore Geology (2021): Interactive 1:50 000-scale map (BCA, 20210) Key outcomes of the BCA programme included + anew ‘geological framework’ for Singapore, within which all ofthe bedrock in the country is divided into named units that are presented in chronological order + anew understanding of the spatial distribution of those named units (summarised on the new map) + a fuller understanding of the geological features that have a significant impact on rock properties in Singapore The key purpose of this guide is to help practitioners make use of these important developments in understanding and, in particular, to: + make consistent, accurate and precise observations of key geological features in borehole cores and outcrops + use these observations to make informed and confident interpretations of the geology, including placing examined rock within the new geological framework ‘The guide is not intended to replace or be an alternative to any ground investigation or geotechnical design standard, nor docs it seck to duplicate any advice or guidance presented elsewhere on the systematic description or logging of soils, rocks and discontinuities. ‘The subject matter covered by the guide is necessarily broad and selective, in order to reflect the diverse backgrounds and interests of practitioners and the range of geological features that are likely to be most relevant. Consequently, practitioners are encouraged to familiarise themselves with the overall content and layout of the guide, and thereafter refer to specific parts of the guide that are appropriate for the task (e.g. during core logging or interpretation) and of relevance to the project (i.e. the specific features and units likely to be encountered). To facilitate this approach, a coloured index appears fon every page to show the current chapter position and to allow easy navigation to other chapters using embedded links. Furthermore, most individual sec- tions of the guide contain sufficient contextual infor- ‘mation and detail to allow them to stand alone, so it should be possible to read and understand any section of the guide without having to refer to other sections Purchased by FengZ2022 Terms and definitions Robust definitions and explanations of geological terms Used in the new memoir, geological map and practioner! guide can, in the majority of cases, be found in online dictionaries such as Wikipedia. In al thrve documents, the ms used to name and describe sedimentary, igneous and ‘metamorphic rocks are fully in accordance with the BGS. Rock Classification Scheme (Gillespie and Styles, 1998; or to other documents, Where appropriate, ‘callout’ i eerie boxes are used to provide readers with additional in- formation about specifie aspects of Singapore's geology. The guide is divided into two parts: Part 1 (Chapters 1 to 7) provides contextual information and methodological advice that will help practitioners to identify, classify and describe key geological features; and Part 2 (Chapter 8) presents a summary of the key geological characteristics and geotechnical properties for each of the bedrock units of ‘Singapore. Practitioners with a particular interest in identifying bedrock units will naturally be most interested in Part 2, but the many challenges presented by Singapore's complex geology mean that the contextual and methodological details contained in Part 1 should not be ignored; best results will be achieved if both parts of the guide are used to- gether, + Chapter 1 introduces the new BCA geological framework for Singapore (BCA, 2021a) and describe the rationale for its development and the benefits of its application for practitioners. It also sets out the limitations of this publi- cation and provides signposting to other relevant publications. + Chapter 2 presents a summary of the geological evolution of Singapore and brief descriptions of the main bed- rock units that arc now recognised. + Chapter 3 provides guidance for classifying and naming rocks, focusing in particular on rock types that are com- ‘mon in Singapore, + Chapter 4 provides guidance on identifying bedrock units + Chapter 5 provides guidance on recognising the boundaries that delimit bedrock units + Chapter 6 provides guidance relating to faults and fault-rocks, with specific reference to some of the main fault ‘features that oceur in Singapore. + Chapter 7 provides information about other geological features besides faults that can significantly affect rock properties in Singapore. + Chapter 8 presents a summary of the key geological characteristics and geotechnical properties of cach bedrock unit in Singapore. Photographs showing examples of diagnostic features and examples of the lithological charac~ ler are also provided, where available, for each unit. + Appendix I presents tips for examining bedrock in borehole cores and outerops. ‘+ Appendix 2 presents the rock name terms used by BGS to log the BCA deep ground-investigation cores + Appendix 3 presents details of borehole core images obtained from stratotype and reference boreholes which accompany the volume in a supplementary data folder. More detailed information about the individual bedrock units, their spatial relationships and engineering geological considerations are presented in the two companion publications, Thus, the most effective way to apply the new un- derstanding of Singapore geology to ground investigation and ground engineering projects will be to use the three publications — the map, the memoir and the practitioners” guide — together, In broader terms, these publications should help those engaged in the planning and development sectors to make decisions that will reduce the costs and risks of construction and ensure the future resilience and sustainability of Sin- gapore. The new understanding should also provide a robust foundation on which the next generation of scientists and practitioners can build further investigations into Singapore's subsurface properties, hazards and resources. Purchased by FengZ2022 1.2. THE IMPORTANCE OF GEOLOGY TO DEVELOPMENT IN SINGAPORE As the world’s largest city state, much of the landscape of Singapore has been shaped by human activity. While the importance of geology in this urban environment has long been recognised, the needs of an expanding population and competing, land-use requirements mean that Singapore is increasingly using the subsurface to meet its development needs, The capacity to understand, predict and mitigate challenging ground conditions brought about by the geology is thus relevant to all those involved in the planning, development and operation of buildings and infrastructure. Geology and engineering geology are therefore critical to Singapore's continued prosperity and are required more than ever before to inform future urban planning decisions. ‘Singapore's long and turbulent geological history includes: ‘+ multiple phases of magmatism that produced numerous intrusive and eruptive voleanie events + dynamic depositional environments that produced markedly heterolithic successions of strata + regional metamorphism + extensive structural (tectonic) deformation that produced folds and faults ranging from micrometres to several Kilometres in scale Consequently, in many parts of Singapore, particularly in the south and west of the country, where much of the urban development is concentrated, the bedrock geology is characterised by significant lithological and structural variability, both horizontally and vertically. This means it can often be very difficult (or simply not possible) to make accurate predictions of ground conditions. The challenge of understanding, characterising and predicting Singapore’s complex bedrock geology is compounded by pronounced tropical weathering and very limited surface outerop. Singapore's complex geology also presents a range of hazards for engineering projects. These include: + landslides + karst + compressible soils + ravelling, flowing and swelling ground + acidic soils and groundwater + high groundwater inflows Exploitation ofthe subsurface for development is therefore a source of both opportunity and risk in Singapore (Figure 1). 13. THE EVOLUTION OF GEOLOGICAL UNDERSTANDING IN SINGAPORE Several significant geological interpretations predate the first official publication of the Geology of the Republic of ‘Singapore by the Public Works Department (PWD, 1976): most notable are the works of Logan (1851), Serivenor (1924) and Alexander (1950). These publications demonstrate a gradual but progressive evolution in our understand~ ing of the geology, with each work building on the advances made by its predecessor. As a natural consequence of this, the number of recognised geological units has also grown, from five in 1851 to 25 units by 2009, when a second edi- tion of the Geology of Singapore was published by the Defence Science and Technology Agency (DSTA, 2009). That volume, which consists of a report and accompanying geological maps, became the prime reference for information relating to the geology of Singapore (DSTA, 2009) and remained so until the companion volumes to this guide were published (BCA, 2021a; BCA, 2021b). Most of the sedimentary units described in DSTA (2009) do not meet the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) criteria for lithostratigraphical units (ef: Murphy and Salvador, 1999) and are thus not considered to form a robust lithostratigraphical framework. Those units, which ate referred to in DSTA (2009) as facies or members, were Purchased by FengZ2022 Figure Thrust exposed in tunnel construction near Benoi Read in the Pioneer Panning Ares, The thr (low-ange ll wih reverse sisplacement) affects interbedded mdtone and sndsione ofthe Pulau Ayer Chawaa Formation. Note that no individual sandstone or mudstone luni canbe matched across th thrust plane, so the displacement i at least as great asthe tunnel damster. An imbriested character anda fault-ock of protobrecca are developed slong parts of the thrust and the greensh-gey unin the upper righ are folded (indicating drag’) immediately above the tnt plane, Several subpar! discontinuities nthe rocks above and below the monn ths feat ae probably elated fault strand and otber fractures inthe damage zone. The location and erentation ofthis stuctre suggest itis part ofthe large Pasir Laka Thus View is towards th east andthe tunnel is approximately 5 m in diameter distinguished principally on lithological characteristics: as such, they do not represent discrete, meaningful bedrock units and collectively do not define a stratigraphy. This is particulary true of the units making up the so-called Jurong Formation (see Figure 2), within which it was recognised that ‘none of the facies ean be assumed to form continu- ‘ous units [...] they have no stratigraphic order’ (DSTA, 2009). These units are therefore of very limited value when attempting to predict the spatial variability of subsurface properties or to correlate between individual exposures or boreholes. Subsequent subsurface investigation and construction activity (Shirlaw et al, 2018; Vereesh et al., 2016; Winn, 2020) and further academic research (Oliver and Prave, 2013; Oliver et al, 2011, 2014; Lat etal, 2016; Pan et al,, 2018) have also generated significant volumes of new data that reveal even greater variability and complexity in ‘Singapore geology than was previously recognised. 1.4 THE BEDROCK GEOLOGY OF SINGAPORE (2021) In 2012, the Geological Office ofthe Building and Construction Authority (BCA) implemented a comprehensive, deep ground-investigation programme in Singapore to further the nation’s understanding of its geology. The programme included: + recovering rock core from some 120 borcholes (each about 200 m deep) + acquiring 2D seismic reflection and refraction data across mainland Singapore + undertaking in situ and laboratory tests As part ofthis programme, BCA engaged the services of the British Geological Survey (BGS) and worked with Nanyang Technological University (NTU) to use the wealth of new core and new data to resolve key questions about the geology of Singapore, in particular to produce a revised geological framework that was compliant with International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) guidelines. The BCA study has brought about @ substantial step forward in our understanding of Singapore's geology The new geological framework for Singapore compris- es an ICS-compliant lithostatigraphical framework forall of the sedimentary and voleanic rocks (Dodd et al, 2019; 2020) anda lithedemic framework forthe plutons and other intrusions of igneous rock, most of which were only recognised for the first time in the couse of the study (Gillespie etal, 2019). The study also produced a thorough reassessment of the stractr= al geology of Singapore (Leslie et al, 2019), a new framework forthe Quaternary stratigraphy (Chua etal, 2020) and a re-evaluation of the engineering geology of Singapore, Full detail of this revised understanding have now been collated ina trio of new publications: + Singapore Geology (2021): Memoir of the bed rock, superficial and engineering geology (BCA, 20218) + Singapore Geology (2021): Interactive 1:50 (000-seale map (BCA, 20216) + Singapore Geology (2021): Practitioners’ guide to the bedrock geology ‘The new geological framework for Singapore, com- prising 34 units, is presented in Figure 2. The new unit names (BCA, 2021) should now be used as standard in Singapore, The previous unit names (DSTA, 2009), which ae presented alongside the equivalent new units in Figure 2 for comparison, should no longer be used, Most of the important development in the new geo- logical framework has happened in two parts of the Purchased by FengZ2022 How bedrock units within the BCA geological framework wore classified and named All rock units can be divided into two fundamentally distinct \ypes: those that are formed of rock layer (tata) and therefore define a stratigraphy, and those that are not formed. of layars and therefore do not define a stratigraphy. Rock units formed of strata are most commanly istingushed ane delimited on the basis of tei Iithologicl character; units defined in this way ae referred to.as, IWhostraigraphical unit’. Most ofthe layered rack units that ae in the new geological framework of Singapore are rot Ithostratigraphical units sensu stricto, because Ithology Is not the principal terion that was used to define them. However, because there is no practical altematve, they have been classifed and named following the welLestabished and widely used ICS guidelines for lthostratigraphical Units. More information about how the layered rock units of ‘Singapore were classified is provided in sections 42 and 4.3 ofthis guide. ‘The names assigned to lithostratigraphica units require only {wo components: a geographical term (e.g. Pandan) and a.unitterm (e.g. formation, member, group: this approach creates unt names like Pandan Formation. Rock units that are not formed of rock layers are often referred fo as 'ithodemic units they include intrusions and those units whose creation involved deformation and/or ‘metamorphism, A scheme created by BGS (Gillespie eta, 2008) has been used to classify and name thelthodemic Units of Singapore, because (untke other schemes) the BGS. schme takes into account the shape ofa rock body and Its genetic relationships with other bodies. ‘The names assigned to lthodemic units in the BGS scheme. require thee components: a geographical term (2.9 ‘Sirpang),a lithological term (e.g. grarite) and aunt term (€39. pluton, dyke-swarm, centre) this approach creates unit names tke Simpang Granite Pluton. The unit terms inthis ‘scheme convey information about the shape and rank of the classified unt. ‘The schames used to classi lithostratigraphical and Ithodemic units are hierarchical and therefore alow units to be divided to form smaller units or grouped together to form larger units. Thus, a numberof related plutons and dykes. can be united ina suite in thodemic classification, in the ‘same way that a numberof formations can be united in a group in thostratigraphical classification. bedrock geology. Firstly, several new major intrusions (plutons) have been recognised in the large expanse of igne- ‘ous rocks that underlie much of north and east Singapore, which was previously largely undivided. Additionally, the thick suecession of metasedimentary and pyroclastic rocks that underlies much of south and west Singapore, which ‘was previously referred to as the “Jurong Formation’ and divided into several “facies”, has been entirely reclassified, following ICS guidelines, into several new formations and two new groups, the Jurong Group and the Sentosa Group. TThe ‘facies’ of the former Jurong Formation, which have become widely used in Singapore, were distinguished on the basis of lithological character and thus were relatively easy to apply to cores and outcrops. However, the facies Purchased by FengZ2022 wei oe eres aon vere axe mt veo Ses =a = = allng [__] pcre tay romaton Kallang Formation am rarerasuciayrarmton [—] Maina soun emane Peony Fematen a" —— _| [owseearomuten | oo [Lpmeratromasor Bh erosion snpepar Bsat-anseste Dyceawser Boone BE] Epremomenceomrin [Bleresccome eran Hen |_ [Bs cnne cantare rien = Comideestbe werd boargrg oor Group Net previous erteainSgepre roa equals eter ara 2A unto any [stants ormary BCA cristo era DSTAUE Figure2 The clationship betwosn the geological units coutained within the BCA (202ta) and DSTA (2009) geologic! fameworks. do not represent diserete, meaningful bedrock units, so this approach is of little practical value in helping to progress ‘our understanding of Singapore's geology and in helping to understand and predict how particular ground conditions are distributed, By contrast, each of the units in the new geological framework is a discrete, geologically meaningful rock unit whose distribution and 3D shape in the subsurface can be determined or inferred using available information, ‘Some of these units, particularly in the Jurong Group, are heterolithic (comprised of multiple rock types), so they can be difficult to identify unambiguously, especially in short lengths of core or in isolated outcrops. However, widespread adoption and application of the new framework will, in time, result in a better understanding of Singapore's geology and therefore an improved ability to predict where particular rock units — and their associated properties and challenges — occur. It is therefore in the interests of all practitioners to adopt and use the new geological framework wherever possible. This publication provides practitioners in Singapore ‘with information and guidance that aim to encourage good practice in making and recording new obser- vations from ground investigations and other works, Those observations can now be guided by and placed within the context of a geological framework for ‘Singapore that is modem and robust, so aiding more confident interpretations of newly acquired bedrock geological data, Practitioners are encouraged to share their findings with each other and with BCA, so that the understanding of Singapore’s geology can contin- ue to evolve to the benefit of all. Purchased by FengZ2022 Other sources of information (Other publications that ground investigation and enginaering practitioner in Singapore may find useful include: 180 14888: Geotechnical investigation and testing ~ Identfcaton and classification of sol (2018) 180 14589: Geotechnical investigation and testing — Identficaton, description and classification of rock (2018) + Guidatines on Identification of Rock During Bored Piing Werks (Ge08S and BCA, 2018) + Guide on Ground Investigation and Geotechnical Charac- teristic Values to Eurocade 7 (Ge0SS, 2015) “The Complete ISRM Suggested Methods for Rock Char: ‘acterzaton, Testing and Monitoring: 19742008 (Ulusay ‘and Hudson, 2007). “The ISRM Suggested Methods for Rack Characterization, “Testing and Monitoring: 2007-2014 (Ulusay, 20°4) + Soiland Reck Description in Engineering Practice (Nor- bury, 2020), + Foundations of Engineering Geology (Waltham, 2008) + Practical Engineering Geology (Hencher, 2013) Five peer-reviewed papers in the Journal of Asian Earth Sciences (Chua etal, 2020; Dodd etal, 2018, 2020 Gilespie etal, 2019 and Leslie etal, 2019). Further information about the engineering geology of Singapore Further detailed information on the implications ofthe revised interpretation ofthe geology for engineering geology are presented in Section 6 of Singapore Geology (2021): Memoir ofthe bedrock, supericial and engineering geology (BCA, 20212), Purchased by FengZ2022 2 Summary of the geology and geological history of Singapore 2.1 INTRODUCTION Singapore straddles two major north-west to south- cast-trending units or belts of sedimentary and ig- neous racks that can be traced across a large swathe of this part of South-cast Asia (Figure 3). In broad terms, the rocks of northern and easter Singapore are a constituent part of what is known as the Easter Belt, which includes metamorphic rocks formed in the Carboniferous and igneous rocks formed in the Permian to the Triassic, while the rocks of south- ‘west Singapore are a constituent part of the Central Belt, which includes folded, thrust and weakly meta morphosed Triassic strata and younger, unmetamor- phosed strata, Thus, in geological terms, Singapore is a microcosm of the surrounding South-east Asia region and developments in how well Singapore's geology is understood can make a considerable con- tribution to the broader appreciation of the geological evolution of the region, Much of the geological history of Singapore is dom- inated by events associated with the evolution of a volcanic island arc — known as the Sukhothai Arc — during the Mesozoic. The Sukhothai Are was constructed above a subduction zone that was created as two fragments of continental plate, one named In- dochina—East Malaya and the other named Sibuma- su, converged. The subduction zone remained active over around 5-60 million years, but ceased to fune- tion when the two continent fragments finally collid- ‘CENTRAL EASTERN ‘oer ‘eur MdagL AY s TVA ‘cenbian'oDevonan eden rarer Pos-ogele raccoons Figure 3. Simplified regional geological map of Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore, The map shows the tetone-stratigraphicl Wester, (Cental and Fastor belts and the trace ofthe Bestong-Raub Suture ons that mark the orogene suture berseenSibumasu (Westem Bt) tnd the Subhotai Arc (Cental and Eastem belts) (ater Metal, 2013). Purchased by FengZ2022 sIBUMASU INDOCHINA BLOCK EAST MALAYA ecretonany Volcan ‘wedge isang are > > “Pa, -_- < Luorphere| ~ Lithosphere ‘Astnenosphere Asthenesphere Figure Aschematic carton illsraing the active voleanic ae and subduction zone setting thal wold have been applicable to Permo-Triese Singapore ced with each other in the carlicst part of the Jurassic, Further information on the geology of Singapore Figure 4 is a schematic representation of the likely This chapter provides summary of Singapore geology For a geological setting of Singapore in the Permian and ‘more comprehensive explanation, including references to and the Triassic, shortly before that plate collision event detais ofthe numerous erical pubfcaions used to support The collision, and all ofthe geological events associ- ‘modern analysis and interpretation of that geology, the reader ated with it, is known as the Indosinian Orogeny is directo to Singapore Geology (2021): Memoir ofthe becrock, superfcal and engineering geclogy (BCA, 20212). Following those rather dramatic events, Singapore lay within a relatively stable landmass known as Sundaland, a region that is now largely surrounded by many of the tectonically active regions of South-cast Asia such as the Java-Sumatra voleanitc ar. The bedrock geology of Singapore is effectively divided into two main parts by the large and long-lived Bukit Timah Fault Zone (BTFZ). Each of these parts represents different component of the Sukhothai Are (Figure 5): + Are-related Permian and Triassic plutons of the Bukit Timah Centre occur exclusively on the north-east side of the BTFZ; on the regional scale, these rocks are part of the Eastern Belt. In the east of Singapore, these igne- are often concealed beneath Cenozoic sedimentary strata now assigned to the Bedok Formation and Kallang Group. + Triassic strata, originally deposited in the forcare basin of the Sukhothai Arc and now assigned to the Jurong and Sentosa groups, crop out exclusively on the south-west side of the BTFZ, On the regional scale, these rocks are part of the Central Belt The later bedrock history of Singapore is recorded in a small number of spatially restricted units of sedimentary rocks taceous (Figure 5), and igneous rocks that formed during the Jurassic and the C Purchased by FengZ2022 LUneataerononmaptace joa Daly armcrante- eogrnte nay) Fon stove Fomaton | rovene ne micogronee Pater, (rant! feel tiornina roman [Sat Ca EE sneer downass Dae , ciezerterter [EE cr cnvcano cose conte rien ecto, TER ose certo fu iyerchawan Formation SP 2% termites [TBI seme raraen Figure S Bedrock geological map of Singapore, incorporating the filly revised lthostratigrapicl and lithodemic frameworks for Singapore. ‘Are-elated Permian and Triassic pltons and foresre basin deposits are ented inte Key, 2.2 EVENTS LEADING UP TO THE INDOSINIAN OROGENY ‘The oldest exposed rocks in Singapore are in the Sajahat Formation (now best seen in north-east Singapore). These originally silicilastic strata were deposited in the Carboniferous and had been folded and regionally metamorphosed by late Carboniferous times. They were then thermally metamorphosed when the Permian to Triassic granitoid and ‘mafic plutons ofthe Bukit Timah Centre were emplaced. Xenoliths (see Section 7.8.3) of Sajahat Formation rock were incomporated into the oldest (Artinskian) pluton of the Bukit Timah Centre, ‘The Bukit Timah Centre comprises five plutons (Figure 6), each of which represents a magma chamber in the roots ofthe Sukhothai Ate: 10 Purchased by FengZ2022 Chronostratigraphical divisions Lithodemie units and hierarchical rank Ranks Figare 6 Lidhodemic framework for he Singapore intasions Intason names combine «geographies, iological and lithodemic component. + Choa Chu Kang Granodiorite-tonalite Pluton + Gombak Gabbro-granite Pluton + Dairy Farm Granite-microgranite Pluton + Pulau Ubin Granite Pluton + Simpang Granite Pluton Melting that took place above the Sukhothai Are subduction zone supplied the magma for these plutons, which were emplaced at intervals over a period of 5 million years, from the Permian (around 285 million years ago (Ma)) into the Triassic (around 230 Ma). Over time, the character and location of the magmatism changed as the arc matured; for example, the older plutons tend to be characterised by mote basic rocks. Are-related magmatism apparently terminated abruptly at 230 Ma; no younger age dates have been determined within the Bukit Timah Centre plutons. ‘The phase of pea magmatism associated withthe Sukhothai Are (around 242 Ms) produced multiple eruptions of mag- 1a, which formed extensive and locally thick deposits of andesitc to rhyolite pyroclastic rocks that accumulated inthe foreare basin; the largest ofthese deposis (Kent Ridge Member an be linked genetically tothe Dairy Farm pluton in the Bukit Timah Centre. Abrupt termination of are-related magmatism at 230 Ma is probably linked to the detachment of the subducting oceanic slab (i.e. ‘slab break-off"), following which the Bukit Timah Centre plutons would have been uplifted and unroofed rapidly. These processes are typical of many island-aresetings around the world Figure 7 shows a schematic emplacement model for the Bukit Timah Centre through time. The top surface of each pane is broadly coincident with the current erosion surface and fits with the new geological map of Singapore (BCA, 20218). The other panels show inferred geological relationships through time from the initiation of are magmatism in the region ‘The stratigraphy of the Mesozoic sedimentary and volcanic rocks of Singapore is set out in Figure 8, Following on from the Sajahat Formation (oldest unit), the stratigraphical record stretches from the Triassic to the present day. In the Triassic (Anisian and Ladinian), marine-dominated Jurong Group strata (comprising the Tuas, Pulau Ayer Chawan, Pandan and Boon Lay formations) were deposited in a foreare basin adjacent to the active Sukhothai Are (Figure 4). Deposition of these dominantly siliciclastic strata was punctuated at around 240 Ma by substantial thicknesses of car- bonate and voleaniclastic rocks, the latter including widespread and locally voluminous accumulations of pyroclastic n Purchased by FengZ2022 w 2 soktonete E 2 Teklamstes Al woe + ' * cross-section Prue ore Toeaton county rok Bh sniemnn YC A! Fh om cnet rn hewanen iN Derren “Saves mm Netrcece ee PUP YY yy Figure 7 Schematic, ime-integrated emplacement model of ae-elated Permian and Tissc intrusion in Singapore. The surface ofeach panel comerponds tothe modertday erosion surface in Singapore a shown onthe geologieal map, not the surface athe ime of intrusion, ‘Tre sequence of emplacement began in the Arinskan withthe single, large Choa Chu Kang graitipliton (A), followed by a period of pervasive, ductile deformation that afzcted the rocks in tha pluton (B) a ikelycoineided withthe earliest stages of development of a stuctre ‘hat would become the Bukit Timah Fault Zone (ic a “proto-Bukit Timah Fault Zone"), Renewed magmatism around (5 milion years ater (athe Capitanian and the Anisian) produced the Gombak pluton, which is characterised by mainly gabbroic rocks (C; agmens of nearly layered unit the pation are enclosed hy later, no-layered gabbroic rocks and oer rocks formed by mingling tnd mixing of basic and siliceous raga, Peak ate magmatism at sound 242 Ma (Straddling the Avisisn and the Ladinian produced multiple granitoid intrusions (the Dairy Farm and Pulau Ubi platoas (D) and nurerous eruptions, some of thm very Tage. The end of ate magmatism (in the Crnian) i ecorded by emplacement ofthe Simpang pluton (), which locally encloses remnants ofthe olds, now dismembered, Choa Chu Kang pluton. Subsequent formation of tulsite (ee Section 7.) inal components ofthe Bukit Timah Centre F) probably happened when rapid erst rebound andor up, wiggtedby slab breakof, caused hydrothermal Mids o pass forcefully upwards though the crust, creating facture system filled with palveried rock, Slab breskolf in the subduction zone beneath the Sukhothai Are would have been triggered wien Indochina ast Malaya and Sibumasu finally collided rocks and tuffaceous sediments. The Nanyang Member (Pulau Ayer Chawan Formation) and Kent Ridge Member (Pandan Formation) represent particularly thick occurrences of the pyroclastic rocks. Geochronology indicates that these eruption products can be linked with the phase of peak are magmatism, A large volcanic eruption in the Santi arca of Johor probably led to the deposition of the Pengerang Formation, a unit of pyroclastic rock that crops out mainly in south-cast Johor but also on Pulau Tekong in Singapore (Figure 5). The Pengerang Formation is broadly contemporaneous with but genetically unrelated to the layers of pyroclastic rock in the Jurong Group. Purchased by FengZ2022 {Uthostratigraphieal framework for Singapore Figure Lithostatigraphical famework for Singapore. Lithostatigraphical unit ames predominantly combine a geographical anda lithostatgraphical component ‘The youngest part of the Jurong Group, the Boon Lay Formation, is dominated by terrestrial to marginal-marine de- posils, now preserved as sandstone with subordinate, interbedded mudstone and conglomerate, as well as significant volumes of pyroclastic and voleaniclastic rocks. The pyroclastic rocks occur mainly within the Clementi Member of the Boon Lay Formation, a unit that is characterised by layers of brick-red palaeosol derived from ancient weathering of the pyroclastic and associated sedimentary deposits. Distinctive fluvial sandstones and conglomerates of the Upper Triassic Sentosa Group, the Tanjong Rimau Forma tion, overstepped Jurong Group strata as magmatism waned and then ceased in this southern part of the Sukhothai Are and as the Bukit Timah Centre plutons began to undergo rapid uplift and unroofing. Marginal-marine mudstones and sandstones of the Fort Siloso Formation succeeded the fluvial deposits, marking the Norian to Rhaetian return of tectonically more stable conditions for a time, before the onset and climax of Indosinian orogenic deformation in Mesozoic Singapore, ‘The schematic 3D block diagrams of Figure 9 provide interpretations of the changing and varied depositional environments associated with most of the principal bedrock formations in the Singapore lithostratigraphical framework, Figure 10 captures the key features of the middle Triassic geological setting of the Sukhothai Arc (A), including the accumulation of Jurong Group strata in the forearc basin and contemporaneous magmatic activity along the spine of the are; the later part of the Triassic is characterised by a now quiescent and croding arc and a change to the fluvial depositional environment of the Sentosa Group/Tanjong Rimau Formation (B). The slab of ocesnie erust subducting beneath the quiescent are was probably beginning to stretch and detach at this time, B Purchased by FengZ2022 [Al fues Formation [B] Putau Ayer Ghawan Formato ra Oe aattite vane Ae tow mare cei, Merl Deeps a 7 seiner ae [E] Pandan Formation — [D] Boon tay Formation Vorpocuicinon Gemertonae nesses Raa ation [E] Fort Stoso Formation aa ‘eotrantRenton Figure Schematic 3D bck dingrems of depositional environments forthe foreare basin depois of Singapore, The shallow-marine carbone platforniagoun environment of the Tus Formation (A) is succeeded by the dacp-marine oshllosnavie envizonment athe Pulau Ayer ‘Chawan Formation (3), The Nanyang Member, which consists of ‘hydeclastc’ deposits formed by voleanic eruptions fom subsea vets, i distinctive component of the Pulau Ayer Chavan Formation. shllow-marne, etbonate lagoon cavronment followed (C), producing limestone strata and local pyroclastic deposits now assigned to the Pandan Formation. The thickest and most extensive deposit of pyroclastic rocks inthe Pandan Formation is now reeagited as «discrete bedrock unit, the Kent Ride Member Waning voeani etivty and relative dop in sea level resulted in the shallow-marine to teresa envzonment ofthe Boon Lay Fosmation (D) sill punched by near-field eruptions that dlivered dovitus to the volcanic landscape and now identified as the intcrdigating Clementi Member Weathering of deposits this tm probably tok place unde very similar conditions to those experienced by near-surface rocks in Singapore today. resulting inthe layer of palacosol that are ‘haractristc of the Clementi Member. The Nuva, braided to meandering environment in which the Tanjong Rimau Formation was deposited repretents a deamati change in the Basin history (F) the For Silage Formation records the return of a marpinal-marine depositional environment and wanspression over the undetying Tjong Rima Formation 2.3. PLATE COLLISION AND THE INDOSINIAN OROGENY Strata of the Jurong and Sentosa groups were deformed during the Mesozoic Indosinian Orogeny and are now weakly ‘metamorphosed, cleaved with a penetrative tectono-metamorphie fabric and arranged in inclined, asymmetrical folds that verge north-east. Strata generally dip gently to moderately to the south-west, less often to the north-east, but can also be steeply inclined and are locally overturned, dipping steeply south-west. Purchased by FengZ2022 [lacie are mide Tassie) suxviotnat ane ata itn steuwasu PaLAcoTEnes seem \v CoO x wwooctana [eroding ae tate Tesi ring andrton corecby er ana ors ‘suwasu 00a Formation suceededby Falangenattustre diets INDOCHINA "sera automaton telacbrincdare Figure 10. Evolution ofthe active to mature Sulhothal Arc and associated freare asin during the mile (A) to ate (B) Tras, Collision and amalgamation (late Triassic to early Jurassic, 198 = 2Ma) SUKHOTHAL ARG ‘raaalsed ana SIBUMASUBLOCK ——_BeNTONG-RaUe Falgngenaimanirg INDOCHINA. aya ileal ‘Gatobaclre EASTWALAYA a = goons, [i crirerconnin lf coneratanee Sessa, fowsenes [i sermon er ore igure 11 The tectonic evolution of he Singapore crstal region The cartoon illustrates lat Tis to crest Jurassic times, as it relates to ‘the orogenic deformation inthis now southern sector of Sibumass and the Sukhoi Are and the amalgamation of Sundaland. After Sone and ‘Meals (2008); Ng etl. (201Sa, b), Meteafe, (2017). The Sibumasu and Indochina-East Malaya blocks ae shown in highly simplified form Dut se also Metcalfe 2017) for details ofthese elements. The amount of tectonic shortening generated by this orogenic event was such that deformation culminated in the development of a large-scale, north-east-directed thrust system, ultimately marking the final collision and docking of the Sibumasu and Indochina-East Malaya blocks, The Murai Thrust is the most prominent ofthese structures, perhaps accommodating kilometres of horizontal displacement; the Pasir Laba Thrust i a similarly large-scale feature. Layers of intensely deformed, schistose and locally mylonitic rocks are closely associated with these thrust planes. 1s a < : : A i ct es a Z é H i PI HI Purchased by FengZ2022 Figure 11 schematically illustrates the tectonic evolution of the Singapore crustal region as the Indosinian Orogeny reached its peak, producing deformation and associated low-grade metamorphism, in the latest Triassic to earliest Ju- rassic, The precise age of ductile fold and thrust deformation is uncertain but mast postdate the timing of Upper Trias- sic foreate sedimentation (Jurong and Sentosa groups). Collision of Sibumasu, the Sukhothai Are and Indochina-East Malaya had occurred by around 200 Ma (earliest Jurassic), effectively ending ductile deformation. The youngest dated collision-rlated granite identified in the western parts of Peninsular Malaysia are around 195-200 Ma, suggesting that Indosinian collision was essentially complete by this time. Fluvial and alluvial Buona Vista Formation rocks (of probable Lower Jurassic age) are believed to be syn- orogenic deposits, formed in advance of developing thrust-related surface topography in this collisional setting (Figure 12). These strata would originally have had an unconformable boundary against the [Buona Viste Formation older, deforming Triassic strata but those basal con- tacts are now typically intensely sheared and modi- fied by the superimposed thrust deformation. Buona Vista Formation strata ate only found in spatially restricted areas immediately north of (and structur- ally below) the Murai and Pasir Laba thrusts. That geographical association suggests these Buona Vista Formation strata could have been deposited in allu- vial fan systems draining off and across emerging, cage tas toring Der cae ee lh Figure 12 Schematic 3D block digram ofthe alluvial fan to ial ‘vironment ofthe Buona Viet Formation, which formed immeitly round and dow slope from emerging thrust structures, developed ‘uring the ealination ofthe lle Trae a erly Jrasie orogenic thrust-related topography during orogenesis. Con- tinued thrust displacements then overrode and de- formed these synorogenic deposits. 2.4 POST OROGENIC MESOZOIC TO CENOZOIC EVENTS Following the Indosinian Orogeny, there appears to have been a relatively significant hiatus in sedimentation that probably persisted for some S0 million years, beginning in the middle to late Jurassic and extending into the Creta- cceous. This period was characterised by pervasive weathering under tropical conditions and associated erosion and ‘wasting of exposed rocks. No strata from the Middle to Upper Jurassic are preserved in Singapore, or along strike in Peninsular Malaysia Anew regime of extensional tectonism then began to affect the region during the early Cretaceous and continued into the Cenozoic. That new regime is characterised by deposition of younger sedimentary successions that overstep (ie, are unconformably deposited on top of) the older, deformed strata of the orogenic belt; other than the effects of fault- ing, these rocks remain undeformed today. In Singapore, both the Kusu Formation and the Bukit Batok Formation are interpreted to have been deposited during the Lower Cretaccous (Figure 8). Each of these formations lacks any sign of the effects of fold and thrust deformation and bears no evidence of a penctrative tectono-metamorphic fabric; they must therefore overstep the older (Triassic), penetratively deformed Jurong and Sentosa group strata ‘The Kusu and Bukit Batok formations are distinct, early Cretaceous, siliviclastic sedimentary successions that were deposited in separate fluvio-deltaic environments (Figure 13). Deposition took place within a series of extensional graben, most likely controlled by Cretaceous to early Cenozoic (?Palaeogene) faulting; displacement on these faults ‘occurred in response to regional-scale, dextral strike-slip tectonics. Purchased by FengZ2022 Sheet intrusions of basalt to andesite composition, [Bukit Batok Formation =e now assigned to the Singapore Basalt-andesite Dyke- an warm, were emplaced dutingaphase of igneous ac. | mite anre. tivity that occurred at some point between the Lower —a Jrassic and the Upper Cretaceous, These intrusions likely exploited fractures opening as a consequence of the new stress regime, Many of the north-north- cast to south-southwest and north-west to south- cast-striking faults in Singapore were also formed at this time and brittle deformation along the BTFZ itny mare would have occurred periodically throughout this pe- — riod. The precise and overall timing of fault movement Figure 13 Shera book igram ofthe vides is unclear; emplacement ofthe small, around 98 Ma <™onnen fh Buk Bok Forman wit deus ly Pulau Sekudu Quattz-monzonite Pluton may indicate there was extensional faulting a this time in the Creta- cccous (Figure 14). . “> a R w Al a |, sete man gore omnis rman Dh me ceipison ecco PB svvrosisn me Figure 14 Schematic, ime-nteratd emplacement model of Jussi to Cretaceous dyke rocks and intrusions in Singapore. The surface of «each panel coresponds to the modern-day erosion surface in Singapore as shown onthe geological map, notte surface atthe time of itusion (A) Crustal extension: emplacement ofthe Singapore dyke-swarm (actual dyke density much greater than shown). (@) Minor new magmatism and broadly contemporancous displacement on brite faults: emplacement of oe intrusion (Pulau Sek pluton, with associated thermal metamorphism; ongoing displacement onthe Bukit Timah Faul Zone placed deformed Mesozoic Jurong Group and ‘yourge) stata against the Bit Timah Centre atthe srvtural level shown, ‘The Fort Canning Formation (Neogene) overlies weathered Kusu Formation strata, and the variably cemented Bedok Formation (Quaternary) covers much of eastem mainland Singapore (Figures 8 and 15). Significant movement on faults in Singapore appears to have largely, but not entirely, ceased by this time. ‘The near-shore zone and river valleys of Singapore are blanketed by marine to coastal and fluvial Kallang Group sedi- ‘ments (late Pleistocene to Holocene), which represent the youngest part of the stratigraphy in Singapore (Figures 8 and 15). Locally, Kallang Group deposits unconformably overlie the irregular, upper surface of the Bedok Formation and. 7 Purchased by FengZ2022 en [hierar serosa Ba rncrrin SS string Figure 18 Distrbution of Cenozoic sediments and arifcial deposits (reclaimed land only) in Singapore w E [Blewvronin — [F]aermcinrormin [ ]isteg oe” Tl wonramin — [_ Jrwconse Figure 16 West east scetion trough the Cenozoic deposi in the Cental region of Singapore. Drawn at «20 vertical exaggeration. all other older bedrock units. The formalised Kallang Group is constrained by radiocarbon and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dates that demonstrate significant intefingering between the constituent formations of the unit, Sea-level fluctuations in the Pleistocene generated these complexly interfingered units (Figure 16). Purchased by FengZ2022 Ongoing geological processes in Singapore Today, Singapore is a prime example of human ‘modification af the natural geological and ecological environment. Atifcial ground is present across much ofthe surface and shallow subsurface of mainland ‘Singapore, as @ consequence of urbanisation and Industalsation.Artficil ground s also now a feature of ‘many ofthe offshore islands; te most significant artical deposi thicknesses are associated with land reclamation that has seen Singapore's landmass grow by over 25, per contin the last 60 years. Reclaimed land and other artificial deposits are now a significant feature ofthe surface and subsurface in Singapore and can require a8. ‘much consideration asthe natura geology during ground investigation and engineering ‘These anthropogenic processes combine wth the Figure 17. Marina Bay (foreground) and dowatown coe built on ongoing, natural depositon of Kalang Group sediments reclaimed land (backsround). to produce complex relationships between natural and artficial deposits and landforms. The surface and subsurface are also subject to an array of natural processes, including weathering, hydrothermal alteration and mineral preciitation and dissolution, which have besn ongoing since the Triassic 19 Purchased by FengZ2022 3 Classifying and naming rocks 3.1 INTRODUCTION Giving names to rocks helps us to record concisely what we observe in borchole cores and outcrops; it is also an effi- cient way of communicating important geological information to other practitioners. A relationship between rock type and rock properties has been demonstrated for many of the main rock types in Singapore (see Section 6 [Engineering geology] of the Memoir, so the name you give to a rock can also provide a first-order indication of its physical and ‘mechanical properties. Giving names to rocks ean also help in assigning a length of core or an outerop to a specific bedrock unit within the geological framework for Singapore, in essence because each of the bedrock units of Singa- pore is, to some extent, characterised by the range of rock types within it. For these reasons, an ability to name rocks accurately and effectively is an essential part of preparing any core log or outcrop description. However, an accurate rock name can only be assigned after a rock has been classified. Knowing how to classify and name rocks is therefore an important skill forall practitioners Unfortunately, rock classification is not straightforward: there is a large range of rock types and different procedures and criteria are used to elassify each distinct ‘family’ of rocks, Furthermore, processes like metamorphism, hydrother- ‘mal alteration and weathering can obscure the original character of a rock and so make it more difficult to classify. This chapter provides information and tips designed to help practitioners accurately and consistently classify and name the main rock types of Singapore. The process described is consistent with ISO 14689 and can be integrated into standard descriptions of rocks. 3.2 HOW TO CLASSIFY ROCKS Rock classification is hierarchical; all rock types ean be represented within a single (very large!) hierar , which forms the basis of their classification, ‘Tho “lowest” rank of the hierarchy is occupied by just one rock type: ‘rock’. Any rock can be classi- fied in this rank and given the name ‘rock’. At each, higher rank, the hierarchy splits into two or more diserete branches, each of which represents a differ ent “family” of related rock types. For example, in the rank above ‘rock’, the hierarchy splits into the 20 Balancing precision and accuracy in rock classification More precise rock names — if they are accurate —willoten bbe more helpful when you ae trying to place a length of core ‘or an outcrop into the geological framework for Singapore ‘and when you want to predict the physical and mechanical properties ofa rack for engineering purposes. Thus, when classifying any rock, you should aim to assign the most precise name that you ae confident accurate, based on tha information you have obtained. For example, if you are sure that arock is grarite but unsure ifitis monzogranite, you should classify as granite. Purchased by FengZ2022 three “fundamental” rock types: sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic. These in turn split the next rank, and so on. into more rock types in An important feature of the hierarchy is that the precision of the classification increases in each successive rank. This ‘means that every rock can be assigned several different rock-type terms that are equally valid but of different preci- sion, The example in Figure 18 shows all the rock-type terms for the branch of the hierarchy in which the rock type ‘monzogranite’ occupies the highest rank, Ste (sa Figure 18 Valid sock ype tems fora sample of monzogranit. These a al valid rock type terms for a sample of monzogrants, but they vary In precision; "rock (in th lowest rank isthe las precise term and 'monzogrant’ (nthe highest rank isthe most precise term. This partiular branch ofthe rock ciasication hierarchy ha sven ranks. ‘The rock classification hierarchy for all rock types is Rock classification diagrams much too large to show here, However, only a rela- Rock cisaication dlagrama maka use of fe relative tively small number of rock types has been found in propartions ofthe key component Singapore and a hierarchy for just those rock types is proportions. For example, to use the ‘QAP’ diagrams of shown in Figure 19. Figure 21 you must estimate the relative proportions of (quartz, alkali feldspar and plagioclase feldspar. To classify any rock, start atthe lowest (Least precise) ‘Myatt hat a rocks 25% quart (2) S0% aka rank of the hierarchy (rock’) and work your way 08S (A).35% pagal), 5% Bota ad 5% hablo (utc ogee sim 00%) you rte the, Asn through ucesivelyhigherrnks, uniyoureachthe {Wi ae amo 10%) yume highest or most presse rank t which you can sont ° dently identify the rock type using the observations Sis cone, he Ceara Feces, A Se Oe (25190)"100, (80/90)"100, and (35/90)"100 respectively, you have made about the rock that is to be classified. which equals 28%, 39% and 39%, Ploting these values ‘on fa Figure 218 shows thal his rack would plat in the ‘To proceed through the lower ranks of the hierarchy, ‘monzogranite’ field you will need to be able to recognise and distinguish the major rock types. For example, you should be able to distinguish an igneous rock from a sedimentary rock and a carbonate sedimentary rock from a silicate sedi- ‘mentary rock. Numerous textbooks and online resources will provide guidance, if required. Grain size becomes an important factor in classification in the middle ranks of the hierarchy, For example, in order to classify a erystalline igneous rock more precisely you need to know if it is coarse, medium- or fine-grained; in order to classify a pyroclastic igneous rock more precisely you need to know ifits component class are ash, lpi orblock grade. A grain-size card is a handy tool for measuring grain size accurately in cores and outcrops. A grain size chart that is broadly consistent with ISO 14689 is shown in Figure 20, 21 Purchased by FengZ2022 Figure 19 Rock classification hierarchy for rocks found in Singapore, Each box inthe hierarchy represents # rock ype rls, and the ter inthe box isthe root erm for tha lass, Please note! + Only ook ype that have Boon found is Singapore are included: many other ook typos ae not shown. The hierarchy shown eee is ased fon the BGS Rock Clasification Scheme, but sme ofthe rock names and hierarchical relationships in that scheme have been modified for + The mos precise root terms for limestone are not shown, because limestones ca be eas using different approaches and each approach produces a diferent st of root terms. + The most precise ot erms fr mudston (siltstone and claystone are usually not essignd during core logging and eldwork, because

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